SOLUTIONS AND

COLLOIDS

High Yield Notes

 NOTES
SOLUTIONS AND
COLLOIDS
CONCENTRATION UNITS OF
SOLUTION:
Dilute solution: It contains small 4. Percentage volume/ volume : It is
amount of solute per unit volume of volume of solute dissolved per
solution. 100cm^3 of solution.
Concentrated solution: It contains Percent v/v = Volume of solute x 100
greater amount of solute per unit jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjVolume of solution
volume of solution.
There are various units of MOLARITY:
2
concentration of solution.
The amount of solute, solvent may
It is number of moles of solute
be expressed by volume, mass,
dissolved per dm^3 of solution.
number of moles or percentage
It depends on temperature, because
composition.
it is based upon volume of solution.
When temperature increases, the
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION: amount of solute remain constant
but volume of solute increase
The amount of solute and solvent slightly, thus molarity decrease.
can be expressed in percentage Molarity = Mass of solute/Molar
composition in, mass of solute x 1 / Volume of
1. percentage weight/weight: It is solution in dm^3
weight of a solute dissolved per 100
parts by weight of solution.
Mass percent = Mass of solute x 100
Mass of solution
2. percentage weight/ volume: It is
weight of solute dissolved per 100
parts of volume of solution.
Percent w/v = Mass of solute x 100
Volume of solution

3. percentage volume/ weight: It is

number of cm^3 of solute dissolved
per 100g of solution.
Percent v/w = Volume of solute x 100
Mass of solution

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 NOTES
MOLALITY: PARTS PER TRILLION:
It is number of moles of solute in 1kg The number of parts by weight (or
of solvent. volume) of a solute per trillion parts
by weight (or volume) of a solution.
Molality = Mass of solute/Molar mass ppT = Mass or volume of solute x 10^12
of solute x 1/Mass of solvent in kg Mass or volume of solution
Or NOTE: RARE COMPONENTS OF
Molality = Number of moles of solute SOLUTION ARE EXPRESSED IN: ppm
Mass of solvent in kg ,ppb, ppt.
It is independent of temperature.
It is indirect expression of ratio of
moles of solute to moles of solvent,
because in molar solution the
quantity of solvent is greater
.
MOLE FRACTION:
The mole fraction of any component
2 in mixture is ratio of it’s number of
moles to total number of moles of all
components present.
Suppose a solution contain na and
nb moles of two components A and
B.. Mole fraction of each is given by:
Mole fraction of component A=
Xa= na
na + nb
Mole fraction of component B =
Xb= nb
na + nb

PARTS PER MILLION (ppm):

The number of parts by weight (or
volume) of a solute per million parts
by weight (or volume) of a solution.
ppm =
Mass or volume of solute x 10^6
Mass or volume of solution

PARTS PER BILLION: (ppb):

The number of parts by weight (or
volume) of a solute per billion parts
by weight (or volume) of a solution.
ppb =
Mass or volume of solute x 10^9
Mass or volume of solution

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 NOTES INTERCONVERSION OF VARIOUS
CONCENTRATION UNITS OF SOLUTION:
The conversions are done when
we know formula mass and
densities of solute and solutions.
The following given table shows
different units of concentration
of five important compounds.

Molarity
NAME % Density
(Mol /
OF ACID w/w (g/cm3)
dm3)

H2SO4 98% 18 1.84

2
H3PO4 85.5% 4.8 1.70

HNO3 70.4% 15.9 1.42

HCL 37.2% 12.1 1.19

CH3COOH 99.8% 17.4 1.05

EXAMPLE 10.11 (FTB):

NaOH is used to neutralize acid,
to treat cellulose in preparation
of rayon and to remove potato
peels in commercial use.
250cm^3 of 2M NaOH is mixed
with 250cm^3 of water.
Calculate Molality of resulting
solution:
SOLUTION:
250cm^3 of 2M NaOH contain =
250 cm^3 x 2/1000cm^3 = 0.5
moles of NaOH
Total volume of solution = 250
cm^3 + 250 cm^3 = 500cm^3 =
0.5 dm^3
Molarity of resulting solution =
0.5 moles/ 0.5 dm^3 = 1M

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 NOTES
TYPES OF SOLUTION:
Nine possible types of solution are given as:

