ENGM041 Unit 3

Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey
Unit 3. The design process, Preparatory design and Loads.
(Study time allocation - 15 hours)
Stages in the design process.
Every job goes through a series of stages from initial conception to final construction.
The stages of a job for the designer may be summarised as follows :-
1. The brief
2. Initial or preliminary design and scheme drawings
3. Estimation of budget costs and approval by the client
4. Final design and working drawings
5. Site supervision.
Professional fees were historically based on a percentage of the cost of the structural
aspects of the job and were fixed throughout the profession. Today, practically all jobs
go through a tender stage, where a number of companies are asked to submit a price and
one of these (usually the lowest bidder but not always) is accepted. Firms are not paid
generally for submitting a bid so simple, conservative and rapid methods are used to
prepare budget costs. In the list above aspects concerned with tendering include only
items 1 – 3 unless there is special provision. Items 4 and 5 are then undertaken by the
successful bidder. The remainder of this unit is concerned with the final design and
working drawings.
Final design and working drawings.
1. Analysis of a structure. This procedure includes determining the applied bending

moments, shear forces and torsional moments on all the elements in a structure.
In addition, deflections at critical sections may be determined. The aim is to
determine how the most adverse combination of actions acting on a structure
affect it. Unit 4 examines how to analyse building structures. Loads and how
they combine to produce the worst effect are covered later on in this unit.
2. Design of Structure. This aspect of design examines the structure as a whole.
The aim is to determine if the structure is stable, robust enough and that the
constituent parts act satisfactorily to ensure loads are transferred through the
structure to the foundations. Unit 4 provides information on how a structure
behaves as a whole and indicates how structural form affects structural design.
3. Design of elements in a structure. Several stages are included in the design.
a. Pre – design. Before any other designing is undertaken, the limit states of
durability and fire design are considered in order to ascertain the required
cover to the reinforcement, the minimum size of members and the
appropriate concrete strength. Element sizes are estimated using ad-hoc
rules which ensure serviceability criteria are satisfied (unit 3).
PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.1

b. Ultimate limit state. Accurate section sizes are determined for

corresponding concrete properties (usually compressive strength). The
size of the reinforced concrete element and the quantity of reinforcement
to resist bending, shear and torsional forces are determined.
c. Serviceability limit states. In this phase of the work, checks are made to
ensure the serviceability criteria are met.
4. Detailing of members. Considerations in this stage include the buildability of the
structure, for example, can congested reinforcement be positioned. In addition,
bending schedules of all reinforcing bars have to be produced.
5. Layout drawings which indicate the structural deign are produced.
Ultimate and serviceability limit states.
Ultimate limit states are often more critical for concrete structures. Consequently when
design is undertaken, the ultimate limit state is designed for and then if necessary
serviceability is checked for. However, element sizes ascertained in the pre-design stage
usually ensure serviceability criteria are met.
Serviceability requirements to check for deflection and crack widths are generally
satisfied by observing the following details.
 Checking and keeping within permitted span/effective depth ratios

 Providing not less than the minimum permitted percentage of reinforcement.
 Limiting the spacing of tension reinforcement.
 Using “deemed to satisfy” empirical methods.
If actual deflections are required, then the structure must be analysed for the
serviceability limit state, using design service loads. The deflections obtained will
generally be short term values and will be multiplied by a suitable factor to allow for
creep effects and to give realistic long term values.
The order of designing a building (or structure).
The order in which a structure is designed is logical.
 Initially the slabs are designed.

 The loads from these will be shed onto surrounding beams which are then
analysed and designed.
 The combined loads from the slabs and beams are then transferred to columns
which need to be sized and designed.
 Finally the columns transmit loads to the foundations which distribute the full
load from the building to the soil below as a bearing pressure.

Pre Analysis or design considerations.
1. Type of use. This dictates the type of loading, fire resistance required, the
internal exposure conditions and serviceability criteria.
2. The location of the structure will determine the external exposure conditions and
wind loads.
3. The finishes and cladding to the building. These aspects are non structural and
usually considered by the architect. They affect the loading on the structural parts
of the building, and deflection limitations.
4. Special requirements. These supersede other requirements. For example, a
building constructed in arctic conditions or a building to house nuclear waste.
Concrete cover to reinforcement.
In past years the cover to reinforcement has often been neglected from a design point of
view. In actual fact it is vitally important and dictates much of the design. With some
loss of accuracy, reinforced concrete could be considered as two intimately linked parts.
Firstly there is the reinforcement and the concrete enclosed by it. This provides the
strength to the element, and then there is the concrete cover which provides protection to
the reinforcement. In reality part of the cover is used in strengthening the beam, and is
needed to ensure bond.
The need for cover to reinforcement.
Concrete cover is the smallest value which satisfies all of the following conditions.
Cover to the reinforcement ensures spalling will not occur.
 Cover ensures the bond forces which build up between the reinforcement and
concrete are transmitted safely.
 Cover protects the reinforcement against corrosion.
 Cover to reinforcement protects the reinforcement against fire.
Concrete cover – definitions.
The concrete cover is the distance between the surface of the reinforcement closest to the
nearest concrete surface (including links and stirrups and surface reinforcement where
relevant) and the nearest concrete surface.
The nominal cover must be specified on the drawings. It is defined as a minimum cover,
cmin plus an allowance in design for deviation, Δcdev
cnom = cmin + Δcdev

