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 Centrioles lie in a distinctly staining region of cytoplasm Known as BTB

centro-sphere.  Microfilaments are
 Centrioles and centrosphere are together called centrosome. involved in
 Centrioles also give rise to basal bodies or kinetosome of cilia and 1. Muscle
flagella. contraction.
2. Change in cell
Cytoskeleton shape
3. Division of
 Cytosol contains fiber network culled cytoskeleton. cytoplasm during cell
 It contains three types of fibers: division

KPK
Cytoskeleton  Koltzoff in 1928
suggested the
existence of
Fibrous network,
Intermediate later on, Cohen
Microfilament Microtubule
filament (1977) confirmed
his views.
Microfilament
BTB
 Made of actin protein.  Microtubules
perhaps are
PTB involved in the
transport of cell
wall materials
 More slender, linked to the inner surface of plasma membrane.
from Golgi bodies
 Involves in internal cell motion.
to outside of cell.
 Amoeboid or cyclosis movement is also due to microfilament.
BTB
FTB
 Intermediate
filaments also
 Microfilament is of 7 nm diameter.
plays role in
 Four twisted chains. attachment of
 Two chains of F - actin and two chains of tropomyosin and triplets of muscle cell.
troponin at regular intervals.

Microtubule

 Long, unbranched, slender, tubulin protein structure.

 Plays role in assembly and disassembly of spindle structures during
cell division.
 Involved in formation of mitotic apparatus.
 Involved in formation of cilia, flagella, centriole and basal body.

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FTB
 0.2 – 0.25 µm in length.
 25 nm in diameter.
 Tubulin is a dimer.

Intermediate filament
 Role in support and maintenance of cell shape.

PTB
 Size in between microtubule and microfilament.

FTB
 8 – 10 nm in diameter.
 Contains vimentin protein.
 Vimentin contains three chains of intermediate filaments with no
hollow space and twisted around each other.

Mitochondria
 It is found in all eukaryotic cells.
 Powerhouse of cell.
 Role in production of ATP from ADP.
 Self-replicating organelle.
 Varies in number from cell to cell.
 Two membranes:
 Outer smooth layer.
 Inner contain foldings called cristae.
 Cristae consists of F₁-Fo particles.

Other names of F1 particles

Fernandas -
Stalked Elementen
Oxysome ATP synthase Moran
particle particles particles

 Matrix of mitochondria consists of many coenzymes, ions and

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important chemicals like DNA, RNA, and ribosome (70 S). BTB
 Kreb's cycle and oxidation (fatty acid oxidation) of pyruvate occurs in  Mitos means
mitochondria. thread; chondrion
 Extracting energy from food. means granules.
 Site of cellular respiration.  Altman (1890)
 Endo-symbiont origin organelle. established
mitochondria, and
called them
bioblast.
 The term
mitochondria is
given by C.
Benda. (1898)
 All the
mitochondria
present in a cell
called
chondriome.
 Animal cells have
greater
mitochondria than
plant cell.
 If outer membrane
of mitochondria is
removed, it is
called mitoplast.
PTB  Cristae increase
 Membrane enfolding or cristae is made of lipoprotein. surface area for
 Under electron microscope appears as complex structure. chemical reaction.
 1% of total DNA is
FTB present in
 Outer membrane contains porin protein that it can exchange mitochondria.
material freely and is freely permeable.  This DNA is small,
circular and can
 Inner membrane is semi-permeable.
code the synthesis
 Have its own metabolic machinery.
of some type of
 Diameter 0.5 – 1 µm.
proteins.
 Mitochondria also
Other names for mitochondria
help in
vitellogenesis
Most busy and (yolk formation)
ATP mill in cell Cell within cell Cell furnace Storage batteries active organelle in Semi-autonomous
cell cell organelle in oocyte.
 It is believed that
Plastids mitochondria have
endosymbiotic
origin from purple
 Plastids are pigmented organelles found in plants.
sulphur bacteria.
 Plastids are double membranous organelles.
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 Plastids are of three types: KPK
 Mitochondria are
absent in in
Plastids mature RBC of
human.
 Mitochondria were
first seen in
Leucoplasts Chromoplasts Chloroplasts. Muscle cells in
1850.
 Young one gets all
its mitochondria
 All these three types made of are their precursors called proplastids. from its mother
(eggs).
Chloroplast
 Membrane bound organelle with small granules. BTB
 Discoid structure.  Plastids are the
 Self-replicating. sites of
 Responsible for photosynthesis. manufacture and
 Light reactions on thylakoid membrane and dark reactions occur in storage of
stroma of chloroplast. important
chemical
compounds.
Parts of chloroplast  Most plants inherit
plastids from one
parent.
Envelope Stroma Thylakoid  Example:
Angiosperms
inherit plastids
 Thylakoids pile up to form grana and inter-grana. from female
 25 – 50 thylakoids form grana (green part). gamete, while
 Inter-grana is non-green part. many
 Membrane of the thylakoids involved in the formation of ATP. gymnosperms
inherit plastids
PTB from male pollen.
 Chlorophyll molecules have Mg+2 as its central atom unlike  Chloroplasts are
haemoglobin. green plastids and
found in green
 Diameter is 4 – 6 µm.
parts of plants like
 Stroma consists of protein, ribosome (70 S) and DNA (circular)
leaves,
herbaceous
FTB stems.
 Outer membrane has poring proteins.  The most
 Inner membrane is rich in protein and it is semi-permeable. important and
 Inter-grana are larger than grana. abundant enzyme
is rubisco (about
16% of
chloroplast)