1. SOLUTION OF SOLIDS
STATE OF STATE OF IN LIQUID:
EXAMPLE
SOLUTE SOLVENT Solid with liquids forms a
solution i.e homogenous
solution.
Gas Gas Air
The solute solvent forces help
in dissolution process by
O2 in water,
Gas Liquid minimizing the strong inter
CO2 in water
molecular forces of solids.
This dissolution give rise to
H2 absorbed the concept of like dissolve
Gas Solid by palladium like. Polar solute dissolves in
2
polar solvents, non polar
Mist, fog, solute dissolves in non polar
Liquid Gas cloud, liquid solvents.
air pollutants

2. SOLUTION OF
Alcohol in
water, milk
iiiiiiiLIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS:
Liquid Liquid benzene in
They are divided into 3
classes:
toluene
A) COMPLETELY MISCIBLE
LIQUIDS: It is defined as
Mercury in
mixing of two or more liquids
Liquid Solid silver, butter,
cheese into each other, that can be
mixed in all proportions.
Dust particle B) PARTIALLY MISCIBLE
Solid Gas in smoke LIQUIDS: It is defined as
mixing of two or more liquids
Sugar in into each other to particular
Solid Liquid water, jellies, extent after which they
paint cannot mix into each other.
Ether dissolves water up to
Metal alloys extent of 1.2%.
pearls, opal, Water dissolves ether up to
Solid Solid carbon in extent of 6.5%.
iron (steel) Upon shaking, two layers are
formed on each other. Each
layer is a saturated solution of
the other liquid. Such
solutions are called conjugate
solutions.

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 NOTES
The temperature of 65.9 degree
celsius at which two conjugate IDEAL NON - IDEAL
solutions merge into one another SOLUTIONS SOLUTIONS
is called critical temperature.
Its examples are:
1) phenol – water system If forces of
phenol forms upper layer and If forces of
attraction between
water forms lower layer. attraction between
2) Triethyl amine water system.
molecules of
molecules of
3) nicotine – water system. different
different
C) LIQUIDS PRACTICALLY components are
IMMISCIBLE. These liquids do not
components are
different when
dissolve into each other at any same when they are
they are in pure
proportion or any temperature. in pure state, they
Its example are:
state, they are
are ideal solution.
1) Water + benzene non-ideal solution.
2) Water and carbondisulfide
2
If volume of
If volume of
solution is not
solution is equal to
equal to sum of
sum of individual
individual volumes
volumes of
of components,
components, the
the solution is
solution is ideal.
non- ideal.

They do not have

They have zero
zero enthalpy
enthalpy change as
change as heat of
heat of solution.
solution.

They obey Raoult’s

Law. This is best They do not obey
criterion for Raoult’s law.
checking ideality of
a solution.