Minimum cover, cmin

Minimum concrete cover, cmin, is provided in order to ensure:
- the safe transmission of bond forces
- the protection of the steel against corrosion (durability)
- an adequate fire resistance (see EN 1992-1-2)
The greater value for cmin satisfying the requirements for both bond and environmental
conditions must be used.
cmin = max {cmin,b; cmin,dur + ΔCdur,γ - ΔCdur,st - ΔCdur,add; 10 mm}
where:
cmin,b - minimum cover due to bond requirement, BSEN1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.2 (3)
cmin,dur - minimum cover due to environmental conditions, BSEN 1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.2 (5)
ΔCdur,γ - additive safety element, BSEN 1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.2 (6)
ΔCdur,st - reduction of min. cover for use of stainless steel, BSEN 1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.2 (7)
ΔCdur,add reduction of min. cover for use of add’al protection, BSEN 1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.2 (8)
Allowance in design for deviation. BSEN 1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.3

To calculate the nominal cover, cnom, an addition to the minimum cover is made in design
to allow for the deviation (ΔCdev). The value of ΔCdev for use in a Country may be found
in its National Annex. The recommended value in UK NA is 10 mm. In the U.K. cover
for durability and bond are found and the deviation allowance added. This is then
checked against the fire requirement.
Determining the cover to reinforcement.
Limiting minimum values and tables to recommend concrete cover have been compiled
over the years, based on experience, laboratory tests and long term monitoring of
structures.
Bond cover to reinforcement.
Cover to allow adequate bond is determined using Table 4.2 from the code.
Single and bundled bars.
The minimum cover to all steel should be such that the resulting cover to a main bar
should not be less than the size of the bar, or where bars are in bundles of between 2 and

4 bars, the equivalent size of a single bar, Aeq equal in area to the sum of the combined
areas. Table 4.2 from the code summarises these requirements.
Rules for bundled bars.
 All bars in a bundle must be the same type and grade

 Bars of different size may be bundled provided the ratio of diameters does not
exceed 1.7
 The diameter of the equivalent bar does not exceed 55mm.
Concrete cast against uneven surfaces.
 The minimum cover should allow for the variations in the surface such that an
adequate minimum cover, which satisfies all other requirements is provided.
 Where concrete is cast against the earth, the minimum cover from the average soil
level should be not less than 75mm
 Where concrete is cast against prepared ground (including blinding, the minimum
cover should be not less than 40mm.
Durability cover requirements.
The determination of cover to satisfy the durability requirements based on EC2 are
complicated. The UK has amended these requirements, to suit our more harsh island
conditions. Only those requirements relevant to the UK are included here. Additional
definitions are required to finally determine the cover for durability
Exposure conditions.
The cover required to prevent corrosion to reinforcement depends on the exposure

conditions and the quality of the concrete as placed and cured immediately surrounding
the reinforcement. Table 4.1 from the code indicates the exposure conditions possible.
The actual cover is then determined using Tables A.5 and A.11 of BS 8500-1:2006 in
accordance with the December 2009 amendment of the National Annex.





Cover to reinforcement – Fire requirements.
BS EN 1992-1-2 provides a variety of methods of designing for fire resistance. To cover

all aspects of the code in this course is impossible so a simplified technique based on
tables given is section 5 of the code is given. To interpret the tables it is necessary to
understand one term, the axis dimension given the symbol a. The axis dimension is
related to the cover requirement and will enable the required fire protection to be
achieved. If bar sizes are known or can be predicted with reasonable accuracy, the
minimum cover cmin can be determined. Figure 5.2 from the code defines the axis
dimension.
Figure 5.2: Sections through structural members, showing nominal axis

distance a
Where bar sizes are not equal or bars occur in more than one layer then the average axis
distance am is used instead of a. Figure 5.3 from the code and the subsequent explanation
define the requirements for this situation.
Figure 5.3: Dimensions used to calculate average axis distance am

When reinforcement is arranged in several layers as shown in Figure 5.3, and where it
consists of either reinforcing or prestressing steel with the same characteristic strength fyk
and fpk respectively, the average axis distance am should not be less than the axis distance
a given in the Tables. The average axis distance may be determined by Expression (5.5).
As1a1  As 2 a 2  .....  Asn a n Asi ai

am   (5.5)
As1  As 2  .....  Asn Asi
where:
Asi is the cross sectional area of steel bar (tendon, wire) "i"
ai is the axis distance of steel bar (tendon, wire) "i" from the nearest exposed surface.
When reinforcement consists of steels with different characteristic strength Asi should be
replaced by Asi fyki (or Asi fpki) in Expression (5.5).