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Chromoplasts  Semi-autonomous
 They impart colour to plants other than green. organelle.
 They are found in petals of flowers.  Endosymbiont
 Also found in ripened fruits. organelle.
 Help in pollination and dispersal of seeds.
KPK
Leucoplasts  Chloroplast is
 They are colourless, plastids. heterogeneous
 They are found in underground parts of plant like roots, stem etc. structure.
 They help in storage of compounds.  Stroma covers
most of the
 They are triangular in shape.
volume of
chloroplast.
Elaioplast Store lipids

Leucoplast 03 types Amyloplast Store starch

Proteinoplast or
Store protein
Eluroplast

Nucleus
 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.

 Nucleus is the central part in animal cell and in plant cell it is

peripheral.
 It may be spherical, oval elongated or irregular shape.
 It is visible only when cell is in non-dividing stage.
 In dividing cell, it disappears and chromatin material is replaced by
chromosomes.
 Generally each cell contains one nucleus but sometimes may be two
or many called mono-nucleated, di-karyotic, poly-nucleated etc.
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BTB
 Nuclear pores are
also guarded by
permeases in the
form of a pore
complex which
regulate RNA,
ionic exchange.
(nucleo-
For example: cytoplasmic traffic
 Muscle cell contains many nuclei. between
 Paramecium is dikaryotic. nucleoplasm and
 Opalina is multinucleated. cytoplasm)
 Nucleus is absent in some cells like:  Nucleolus usually
attached to
 In mature mammalian RBCs.
chromatin at
 Mature phloem sieve tube elements in plants.
specific site called
 Nucleus is self-replicating organelle. nuclear
 Nucleus consists of following structures: organizer region
(NOR)
Nucleus  Chromatin
consists of both
Nuclear
histone, non-
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus Nuclear pores Chromatin Chromosomes Karyotype
envelope histone proteins,
DNA, and little
amount of RNA.
Nuclear Envelope  Chromas:
colour; Soma:
Contains nuclear pores body.
(porin proteins)  Chromosome can
Outer membrane be best studied at
Continuous with
metaphase stage
Membranes of nuclear endoplasmic reticulum. because size of is
envelope the chromosome
shortest during
Encloses nuclear metaphase
Inner membrane
content.
 Chromosome is
covered by thin
proteinaceous
Nucleoplasm sheath called
pellicle.

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 Nucleoplasm is ground substance of nucleus which is also known as KPK
nuclear matrix or karyoplasm.  Diameter of
 It is transparent complex colloidal fluid contains water, proteins, nucleus = 10 µm.
enzymes like ATPase, DNA and RNA polymerase, endonucleases  Pigeon has 80
and ions like Ca++, Mg++ etc. chromosome.

Nucleolus

 Nucleoplasm also contains one or more nucleoli.

 Nucleolus is non-membranous which is spherical darkly stained.
 It is only visible during interphase while disappear during cell
division.
 The main function of nucleolus is to form subunits of ribosomes.
 Factory of ribosome in cell.