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 NOTES
RAOULT’S LAW:
Given by French chemist
Raoult.
He discovered a quantitative
relationship between vapor
pressure and concentration of
solution.
STATEMENT: When non-volatile
solute is dissolved in a solvent,
the vapor pressure of solution
is directly proportional to mole
fraction of solvent. The relative
lowering of vapor pressure
depends on temperature. (ptb)
Or
2 The relative lowering of vapor
pressure is equal to mole
fraction of solute. Lowering in
vapour pressure depends on
temperature, where as
lowering of mole fraction is
independent of temperature.
(ftb)
Mathematically, Raoult's law
can be expressed as follows:
P₁ = X₁ * P₁^°
Where:
P₁ is the partial vapor pressure
of component 1 in the solution.
X₁ is the mole fraction of
component 1 in the solution.
P₁^° is the vapor pressure of
component 1 in its pure state.
Raoult's law assumes ideal
behavior of both the solvent
and the solute, meaning that
there are no significant
interactions between the
particles of the two
components or any deviations
from ideal behavior.
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Raoult's law is strictly applicable only to ideal
solutions, where the intermolecular forces
between the solvent and solute are similar.
For better understanding, let’s have a
look on example:
Example: Suppose we have a solution
containing 0.5 moles of ethanol
(CH3CH2OH) and 0.5 moles of methanol
(CH3OH). The vapor pressure of pure ethanol
is 100 mmHg, and the vapor pressure of pure
methanol is 80 mmHg. We want to calculate
the lowering of vapor pressure caused by
the presence of the other component in the
solution.
Solution:
Calculate the mole fraction of each
component: Mole fraction of ethanol
(X)ethanol = moles of ethanol / total moles
= 0.5 moles / (0.5 moles + 0.5 moles) = 0.5
Mole fraction of methanol
(X)methanol = moles of methanol / total
moles = 0.5 moles / (0.5 moles + 0.5 moles)
= 0.5
Apply Raoult's law to calculate the partial
vapor pressures: Partial vapor pressure of
ethanol
(P)ethanol = (X)ethanol * (P)ethanol^°
= 0.5 * 100 mmHg = 50 mmHg
Partial vapor pressure of methanol
(Pmethanol) = (X)methanol *
(P)methanol^° = 0.5 * 80 mmHg =
40mmHg
Calculate the lowering of vapor pressure:
The lowering of vapor pressure is given
by the difference between the vapor
pressure of the pure solvent (ethanol or
methanol) and the partial vapor pressure
in the solution.
Lowering of vapor pressure for ethanol
(ΔPethanol) = (P)ethanol^° - (P)ethanol =
100 mmHg - 50 mmHg = 50 mmHg
Lowering of vapor pressure for methanol
(ΔPmethanol) = (P)methanol^° -
(P)methanol = 80 mmHg - 40 mmHg =
40 mmHg
6
 NOTES VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUID-
LIQUID SOLUTIONS:
Definition :
Mixture of miscible liquids are
classified as: a) ideal solutions
b)non- ideal solutions.
IDEAL SOLUTIONS:
This solution obeys Raoult’s law.
Some ideal solution pairs which
forms liquid pairs are : benzene-
toulene, benzene – ether,
chlorobenzene- bromobenzene.
Fractional distillation of ideal
mixture of two liquids:
2 Fractional distillation is a
process used to separate a
mixture of two or more volatile
liquids based on their different
boiling points. Let's consider an
example of fractional distillation
for an ideal mixture of two
liquids:
Example: Let’s take a complete
miscible solution of two
components A and B.
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Explanation:
A is more volatile than B. A
graph is plotted between x- axis
and y-axis, then two curves are
obtained. The upper curve
represents the composition of
vapors of solutions. And the
lower curve represents
composition of liquid mixture.
Consider G point as
temperature. The boiling point
corresponds to Point I. It meets
liquids curve at H and vapor
curve at C. The composition of
liquid mixture corresponds to
point H as shown by point I. At
point I there is greater
percentage of B and less
percentage of A and at point K
there I more percentage of A
and less percentage of B as
compared to mixture at point I.
The point K is at vapor state, so
because A has low Boiling point,
it is present in vapor state in
greater percentage than point I.
If the temperature at point G is
maintained , the distillate will
have greater percentage of A
and less percentage of B. This is
because the fraction which is
going to be distillated will be in
vapor state and it has greater %
of A. The composition at K is
again going to be distillated.
The boiling point of it will be X
and it is the temperature at
which the distillate of
composition Z is obtained.
7
 NOTES
The distillate at point Z will be
further distillated and the distillate
will then become rich in A, and
residue will be rich in B. The
process of distillation will be
repeated until pure component A
is obtained.
The liquid mixtures which distill
with change in composition are
called zeotropic mixtures. For
example mixture of ethanol and
water can be separated into pure
components by distillation.
Example: Suppose we have an
ideal mixture of ethanol (boiling
point: 78.4°C) and water (boiling
point: 100°C).
2 until all the ethanol and water are
Explanation:
The mixture is placed in a
distillation apparatus consisting of
a distillation flask, a fractionating
column, a condenser, and a
collection flask.
Heat is applied to the distillation
flask, raising the temperature of
the mixture. As the temperature
increases, the liquid with the lower
boiling point (ethanol) will start to
vaporize first.
Ethanol molecules, being more
volatile, will evaporate from the
liquid mixture and rise up through
the fractionating column. The
vapor contains a higher
concentration of ethanol
compared to the liquid mixture.
The ethanol vapor rises up the
fractionating column, it
encounters a cooler environment
in the condenser. The condenser
cools the vapor, causing it to
condense back into a liquid.
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The condensed ethanol, which has
a higher concentration of ethanol
compared to the original mixture,
is collected in a separate flask. This
process is known as the distillate.
Separation: The liquid remaining in
the distillation flask, which is now
enriched in water, undergoes the
same process as the temperature
continues to rise. Water molecules
will start to vaporize, rise up the
fractionating column, condense in
the condenser, and are collected
separately. This is the second
fraction obtained in the distillation
process.
The distillation process continues
separated. The temperature is
carefully controlled, allowing each
component to vaporize and
condense separately based on
their different boiling points.
By employing fractional distillation,
it is possible to obtain ethanol and
water as separate distillates. The
separation is achieved because the
component with the lower boiling
point (ethanol) vaporizes first and
condenses in the fractionating
column and condenser, while the
component with the higher boiling
point (water) remains in the
distillation flask.
Fractional distillation is effective for
separating volatile components in
mixtures, especially when they
have significantly different boiling
points.
8
 NOTES
NON- IDEAL SOLUTIONS: When a positive deviation occurs, it
suggests that the intermolecular
(AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES)
forces between the solvent and
These solutions show deviation
solute are stronger than the forces
from Raoult’s law. They have
between the solvent-solvent or
difference in their molecular
solute-solute molecules. As a result,
structures. Their vapor pressure
the solvent molecules are more
may be positive or negative.
likely to escape from the solution
Azeotropic solutions boil at
and enter the vapor phase,
constant temperature and and
increasing the observed vapor
distil over without change in
pressure.
composition at any temperature
Ethanol- water is an example of this
like aa pure chemical compound.
type. It boils at 78.1 C with 4.5%
The deviation of solution are of
water and 95.5% alcohol. 78.1C is
two types:
lower than boiling point of ethanol
A) Positive deviation
(78.5C) and water (100C).
B) negative deviation
2 B) NEGATIVE DEVIATION:
A) POSITIVE DEVIATION:
In Raoult's law, a negative deviation
If a graph is plotted between
refers to a situation where the
composition and vapour pressure
observed vapor pressure of a
of solution and it shows positive
component in a non-ideal solution
deviation from Raoult’s law, the
is lower than the vapor pressure
total vapor pressure rises to
predicted by Raoult's law. This
maximum.
deviation occurs when there are
In Raoult's law, a positive
repulsive interactions between the
deviation refers to a situation
molecules of the solvent and the
where the observed vapor
solute, leading to a decrease in the
pressure of a component in a
vapor pressure of the solvent.
non-ideal solution is higher than
When a negative deviation occurs,
the vapor pressure predicted by
it suggests that the intermolecular
Raoult's law. This deviation occurs
forces between the solvent and
when there is an attractive
solute are weaker than the forces
interaction between the
between the solvent-solvent or
molecules of the solvent and the
solute-solute molecules. As a result,
solute, leading to an increase in
the solvent molecules are more
the vapor pressure of the solvent.
likely to stay in the solution rather
than escaping into the vapor phase,
resulting in a lower observed vapor
pressure.
For example, HCl forms an
azeotropic mixture with water,
boiling at 110C and containing
20.24% of acid.