Fire resistance tables from EC2.
Table 5.2a – 5.11 include most common structural elements likely to be subject to fire
and the corresponding axis dimension.
A reduction factor for the design load level in the fire situation, μfi, has been introduced.
This accounts for the load combinations, compressive strength of the column and bending
including second order effects.
μfi = NEd.fi /NRd (expression 5.6)
where
NEd.fi is the design axial load in the fire situation,
NRd is the design resistance of the column at normal temperature conditions
NRd is calculated according to EN 1992-1-1 with γm for normal temperature design,
including second order effects and an initial eccentricity equal to the eccentricity of NEd.fi.
Note 1: The reduction factor ηfi may be used instead of μfi for the design load level (see 2.4.2) as a safe
simplification since ηfi assumes that the column is fully loaded at normal temperature design.
[A conservative approach is to assume μfi = 0.7 which covers most practical cases]

[A conservative approach is to assume μfi = 0.7 which covers most practical cases]

The diagram below defines where bmin should be determined in constant and variable
width elements. The NA requires Class WA to be used to limit bw when I sections are
employed.

See also the note below Figure 5.5.




Concrete cover – Example.

In the National annex, it is recommended that the deviation be taken as 10mm in common
cases. Use that in the following examples and cement of type 1. Include code references
in your answers.
1. A continuous beam has a width of 300mm, concrete strength class C40/50 and
20mm size aggregate. It has 32mm diameter bars in pairs with 12mm diameter
links. Exposure is of class XC3 and the required fire resistance is 2 hours. The
cement is specified as CEM 1. What is the nominal cover.
Requirement for Minimum cover (mm)

Bond – main bars 32mm in pairs
Equivalent diameter is (322 x 2)0.5 = 45mm
Links are 12mm so nominal cover = 33mm 33mm
Max aggregate size <32 so no increase
Durability – C40/50 concrete, exposure XC3 30mm Table A.5, BS 8500-1:2006
Fire resistance – 2 hours cont beam
Axis dimension = 35mm (Table 5.6)
Cover = 35 – 45/2 – 12 = 0.5mm
Effect of deviation – 33 + 10 = 43mm Nominal cover = 43mm
Sizing Members.
The European code offers guidance on sizing members in a number of ways.
1. Members need to be sized in accordance with the fire resistance requirements.

Tables 5.2 – 5.11 (not all shown) give the information required.
2. Cover and bars. Clause 8.2 from the code (reproduced below), supported by the
NA has details on bar spacing and cover.
8.2 Spacing of bars

(1)P The spacing of bars shall be such that the concrete can be placed and compacted
satisfactorily for the development of adequate bond.
(2) The clear distance (horizontal and vertical) between individual parallel bars or
horizontal layers of parallel bars should be not less than the maximum of k1 x bar
diameter, (dg + k2 mm) or 20 mm where dg is the maximum size of aggregate.
Note: The value of k1 and k2 for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex.
The recommended UK values are 1 and 5 mm respectively.
(3) Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer should
be located vertically above each other. There should be sufficient space between the
resulting columns of bars to allow access for vibrators and good compaction of the
concrete.
(4) Lapped bars may be allowed to touch one another within the lap length. See 8.7 in the
code for more details.

Example. Cover = 30mm, bar size = 25mm and link size = 10mm.
.
Cover
s
Minimum beam width = 2 x cover + 2 x link diam x 1.1 + 5 x bar diam x 1.1 + 4 x s
 Cover – given as 30mm

 Link size – given as 10mm. (note actual is 10% larger hence factor. This allows
for the ribs).
 Bar size – given as 25. (note actual is 10% larger hence factor. This allows for
the ribs).
 s = dg + k2 = 20 + 5 = 25mm. - Spacing between bars
b = 60 + 2 x 10 x 1.1 + 5 x 25 x 1.1 + 4 x 25 = 319.5mm