Nucleolus

85% proteins 10% RNA 5% DNA.

Nuclear pores

 Gaps between inner and outer nuclear membranes.

 Number of nuclear pores depends vary from nuclear pores cell to
cell.
 Nuclear pores control traffic of cell.

Chromatin

 Network of nucleoprotein fibers, embedded in nucleoplasm.

 Chromatin condensed to form chromosomes during cell division.

Chromosome

 Chromosomes absorbs deeply in basic dyes during staining, thus

darkly stained structure.

Karyotype
 Array of chromosomes.
 The number of chromosome is definite for each species.

Cell Chromosomes Cell Chromosomes

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Human 46 Chimpanzee 48
Onion 16 Maize 20
Pea 14 Frog 26
Sugarcane 80 Fruit fly 08
Mouse 40 Mucor 02

 Each chromosome has:

 Two identical sister chromatids
 Two sister chromatids connected together at a common point called
centromere. (primary constriction)
 Kinetochore protein is present at centromere, during cell division.
 Chromosomes are the vehicle of hereditary material (genes) from
parent cell to daughter cell.

PTB
 Undifferentiated cell has greater nuclear pores than differentiated
cell.
 Egg cell has 30,000 per nucleus.
 While erythrocytes 3 – 4 per nucleus.

Central fibril area rRNA & rDNA

Nucleolus
Peripheral Ribosomal
granular area subunits

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 Potato has 48 chromosomes.
 Diploid cell = 2n chromosome.
 Haploid cell = n chromosome.

FTB
 Ends of chromosomes are called telomeres
 Chromosome is made of DNA and Protein.

Nucleus

Controller of
Heart of cell Brain of cell
cell

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Pro: before ; karyon: nucleus 1. Eu: true; karyon: nucleus
2. Don't have distinct nucleus 2. Have distinct nucleus.
3. Bacteria and cyanobacteria 3. Animals, plants, fungi
 Ribosome is the common organelle between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
4. Lacks membrane bound 4. All membrane bound
organelles like cytoskeleton, organelles are present.
mitochondria etc.
5. 70 S ribosome (50 S + 30S) 5. 80S ribosome (60 S + 40S)
6. Nuclear material (DNA) is 6. Nuclear material (DNA) is
dispersed in cytoplasm. within nucleus.
7. Consists of small, single, 7. Consists of two linear
circular chromosome chromosomes.
8. Histone is absent 8. Histone protein is present.
9. Plasma membrane lacks9. Plasma membrane does have
sterols like cholesterol. sterols in it.
10. Divided by binary fission 10. Divided by mitosis. (normal
cells) Meiosis in germ cells
11. Flagellin is part of flagella. 11. Tubulin is part of flagella.
12. Mesosomes are present. 12. Mesosomes are absent.
13. Prokaryote (bacteria) cell wall 13. Plant cell wall is made of
is made of peptidoglycan cellulose. Fungi cell wall is
(polysaccharide + amino acid) / made of chitin.
murein. (a as whole sacculus)

 Cell wall is the main distinction between prokaryote and eukaryote.

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Organelles found only in plant and animal cells

Plants Animals
1. Plastid 1. Centriole
2. Central vacuole 2. Peripheral vacuole
3. Glyoxysome 3. Peroxisome

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Note
Mitochondria, lysosome, ER, Golgi body, nucleus and ribosomes are
found in both animals and plants.

Membrane bound organelles

Double Membranes

Mitochondria Chloroplast Nucleus

Single Membrane

Vacuole Lysosome Peroxisome Glyoxisome ER Golgi body

Ribosome
Non-membranous
Centriole

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NOTES

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Introduction
 Word virus is derived from Latin word "Venom" means "Poison".
 Non-cellular infectious entities containing either RNA or DNA in a
protein coat
 Reproduce only in living cell.
 They depend host cell because they lack biosynthetic machinery
 Causes disease in plant and animal like influenza bird flu, dengue
fever, swine flu
 They don't follow cell theory