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 NOTES SOLUBILITY AND
SOLUBILITY CURVES:
SOLUBILITY: concentration of
solute in solution when it is in
equilibrium with solid substance
in a particular temperature.
It is expressed in terms of several
grams of solute in 100g of solvent.
There are two types of solutions:
Saturated solutions and
Unsaturated solutions.
Unsaturated solutions: They can
dissolve more solute in them
under existing conditions.
Saturated solutions: They cannot
dissolve more solute in it on
2 existing conditions.
NOTE: Substances that have
similar structures and
intermolecular forces, are soluble.
And the substances which have
dissimilar structures and
intermolecular forces are
insoluble.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE OF
SOLUBILITY:
An increase in temperature
increases the solubility of a solid
in a liquid.
The variation of solubility with
temperature can be predicted
from the enthalpy of the solution.
If ΔH of the solution is negative,
the solubility of the solid
decreases as the increase in
temperature.
If ΔH of the solution is in positive,
the solubility of solid increase as
increase in temperature.
The solubility of gases decreases
with increase in temperature.
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EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON
SOLUBILTY:
Pressure has negligible effect on
solubility of liquids and solid but
it increases solubility of gas.
Henry's law states that at a
constant temperature, the
amount of a given gas that
dissolves in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial
pressure of that gas in
equilibrium with that liquid. It is
obeyed by dilute solution of
gases.
To determine solubility, a
saturated solution is prepared on
constant temperature, then
solution is filtered and taken out
in china dish, from mass of
residue the solubility can be
calculated.
SOLUBILITY CURVES: A
graphical representation
between temperature and
solubility of substances is called
solubility curve. It is of two types:
a) continuous solubility curves
b) discontinuous solubility curves.
CONTINUOUS SOLUBILITY
CURVES: They do not show sharp
breaks. It example include: KCI,
NaCI and NaNO3 which gives
straight lines. KCIO3, K2Cr2O7
and CaCI2 also how continuous
solubility curves.
DIS-CONTINUOUS SOLUBILITY
CURVES: These curves are
combination of two or more
solubility curves. Its examples are
curves of: Na2SO4.10H2O,
CaCl2.6H2O.
10
 NOTES
FRACTIONAL
CRYSTALLIZATION:
It is a technique of separation of
impurities from chemical products
.
METHOD:
Impure solute is dissolved in a hot
solvent in which desired solute is less
soluble than impurities. When this
solution is cooled, the the desired solute
which was less soluble solute comes out
leaving behind the mixture as impurity.
In this way desired product is
crystallized from solution.