Beams – General guidance.
Beam depths
The size of beams is generally limited by curtailing the span/effective depth ratio. If this
is achieved, it may be assumed that deflections will be acceptable. The basic clauses in
the code which refer to this are 7.4.1 – 7.4.3. Clause 7.4.1 is included here. In addition,
Table NA.5 is given, this being the British version of Table 7.4N but both are similar
except that the British version includes more references when determining deflections is
problematical.
7.4.1 General considerations
(1)P The deformation of a member or structure shall not be such that it adversely affects
its proper functioning or appearance.
(2) Appropriate limiting values of deflection taking into account the nature of the
structure, of the finishes, partitions and fixings and upon the function of the structure
should be established.
(3) Deformations should not exceed those that can be accommodated by other connected
elements such as partitions, glazing, cladding, services or finishes. In some cases
limitation may be required to ensure the proper functioning of machinery or apparatus
supported by the structure, or to avoid ponding on flat roofs.
Note: The limiting deflections given in (4) and (5) below are derived from ISO 4356 and should generally
result in satisfactory performance of buildings such as dwellings, offices, public buildings or factories. Care
should be taken to ensure that the limits are appropriate for the particular structure considered and that there
are no special requirements. Further information on deflections and limiting values may be obtained from
ISO 4356.
(4) The appearance and general utility of the structure could be impaired when the
calculated sag of a beam, slab or cantilever subjected to quasi-permanent loads exceeds
span/250. The sag is assessed relative to the supports. Pre-camber may be used to
compensate for some or all of the deflection but any upward deflection incorporated in
the formwork should not generally exceed span/250.
(5) Deflections that could damage adjacent parts of the structure should be limited. For
the deflection after construction, span/500 is normally an appropriate limit for quasi-
permanent loads. Other limits may be considered, depending on the sensitivity of
adjacent parts.
(6) The limit state of deformation may be checked by either:

- limiting the span/depth ratio, according to 7.4.2 or
- comparing a calculated deflection, according to 7.4.3, with a limit value
Note: The actual deformations may differ from the estimated values, particularly if the values of applied
moments are close to the cracking moment. The differences will depend on the dispersion of the material
properties, on the environmental conditions, on the load history, on the restraints at the supports, ground
conditions, etc.

The K factors are used in a calculation method (Unit 10).
Beam widths.
Widths of beams are sized by limiting shear stress to values which are both economical
and practical. A limit of 2MPa is acceptable but it is prudent to strive for a 1MPa limit.
Obviously the main bars have to fit the width and maintain the correct (usually minimum)
spacing.
Slabs.
The guidance above refers to slabs and beams. The concrete centre has provided
additional guidance which is less conservative and not included in the National Annex.

Columns.
Columns can be initially sized using only axial loads and ignoring bending moments,
which are allowed for by enhancing the loads from the floor immediately above the level
under consideration by the factors shown.
Axial loads on columns to determine column sizes.
Design Load Design load
1.5n1 Where beam spans

n1 n1 kn1 framing into columns
are approximately
equal, k =1.25,
otherwise, k = 2.0
n2 n1 + 1.5n2 n2 n1 + kn2
1 1
n3 n1 + n2 + 1.5n3 n3 n1 + n2 + kn3
n1, n2, n3 etc. are factored vertical loads applied to the column at various floor levels
Determining column sizes based on axial loads
The design load will be equal to

As = 0.03Ac1 the force in the concrete Acfcd plus
Ac1
the force in the steel Asfs. The
area of the column Ac can be
found by assuming an area of steel
As = 0.04Ac1 As between 1% and 4% of Ac and
values of fcd not exceeding
αccfck/γc and fs not exceeding fyk/γs
As = 0.03Ac2
Ac2
As = 0.04Ac2
For economies of construction the column size should be constant for several storeys
with reinforcement adjusted to suit the loading.

Applications on structures. (British Standards call these loads)
Loads are direct actions, i.e. forces applied to structures. They may be :-
 Permanent e.g. self weight, fittings, finishes, and fixed equipment.

 Variable e.g. imposed loads, wind loads and snow loads.
 Accidental e.g. explosions or impact from vehicles.
Imposed deformations are indirect actions. They may be :-
 Permanent e.g. Uneven settlements or earthquakes

 Variable e.g. Temperature changes, moisture variations.
Design situations.
Four design situations are defined in EC2.

1. Persistent design situation. Normal usage.
2. Transient design situation. Temporary situations such as during construction.
3. Accidental design situations. Fire or explosion
4. Seismic design situations
Characteristic loads.
Loads are specified by their characteristic values as defined in EN 1990 and the National
Annex. The values are obtained from loading codes (EN 1991). Obtaining the imposed,
wind and snow loads should be done in accordance with European practice.
Design Loads.
These are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by suitable partial factors, γF
and, where appropriate for a combination of variable loads by a further ψ factor.
Characteristic permanent loads.
The characteristic permanent load is denoted by Gk but in situations where the permanent
loads are likely to produce different effects during the lifetime of the structure, two
characteristic values are used :-
 An upper Gk,sup
 And a lower Gk,inf
i.e. It is up to the designer to obtain the least favourable situation.