History of viruses

 About a century ago, at the time of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch,
the word virus is referred as disease and death
 First infectious disease against which vaccination was used was viral
disease.
 In 1796 Edward Jenner, first Vaccinated an eight year old boy with
cowpox lesion after 6 week, he was inoculated with puss from a
small pox victim.
 The boy didn't get the disease
 As the material was from cow (Latin: vacca), Pasteur reformed this
process as vaccination.
 Rabies a disease caused by bite of dog, foxes cats etc.
 Charles Chamberland:
 In 1884, Charles Chamberland, found that organism or agents
Responsible for rabies could pass through the porcelain filters of
(100-1000nm) while filter can remove all bacteria or other cells from
cell/liquid suspension.
 These agents were considered as filterable Virus.
 Iwanosky, in 1892, he discovered that infectious entities responsible
for tobacco mosaic disease is filterable.
 To examine, he extract the juice from diseased tobacco plants and
pass it through the filter to remove the bacteria, when the juice was
applied on normal plants, they got disease
 W.M.Stanely: He crystallized the tobacco mosaic (T.M.V) in 1935.
 The study of virus is known as virology.

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PTB

 Yellow Fever 1901

 Foot and mouth disease 1898

Characteristics of viruses
 Viruses are seen through electron microscope.
 Can pass through filter.
 Reproduce only in living cells.
 Occur in different stains.
 Contain either RNA or DNA and can undergo mutation.
 Destroyed by ultraviolet radiations.
 Lack cellular structure and enzymes.
 No metabolic activity of its own.
 Can be crystallized and stored in bottles.
 Non-living outside the organism.
 Resistant to broad range antibiotics like tetracycline etc.

PTB

 Largest viruses is pox viruses (250nm)

 Smallest viruses are parvoviruses (20nm).
 Can be grown on artificial media (glassware).
 Viruses have both living and non-living characters:

Living Non-living
1. Have genetic material 1. Non-cellular.
2. Undergo mutation. 2. Lack enzymes and
coenzymes.
3. Reproduce inside host cell by 3. Can be crystallized and stored
using host machinery. in laboratory.
4. Destroyed by UV radiations 4. Don’t respire and use energy
and chemicals. of host.
5. Occur in different strains. 5. Have ambivalent (fluctuating)
nature.

 Due to these properties, viruses are considered as boundary line

between living and non-living.

Structure of virus
 Complete and mature virus is known as VIRION.
 Composed of two parts primarily:
 Protein coat(made of capsomere known as capsid)

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 Nucleic acid (either RNA or DNA) also known as genome.
 There is an additional covering derived from host cell membrane
called envelope.
 Envelope is external to capsid.
 Genome + capsid =core
 Enzyme in core helps in virus mode of action.
 Capsid gives definite shape.
 No.of capsomeres is specific for each virus.

Virus Capsomeres
Herpes 162
Adeno 252

 Genome + capsid =nucleocapsid

 Non enveloped viruses are also known as naked viruses are more
resistive to antibiotics than enveloped viruses.

PTB

 There are different forms of animal and plant viruses:

Viruses

Polyhedron Helical Icosahedral Bacteriophage

Many sides 20 triangles Cubical Helical

Regular solids Rod shaped

Icosahedral

 Many phages consist of head and tail.

 Head is polyhedral but tail is rod shaped.
 Bacteriophages are viruses that eat or infect viruses.
 They are discovered by Twort in 1915 and D. Herelle in 1917
independently.

FTB
 Retroviruses and hepatitis B have reverse transcriptase that
converts single stranded RNA into double stranded DNA.

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 Polio virus has 32 capsomeres.
 Virus envelope is also covered by glycoprotein spike (to recognise
host cells).