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 NOTES COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF
SOLUTION:
These are the properties that Again, the supply of vapor is cutoff but
depends on number of solute this time permanently.
and solvent molecules or ions. The thermometer and rose head are
Colligative properties of dilute removed and volume of solution is
solution are as under: measured.
Lowering of vapor pressure: The difference of two boiling point is
When a solvent contain non- given by ΔTb.
volatile solute particles, the The following formula is then used to
escaping tendency of solvent calculate molecular mass of solute:
particles from surface of solution M2 = Kb/ ΔTb x 1000W2/W1
decreases and vapor pressure is Measuring Depression of freezing point:
lowered. by Beckmann’s freezing point apparatus:
Elevation of boiling point: when The apparatus consists of:
the vapor pressure is lowered, the A freezing tube with side arm. It contains
temperature at which solvent in solvent and is fitted with a stirrer and
2
solution state boils is increased. Beckmann’s thermometer.
An outer larger tube into which freezing
MEASURING OF BOILING POINT tube is adjusted. The air jacket in
ELEVATION: between these tubes help to achieve a
This is done by Landsberger's slower and more uniform rate of cooling.
method. The apparatus has four A large jar containing freezing mixture
major parts: around 20 to 25g of it is taken. The bulb
1. Inner tube with hole at its side of thermometer is immersed in liquid.
2. Boiling flask PROCESS:
3. Outer tube Approximate freezing point of solvent is
4. Thermometer measured by direct cooling freezing
PROCESS: point tube in freezing mixture.
1. The solvent is placed in inner The freezing point is then put in air jacket
tube. and cooled slowly.
2. Some amount of solvent is taken Now solvent will be remelted by
in another separate flask and its removing tube from bath.
vapors are sent into this tube. 0.2 to 0.3g of solute is added to the tube.
3. The vapors causes the solvent in Freezing point is determined by stirring
tube to boil by latent heat of solution.
condensation. The difference of two freezing points is
4. This temperature is then noted as determined by value of ΔT.
boiling point of pure solvent. The given formula is then used to
5. The supply of vapor is then calculate molar mass of solute:
temporarily cut off and wight M2 = Kf/ ΔTf x 1000 W2/W1
pellet of solute is dropped in Osmotic pressure
inner tube. To observe colligative properties,
6. The vapors are again allowed to following should be fulfilled:
pass and temperature is again i) solution should be dilute
noted. ii) It should be non-volatile
iii) It should be non-electrolyte