Permanent loads include :-
 Walls and columns,

 Floor slabs and beams,
 Roofs,
 Finishes – plaster, screeds etc.,
 Cladding
Characteristic variable loads
The characteristic variable loads are denoted by Qk, but often only a proportion, ψ of the
characteristic load is required. Three ψ forms, namely ψo, ψ1, and ψ2 may be used to
reduce loads : -
 Combination value ψoQk {Used in both the persistent and transient

design situations.}
 Frequent value ψ1Qk {Used in conjunction with accidental
actions}
 Quasi-permanent value ψ2Qk {Used in situations where the transient
load is almost a permanent load such as snow loads
at high altitudes.}
ψ factors are derived statistically from probability theory. For example, when two
variable loads, say imposed and wind, are considered to act together, it is unlikely that
both will be at their full characteristic values simultaneously, so one load has a value Qk
and the other a value, usually reduced, of ψQk
The values of ψ factors vary depending upon the type of loading. Different ψ factors are
used for varying design situations in the ultimate limit state, and for varying load
conditions in the serviceability limit state.
Comparatively little guidance exists on when to choose ψ1 or ψ2. With ψ0 there is

agreement that it be used in common design situations where for example two variable
loads such as imposed and wind exist simultaneously. If a non-permanent load is likely
to act for most of a structures life then the ψ2 factor should be used. When the load will
occur frequently in the sense of being imposed and removed regularly but not in a
fatiguing manner then the frequent values ψ1 should be used. (Table NA.A1.1).
Typical variable loads include :-
 Imposed loads Occupants and furniture

Stored materials
Moveable partitions
Moveable machinery
 Wind loads
 Snow loads

Characteristic wind actions (loads).
Wind actions on structures and structural elements shall be determined taking account of
both external and internal wind pressures. A summary of calculation procedures for the
determination of wind actions is given in Table 5.1 from BS EN 1991-1-4-2005.
According to BS EN 1991-1-4-2005, the wind pressure acting on the external surfaces,

we, should be obtained from :-
we = qp (ze ) . cpe (5.1)
where:
 qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure
 ze is the reference height for the external pressure given in Section 7 (BS EN
1991-1-4-2005).
 cpe is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure, see Section 7 (BS EN
1991-1-4-2005). NOTE qp(z) is defined in 4.5 (BS EN 1991-1-4-2005)
Wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure, wi, is obtained from :-
wi = qp (zi ) . cpi (5.2)
where:
 qp(zi) is the peak velocity pressure
 zi is the reference height for the internal pressure given in Section 7 (BS EN 1991-
1-4-2005)
 cpi is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure given in Section 7 (BS EN
1991-1-4-2005). NOTE qp(z) is defined in 4.5 (BS EN 1991-1-4-2005)
The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the difference between the pressures on the
opposite surfaces taking due account of their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface
is taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as negative. Examples
are given in Figure 5.1 (BS EN 1991-1-4-2005).


Design loads.
In general there are similarities but also differences between BS 8110 and the European
Codes when it comes to obtaining design loads.
The design value of an action Fd can be expressed in general terms as Fd = γFFk, where Fk
is the characteristic value of the action and γF is a partial factor appropriate to that action.
This is similar to BS8110. Specific examples could be Gd = GGk (design permanent
load), Qd = QQk (design variable load) and Ad = AAk (design accidental load)
However, variable loads, for example can be expressed as Qd = Qψ0Qk if for instance
there are two variable loads acting on an element (or structure) at the same time. In this
case, the ψ0 factor is applied to the second variable load, but both still have the partial
factor applied.
Combining the design loads will vary with the design situations. Table NA.A1.2(A)
considers the partial factors used to combine loads when checking the stability of
buildings. Table NA.A1.2(B), gives the partial factors used when combining loads to
design elements.

Combinations of Loads.
In BS8110, partial safety factors are used to combine loads and produce the worst design
situation for a building or element. Similar (though with one major difference)
techniques are used in the European Codes. For persistent and transient design situations,
the general expression for combinations of loads uses either equation (6.10 from
BSEN1990), or the worst case when either 6.10a and 6.10b are employed.
 G , j Gk , j   Q,1Qk ,1  
i 1
 0,i Qk ,i
Q ,i (6.10)
Permanent load Primary or leading variable load Secondary or accompanying variable loads
 G , j Gk , j   Q,1 0,1Qk ,1  
i 1
Q ,i  0,i Qk ,i (6.10a)
 G , j Gk , j   Q,1Qk ,1  
i 1
Q ,i  0,i Qk ,i (6.10b)
In the U.K. we are likely to use the worst case of 6.10a and 6.10b as this will give the
most economic result.
For accidental design situations, the general expression for combinations of loads is :-
Gk , j  Ad ( 1,1 or  2,1 )Qk ,1  

i 1
2 ,i Qk ,i (6.11b)
For seismic design situations the general expression for combinations of loads is :-
Gk , j  AEd  
i1
2,i Qk ,i
Values of the ψ factor
Table NA.A1.1 (BS EN 1990 : 2002) gives values of the ψ factor for combining actions.