Some common viral diseases KPK

Diseases Agent Description Symptoms  Virus abundant in

nature composed
1. Small pox Pox virus DNA Raised fluid filled,
of
enveloped latter pustules and
macromolecules
then pocks.
 Composed by the
2. Herpes Herpes DNA Vascular lesions in
organism they
simplex virus enveloped ectodermal tissues of
infect.
epithelial layer of
 Virus affect living
mouth, lips and soft
organism from
skin.
Bacteria to
3. Mumps Paramyxo Enveloped Painful swelling of
mammals
virus RNA salivary glands
 In ten
(parotids)
minutes,virus
4. Influenza Influenza Enveloped High grade fever, control over cell
virus RNA coughing and and reproduce
sneezing. itself 100 times
5. Measles Paramyxo Enveloped Fever and rashes on and kill a cell.
viruses RNA skin  Virus reproduction
6. Polio Poliomyletis RNA in Inflammation of time 70s.
virus spherical nervous system and  Bacteria
capsid paralysis reproduction time
20 minutes.
PTB  Virus can be
crystallized.
 This disease is known to have occurred as epidemic in China as
early as the twelfth century.
 Until the early twentieth century,small pox was common throughout
the world.
 In 1980,it was declared by WHO that small pox has been eradicated
from the world.
 Herpes simplex is naturally occurring disease of mankind.
 Influenza is wide spread disease in man and occurs in epidemic
form.
 Mumps is highly contagious, widespread, but seldom fatal.
 About 60% of adults are immune to it.
 Measles is the commonest disease of the childhood and adults both.
 Measles develops immunity in its victim.
 The age at which the primary infection of polio occurs varies with
Social and Economic factors.
 Polioviruses are smaller known viruses.

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FTB KPK

 Viruses are highly specific to their host.  Viruses don’t

excrete.
Virus Host/infection site
1. Bacteriophage Bacteria
2. TMV Tobacco plants
3. Rabies Only mammals
4. HIV Certain type of WBCs.
5. Polio Spinal cord cells.
6. Hepatitis virus Only liver cell.
7. Human cold virus Upper respiratory tract.
8. (adenovirus)

 The specificity of attachment determines host range of the virus.

Narrow range Broad range

 Polio virus can enter the cells  Rabies virus can enter all
of only human and other mammalian cells.
primates.

Influenza virus
 This virus belongs to family orthomyxoviruses.
 It includes seven genera and out of which 3 are common.

Virus A
Infecting
vertebrates
Genera of Virus C
influenza virus

Infecting humans Virus B

BTB
 Vaccines and drugs are available for this disease.
 The total genome length of flu virus is 12000-15000 nucleotides and  Bacteriophage are
the genome contains 6-8 segments. ubiquitous viruses
found wherever
Polio virus bacteria exist.
 It is estimated that
 Also called infantile paralysis number of
 First identified by KarlLandsteiner in 1908. bacteriophages is
 transmitted by: more than any
 Contaminated water with faeces. other organism on
earth.
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 Coughing
 Sneezing

Polio virus

symptoms : vaccines

Inactivated Oral polio

non-paralytic paralytic
polio vaccine vaccine(opv)

 Leaf curl virus disease is plant disease characterised by curling of

leaves, darken veins and swelling of veins.
 This disease is main threat tocotton crop and was first reported in
Punjab in Multan in 1985.
 The vector of this disease is whitefly Bemisiatabaci.
 Bird flu is also called avian influenza.
 H5N1 is the most common form of bird flu.

AIDS (acquired immuno deficiency syndrome)

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 The Aids was first reported in young male homosexuals in early

1980.
 It is caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).
 HIV was discovered by Pasture institute in France and National
institute of Health in USA in 1984.
 HIV named in 1986.
 The major call infected by HIV are Helper T-lymphocytes, major cells
of immune system.
 The infection decrease the Helper T-cells and person becomes
susceptible to other diseases.

Structure of HIV
 Following are features of HIV:

HIV

Matrix Spherical
Enveloped Spikes Viral capsid Viral RNA
protein shape

Glycoprotein Bullet shaped Two in no.

Conical
Identical
shaped

Types of HIV

Infect specific
Host specific
host
Types of HIV
Can infect any
Non-host specific
host

Life cycle of HIV

 Attachment,entry,and uncoiling:
 The virion enters the host cell at CD4 receptor site and is uncoated
inside the host cell.
 Reverse Transcription and integration:
 The enzyme acts on viral RNA to make a DNA and then uses the
strand of DNA to make DNA double helix.
 This DNA then enters nucleus and integrates into chromosomal DNA
of the host as a provirus.
 Viral RNA and protein synthesis:
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 The proviral DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into
proteins.
 Assembly and release:
 New capsids assemble and around viral RNA and attached reverse
transcriptase molecule and bud from plasma membrane by
exocytosis.

KPK

 Influenza virus
exists in different
shapes from
round balls to
long, spaghetti-
like filaments.

Common symptoms

 Fever
 Headache
 Severe pneumonia
 Rare vascular cancer
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