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 NOTES ENERGETICS OF
A SOLUTION:
The energetics of solutions refers ENTHALPY:
to the energy changes that occur It is defined as heat changed when one
during the process of dissolving a mole of substance is dissolved in
solute in a solvent. The specified number of moles of solvent at a
concentration of the solute also given temperature. It is given by symbol
affects the energetics of a ΔHsolu. ΔHsolu gives difference between
solution. Colligative properties, energy possessed by a solution after
such as boiling point elevation formation and original energy of
and freezing point depression, components before mixing.
depend on the number of solute This chart give value of heat of solution
particles present in the solution. for different ionic solids in water at
These properties are directly infinite dilution.
related to the concentration of The magnitude of heat of solution gives
the solute and can be used to important idea about strength of
2 determine its molecular weight intermolecular forces of attraction
or assess the purity of a between components which mix to form
substance. solution.
The energetics of solutions deals
with the fundamental principles
that govern the dissolution HEAT OF
process. The strength of forces SUBSTANCE SOLUTION
between the molecules of solute
and solvent decide whether the (KJ.mol-1)
process of dissolution will be
exothermic or endothermic. NaCl 4.98
The process of dissolution occurs
with either absorption or release
NH4NO3 26.0
of energy. This is due to breaking
or forming of intermolecular
forces of attraction between KCl 17.8
solute and solvent molecules.
KI 21.4
HEAT OF SOLUTION:
The quantity of heat energy
absorbed or evolved when a NH4CI 16.2
substance forms solution, is
termed as heat of solution. LiCl -35.0

Li2CO3 -12.8

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 NOTES HYDRATON ENERGY
OF IONS:
Let’s understand this with an These are the hydration energy of
example: common ions:
Take an ionic compound for
example potassium iodide and
dissolve it in water. ΔH (ion
The ions will start separating k+ ION
will be separated and I- will be
mole-1)
separated.
These ions are now surrounded by
solvent molecules. H+ -1075
The first step was breaking lattice
to separate the ions, energy was Li+ -499
required for this step to be
completed which was then
Na+ -390
2 provided, so this step is an
endothermic step. The energy
that was needed to separate the Ag+ -464
crystalline solid into ionic charges
is called lattice energy, and it is K+ -305
always higher for ionic solids.
The second step is hydration of
ions as they were brought into
Mg+2 -1891
water. A hydrated ion is attracted
by solvent dipoles and energy is Cu+2 -1562
released thus this step is
exothermic. The energy given by NH4- -281
this step is called hydration
energy or energy of solvation.
K+ + I + XH2O ---------> K+ (aq) + I-
F- -457

Cl- -384

Br- -351

OH- -460

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 NOTES HYDRATION AND
HYDROLYSIS:
HYDRATION:
The process in which water
molecules surround and interact
with solute ions or molecules is
called hydration.
The ions which surround molecules
are called hydrated ions.
The number oof molecules which
surrounds given ions depends on
size of ion and magnitude of
charge.
If the size of ion is small and is
highly positive ion, it has high
charge density, so greater number
2 of molecules will surround it.
Negatively charged ions have low
charge density and have smaller
number of water molecules
surround them.
NOTE: IONS WITH HIGH CHARGE
DENSITY HAS A GREATER ABILITY
TO ATTRACT POLAR WATER
MOLECULES THAN IONS WITH
SMALLER CHARGE DENSITY.
2. HYDRATES:
The crystalline substance which
contain chemically combined
water in definite proportion is
called a hydrate.
The hydrates are produced when
aqueous solution of soluble salts is
evaporated.
The water molecules are attached
with cations is hydrates.
For example in CuSO4.5H2O, four
water molecules are attached with
Cu+2 and one with SO4-2. Cu+2 has
greater charge density and size of
Cu+2 is much smaller than the
SO4-2 which has same amount of
charge, this is the reason why
water molecules are attached to
Cu+2 more.
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WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION:
The water molecules which contains
substances as they are crystallized
from aqueous solutions are called
water molecules of water
crystallization or water of
crystallization.
3. HYDROLYSIS:
The interaction between salts and
water are called hydrolytic reaction
and phenomenon is called hydrolysis.
When sodium chloride is dissolved in
water, the ionic bond between sodium
(Na+) and chloride (Cl-) is broken, and
the compound dissociates into its
constituent ions, Na+ and Cl-. This
dissociation is a result of the solvent
properties of water, which can
separate and surround individual ions
due to its polar nature.
The dissociation of sodium chloride in
water can be represented by the
following equation:
NaCl (s) + H2O (l) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
In this equation, (s) represents the
solid state of NaCl, (l) represents the
liquid state of water, and (aq)
represents the aqueous state of the
ions.
It's important to note that this process
does not involve a chemical reaction
where water molecules are broken
down or bonded to the ions. The water
molecules simply surround and
solvate the separated sodium and
chloride ions, allowing them to move
freely in the solution.
15
 NOTES
NH4, AlCl3, CuSO4 gives acidic Sodium acetate is a salt of acetic
solution in water. Their hydrolytic acid, and its hydrolysis in water
reaction produce weak bases generates acetic acid itself. Acetic
Al(OH)3, NH4OH and Cu(OH)2. But acid is a weak acid, and sodium
CL- and SO4-2 are weak conjugate hydroxide is a strong base.
base and are not hydrolyzed in The hydrolysis of sodium acetate is
water thus H+ remains free in an example of a salt hydrolysis
solution so there solutions are reaction, where a salt compound
acidic in character. reacts with water to produce an
Na2CO3 and CH3COONa forms acid and a strong base. Thus the
basic solution water. resulting solution is base solution.
The hydrolysis of sodium acetate
(CH3COONa) results in the
breakdown of sodium acetate into
its constituent ions and the
production of acetic acid.
The hydrolysis reaction can be
2 represented by the following
equation:
CH3COONa + H2O → CH3COOH +
NaOH
In this equation, sodium acetate
(CH3COONa) reacts with water
(H2O) to form acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).
During hydrolysis, the water
molecules break the ionic bond in
sodium acetate, resulting in the
release of sodium ions (Na+) and
acetate ions (CH3COO-).
Additionally, one water molecule
donates a proton (H+) to the
acetate ion, converting it into
acetic acid (CH3COOH). The
remaining hydroxide ion (OH-)
combines with the sodium ion to
form sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