For completeness some of the load categories relevant to buildings are also given (Table
6.1 EN 1991-1-1 : 2002 (E)).


Partial Factors at Ultimate Limit State.
These allow for :-
 Unconsidered possible increases in load

 Inaccurate assessment of load and load effects
 Variations in dimensional accuracy
 Uncertainties in the assessment of the limit state considered.
The table below (NA1.2(A)) is the NA recommended values for partial factors for
obtaining static equilibrium of buildings.
The following table (NA1.2(B)) should be used for structural element design and
includes for geotechnical effects.
NA.2.2.3.2 Values for the symbols γ and ξ in expressions 6.10, 6.10(a) and 6.10(b) are given in
Table NA1.2 (B) which provides the values for the symbols. The values chosen are:
γ Gj,sup = 1,35
γ Gj,inf = 1,00
γ Q,1 = 1,50 where unfavourable (0 where favourable)
γ Q,i = 1,50 where unfavourable (0 where favourable)
ξ = 0,925
NOTE For ψ values see Table NA.A1.1.
Note. A useful summary table is given in Mosley, Bungey and Hulse.


Geotechnical actions.
The design of structural members (footings, piles, basement walls, etc.) involving
geotechnical actions and the resistance of the ground should be verified
using one of three approaches given in BS EN 1990 appendix A1.3.1(5) supplemented,
for geotechnical actions and resistances, by EN 1997 :
Favourable and unfavourable loads.
Unfavourable loads are those which increase the severity of the condition being
considered, whereas favourable loads decrease the severity of the condition. Consider the
cantilever with a point load W at its end as shown in (a) below.
The deflection diagrams indicate the maximum deflection at the end of the cantilever is
when W is a maximum and P a minimum. Conversely, the maximum deflection at the
mid span of the cantilever will be when P is a maximum and W a minimum. In the first
case, W is the unfavourable load, P the favourable one and the opposite applies in the
second case.
W
(a). Beam deflection
with point load W
P W (b). Beam deflection

with a small pont load
P at mid span
P W (c). Beam deflection

with a large point load
P at mid span
P
(d). Beam deflection
with a large pt load P
at mid span and W = 0

Design Loads. The serviceability case.
Service loads are used to determine deflections and crack widths. Partial factors for
serviceability are taken as 1.0. Combinations of loads likely to produce the worst
serviceability case are shown in table (A1.4)
Equations 6.14(a), 6.14(b), 6.15(a), 6.15(b), 6.16(a) and 6.16(b) in BSEN1990 summarise
how to combine loads at serviceability. Equations 6.14 and 6.15 are similar to 6.10 and
6.10a, but there are differences between equation 6.10b and 6.16.
Unless specifically stated, the partial factor for loads should be taken as 1.0. Table A1.4
refers to values for actions at serviceability loads.


Self assessment questions.
1. Write down the equations for both nominal cover and minimum cover and define
all the terms used.
2. With respect to concrete durability, for an exposure condition of XC3, determine
the minimum cover to the reinforcement if a C40/50 concrete is used. What
would the cover increase to if C25/30 concrete was used. In both instances
assume a deviator value of Δc,dev = 10mm and CEM1 is specified.
3. An internal 450mm square column is reinforced with 25mm vertical bars and
10mm links, with a maximum aggregate size of 40mm. Exposure class is XC1,
concrete strength is C30/37 (CEM1) and required fire resistance is 3 hours.
Assuming a load reduction factor of 0.7, what is the nominal cover assuming the
column is exposed on more than one side.
4. The ground floor slab of an office development is cast on blinding and has a
concrete strength of C32/40 (CEM1 specified). It is exposed to moderate
humidity and chlorides. Max aggregate size is 20mm and bar size is 16mm.
What is the recommended cover.
5. Find the minimum width of a beam if 4 main bars are needed and :-
 Nominal cover = 25mm
 Link size = 12mm (ribbed bars)
 Main bars = 25mm (ribbed bars)
 Aggregate size = 25mm.
6. Actions on structures. A simply supported / cantilever slab is required. The
concrete is 200mm thick. No finishes needed. [Concrete density – 25kN/m3 –
Annex A Table A1 - EN 1991-1-1]. Both span & terrace are to carry office loads
Qk = 3.0kN/m2. [Table 6.2 EN 1991-1-1]. Further, the cantilever (terrace) is
exposed to snow effects of 0.45kN/m2. Determine the worst bending moments in
a 1.0m wide strip of slab.
(a). Ignoring snow loads
(b). Including snow loads
Do the design using equation (6.10), then (6.10a and (6.10b))
Span terrace
6.0m 4.0m

Learning outcomes.
At the end of this unit you should be conversant with :
 Stages in the design process.