PreMed.PK 16
 NOTES
COLLOIDS:
A heterogenous mixture of tiny
particles of substance dispersed
through a medium is called
colloidal dispersion or a colloid.
The aggregate of this ions or
molecule ranges in size from 1 to
10^3nm. These particles are visible
in electron microscope but invisible
in ordinary microscope.
In a colloid, the dispersed phase
consists of tiny particles or droplets
that are uniformly distributed
throughout the continuous phase.
The continuous phase is the
2 medium in which the dispersed
phase is suspended. Common
examples of colloids include milk,
gelatin, fog, and paint.
The three main types of colloids
are:
Solid colloid: In this type of colloid,
solid particles are dispersed in a
liquid or solid medium. An example
is a sol, where small solid particles
are suspended in a liquid.
Liquid colloid: In this type, liquid
droplets are dispersed in another
liquid. Emulsions, like oil dispersed
in water or vice versa, are common
examples of liquid colloids.
Gas colloid: In this type, gas
bubbles are dispersed in a liquid or
solid medium. Foam, such as
whipped cream or frothy
beverages. In foams, gas bubbles
are trapped and stabilized by a
liquid or solid matrix.
PreMed.PK
Lyophilic molecules: Lyophilic
molecules, also known as hydrophilic
molecules, are substances that have
an affinity or attraction toward the
dispersion medium (usually water)
and can easily mix or dissolve in it.
These molecules have polar groups or
functional moieties that can form
hydrogen bonds or other strong
interactions with water molecules.
Lyophilic molecules are typically
soluble in water and can form stable
colloidal systems without the need for
additional stabilizing agents.
Example: Sugar (e.g., sucrose) is a
lyophilic molecule. It readily dissolves
in water due to its hydrophilic nature
and can form a stable colloidal
solution, such as when making a
sugar syrup.
2. Lyophobic molecules: Lyophobic
molecules, also known as hydrophobic
molecules, are substances that have a
low affinity or aversion to the
dispersion medium (usually water)
and do not easily mix or dissolve in it.
These molecules are typically nonpolar
or have nonpolar regions, which do
not form strong interactions with
water molecules. Lyophobic
molecules tend to cluster together
and separate from water, forming
aggregates or droplets.
Example: Oil (e.g., vegetable oil) is a
lyophobic molecule. It does not readily
dissolve in water due to its
hydrophobic nature.
17
 NOTES
SUSPENSIONS:
A suspension is a type of
heterogeneous mixture in which
solid particles or liquid droplets are
dispersed in a liquid or gas
medium. Unlike in a solution or a
colloid, the dispersed particles in a
suspension are typically larger and
not uniformly distributed
throughout the medium. Over
time, the particles in a suspension
settle down due to gravity, forming
a sediment or precipitate at the
bottom.
In a suspension, the dispersed
particles are generally insoluble in
the medium and can be visible to
2 the naked eye.
Examples include muddy water,
orange juice with pulp, blood, paint
etc.
These suspensions scatter and
reflect light.
NOTE: BLUE COLOUR OF SKY IS
DUE TO THE SCATTERING OF
LIGHT BY COLLOIDAL DUST
PARTICLES IN AIR. AND SEA
WATER ALSO LOOKS BLUE UE TO
SCATTERING EFFECT OF LIGHT BY
COLLOIDAL IMPURIITES IN SEA
WATER.
PreMed.PK
PROPERTIES OF COLLOID:
Mostly they are cloudy or opaque, but
some may be transparent.
The Tyndall effect refers to the
phenomenon where light is scattered
or dispersed by colloidal particles or
suspended particles in a transparent
medium. When a beam of light passes
through a transparent medium, it
generally travels in a straight line
without being visible. When the light
encounters particles or droplets in the
medium, such as colloidal particles or
tiny dust particles, it gets scattered in
different directions. This scattering of
light makes the beam visible as it
illuminates the path of the scattered
light.
They exhibit Brownian motion.
Colloids can be stable or unstable,
depending on the balance between
attractive and repulsive forces among
the dispersed particles.
Colloidal particles can diffuse through
a medium, but their diffusion rate is
generally slower compared to smaller
molecules.
Due to their larger particle size,
colloids may not pass through filters
designed to separate smaller particles
or molecules.
Colloidal systems can exhibit unique
optical properties, such as selective
absorption, scattering, and
interference of light.
The large surface area of colloids
facilitates interactions with the
surrounding medium and influences
the behavior and reactivity of colloidal
system.
Colloids often display higher viscosity
compared to the pure solvent or
dispersion medium.
18
 NOTES
TYPES OF COLLOIDS:
Colloids are classified
according to dispersed COLLOID NATURE AND
and dispersing
EXAMPLE
TYPE COMPOSITION
substances are gas, liquid
or solid.
Milk of
magnesia,
MNEMONIC FOR TYPE OF Solid particles
starch in
COLLOIDS: SOL dispersed water, paints,
through a liquid coloured
Felix Saw An Enormous
glasses, gems.
Giant Going South Super
Slow.
Foam Continuous
Halwa,
Solid Foam network of solid
2 Aerosol
GEL jellies,
throughout
Emulsion gelatin.
liquid medium
Gel
Solid Aerosol
Sol Either a solid or
Solid Sol AEROSOL liquid dispersed Smoke, fog.
in gas