 The need for cover to reinforcement.
 How exposure conditions, bond of reinforcement to concrete, fire conditions and
the need to minimize concrete spalling affect the determined cover to
reinforcement.
 UK requirements for cover in relation to concrete durability, bond and fire
resistance.
 Techniques to estimate beam widths.
 Techniques to estimate beam depths.
 Limiting deflections in beams and slabs.
 Actions on structures according to Eurocodes.

Answers to self assessment questions.
Question 2.
Using Table A.5, BS8500-1:2006, and for exposure XC3, C40/50 concrete (CEM1), the
minimum cover = 30 mm, so nominal cover = 40 mm.
Using Table A.5, BS8500-1:2006, and for exposure XC3, C25/30 concrete (CEM1), the
minimum cover = 50 mm, so nominal cover = 60 mm.
Note – Deviation taken as 10 mm
Question 3.
An internal 450mm square column is reinforced with 25mm vertical bars and 12 mm
links, with a maximum aggregate size of 40mm. Exposure class is XC1, concrete
strength is C30/37 (CEM1 specified) and required fire resistance is 3 hours. Assuming a
load reduction factor of 0.7, what is the nominal cover assuming the column is exposed
on more than one side.

Bond – main bars 25mm. Links are 12mm so
minimum cover = 13mm
Max aggregate size >32 so increase by 5mm 18mm
Durability – C30/37 concrete, exposure XC1 15mm Table A.5, BS8500-
1:2006.
Fire resistance – 3 hours col. With η =0.7. 47.5mm
Axis dimension = 70mm Table 5.2a
Minimum cover = 70 – 25/2 – 10 = 47.5mm
Required cover (Deviation = 10mm)
Nominal cover = 28mm (Bond governs over durability or 47.5 mm. (Fire governs)
Question 4.
The ground floor slab of an office development is cast on blinding and has a concrete
strength of C32/40. It is exposed to moderate humidity and chlorides. Max aggregate
size is 20mm and bar size is 16mm. What is the recommended cover.

Bond – main bars 16mm. 16 mm
Max aggregate size <32 so no increase. Table 4.2
Durability – C32/40 concrete, exposure XD1 45mm Table A.5, BS8500-

1:2006.
For concrete cast against uneven surface with
blinding, cover should exceed 40mm
Nominal cover = 45 + 10 = 55 mm. (Durability
governs).

Question 5.
Find the minimum width of beam if 4 bars are needed and :-
Nominal cover = 25mm
Link size = 12mm (ribbed bars)
Main bars = 25mm (ribbed)
Aggregate size = 25mm
Spacing of bars = MAX{k1 x bar diameter, (dg + k2) or 20mm.} dg = size of aggregate, k1
= 1 and k2 = 5 in the UK. (see NA)
Spacing between bars = Max {25, 30, 20} so use 30mm
Minimum beam width = (25 x 2) + (4 x 25 x 1.1) + 2 x 12 x 1.1 + 30 x 3 = 276mm.
Question 6.
Actions on structures.
A simply supported / cantilever slab is required. The concrete is 200mm thick. No
finishes needed. [Concrete density – 25kN/m3 – Annex A Table A1 - EN 1991-1-1]. The
space will be used for office (span length) / terrace (cantilever length) both with a Qk =
3.0kN/m2. [Table 6.2 EN 1991-1-1]. The 4.0m part of the cantilever is exposed to snow
effects of 0.45kN/m2.
Determine the worst bending moments in a 1.0m wide strip of slab.
(a). Ignoring snow loads
(b). Including snow loads
Do the design using equation (6.10), then (6.10a and (6.10b))
6.0m 4.0m
Floor load = 0.2 x 25 = 5.0kN/m2

Office load = 3.0kN/m2
Snow load = 0.45kN/m2
Case 1. No snow load. Equation 6.10 has

j 1
G, j Gk,j +  Q,1Qk,1 +   Q,i 0,i Qk,i
i >1
( 6.10)