Liquid dispersed Milk,

EMULSION
in another liquid mayonnaise.

Cannedshaved
Bubble of a gas cream, soap,
FOAM suspended in leather,
liquid or solid whipped
cream.

PreMed.PK 19
 NOTES COMPARISION OF COLLOIDS,
SUSPENSIONS, TRUE SOLUTIONS:
SUSPENSI TRUE
No PROPERTIES COLLOIDS
ON SOLUTIONS

1 SIZE OF PARTICLE 1-10^3nm >10^3nm 0.1 -1nm

2 PHASE heterogenous heterogenous Homogenous

Particles are Particles are

Particles are
composed of composed of
3 AGGREGATE composed of 1
10^3 or 10^9 more than
to 10^3 atoms
atoms. 10^9 atoms
2

Positive or Positive or
CHARGE ON Positive or negative or negative or
4
PARTICLE negative may be may be
neutral neutral

Invisible by
naked eye and
visible by visible by
ordinary
VISIBILITY OF naked eye and naked eye and
5 microscope
PARTICLES ordinary ordinary
but visible in
microscope microscope
electron
microscope

Particles can Particles can

Particles can
pass through pass through
pass through
ordinary ordinary
ordinary filter
6 FILTERABILITY filter paper filter paper
paper but not
but not but not from
from ultra
from ultra ultra filter
filter paper.
filter paper. paper.

PreMed.PK 20
 NOTES COMPARISION OF COLLOIDS,
SUSPENSIONS, TRUESUSPENSI
SOLUTIONS:
TRUE
No PROPERTIES COLLOIDS
ON SOLUTIONS

DISPERSION OF Cannot
7 Scatter light Scatter light
LIGHT Scatter light

Particles do
Particles do Particles
not settle
EFFECT OF not settle settle under
8 under
GRAVITY under influence influence of
influence of
of gravity gravity
gravity

PreMed.PK 21