Load Case 1
1.35Gk + 1.5Qk 1.0Gk + 0.0Qk
= 1.35 x 5 + 1.5 x 3.0 = 11.25kN/m = 1.0 x 5 + 0.0 = 5.0kN/m
A
6.0m B 4.0m
X
40kNm
35.56 kNm
27.08kN 60.42kN
2.41 m
Moments about A ; 11.25 x 6 x 3 + 5 x 4 x 8 = 6RB, so RB = 60.42 kN

Moments about B : 6RA + 5 x 4 x 2 = 11.25 x 6 x 3, so RA = 27.08 kN
Total load on beam = 11.25 x 6 + 5 x 4 = 87.5 kN = RA + RB
Taking moments a distance X from A.
M = 27.08X – 11.25 X2/2
dM/dx = 27.08 – 11.25 X, but when dM/dX = 0.0, X = 2.41 m
Hence maximum M = 35.56 kNm
And MB = 5x4x2 = 40 kNm
Load Case 2
1.35Gk + 1.5Qk 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk
= 1.35 x 5 + 1.5 x 3.0 = 11.25kN/m = 11.25kN/m
A
6.0m B 4.0m
1.67 m
90 kNm
15.62 kNm
18.75 kN 93.75 kN
Moments about A ; 11.25 x 10 x 5 = 6RB, so RB = 93.75 kN

Moments about B : 11.25 x 10 x 1 = 6RA so RA = 18.75 kN
Total load on beam = 112.5 kN = RA + RB
M = 18.75X – 11.25 X2/2


And MB = 11.25x4x2 = 90 kNm
LC3. Adding snow loads onto cantilever, otherwise identical to load case 2. Using
Equation 6.10 to include snow effects.
Load Case 3
1.35Gk + 1.5Qk1 + 1.5 0Qk2
= 1.35x5 + 1.5x3.0 + 1.5x0.5x0.45
1.35Gk + 1.5Qk
= 11.59kN/m
= 1.35 x 5 + 1.5 x 3.0 = 11.25kN/m
A
6.0m B 4.0m
1.63 m
92.72kNm
14.88kNm
18.3kN 95.56kN
Moments about A ; 11.25 x 6 x 3 + 11.59 x 4 x 8 = 6RB, so RB = 95.56 kN

Moments about B : 6RA + 11.59 x 4 x 2 = 11.25 x 6 x 3 so RA = 18.30 kN
Total load on beam = 113.86 kN = RA + RB
M = 18.3X – 11.25 X2/2
And MB = 11.59x4x2 = 92.72 kNm
Equations 6.10a and 6.10b have not been done
In addition a load case with the maximum load on the cantilever and minimum elsewhere
should be checked as this will put most of the beam into hogging


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Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey

Unit 3. The design process, Preparatory design and Loads.

(Study time allocation - 15 hours)

Stages in the design process.

Final design and working drawings.

1. Analysis of a structure. This procedure includes determining the applied bending

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.1

b. Ultimate limit state. Accurate section sizes are determined for

Ultimate and serviceability limit states.

 Checking and keeping within permitted span/effective depth ratios

The order of designing a building (or structure).

The order in which a structure is designed is logical.

 Initially the slabs are designed.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.2

Pre Analysis or design considerations.

Concrete cover to reinforcement.

The need for cover to reinforcement.

Concrete cover – definitions.

cnom = cmin + Δcdev

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.3

Minimum cover, cmin

cmin = max {cmin,b; cmin,dur + ΔCdur,γ - ΔCdur,st - ΔCdur,add; 10 mm}

Allowance in design for deviation. BSEN 1992-1-1 : 4.4.1.3

Determining the cover to reinforcement.

Bond cover to reinforcement.

Single and bundled bars.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.4

Rules for bundled bars.

 All bars in a bundle must be the same type and grade

Concrete cast against uneven surfaces.

Durability cover requirements.

The cover required to prevent corrosion to reinforcement depends on the exposure

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.5

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.6

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.7

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.8

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.9

Cover to reinforcement – Fire requirements.

BS EN 1992-1-2 provides a variety of methods of designing for fire resistance. To cover

Figure 5.2: Sections through structural members, showing nominal axis

Figure 5.3: Dimensions used to calculate average axis distance am

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.10

As1a1  As 2 a 2  .....  Asn a n Asi ai

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.11

Fire resistance tables from EC2.

μfi = NEd.fi /NRd (expression 5.6)

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.12

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.13

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.14

See also the note below Figure 5.5.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.15

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.16

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.17

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.18

Concrete cover – Example.

Requirement for Minimum cover (mm)

The European code offers guidance on sizing members in a number of ways.

1. Members need to be sized in accordance with the fire resistance requirements.

8.2 Spacing of bars

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.19

 Cover – given as 30mm

b = 60 + 2 x 10 x 1.1 + 5 x 25 x 1.1 + 4 x 25 = 319.5mm

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.3.20

Beams – General guidance.