Engm041 Unit 10

Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey
Unit 10 - Serviceability conditions for reinforced concrete.
(Study time allocation – 15 hours)

Introduction.
Most problems at the serviceability limit state are controlled indirectly – deflection
control being achieved by limiting the span/depth ratio of beams, crack width control by
good detailing of the element. Stress control may also be required such as when a
concrete in a harsh environment deflects resulting in “normal” cracking but subsequent
durability problems are likely due to the harshness of the environment. In this instance
reducing the stress in the concrete will be beneficial.
Using these techniques usually works but in certain circumstances it is necessary to carry
out more detailed investigations. An example of this would be to limit crack widths in a
reinforced concrete reservoir. Mathematical techniques exist which enable estimates of
deflections and crack widths to within about 30% of actual values. To determine the
actual deflection or crack width accurately in a structure is nearly impossible.
When determining the deflection or crack width in a structure it is usual to set the partial
factors (γ factors) for loads to “1.0” (serviceability case) as even at this level these will be
conservative, but this decision is up to the client and engineer and will not affect the
ultimate failure of the structure. Despite the above it is important to note that
serviceability loads still depend on the ψ factors. For most static loading conditions, ψo is
used, ψ1 and ψ2 for accidental and seismic load cases.
PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.1

Serviceability limit states and EC2.
Serviceability limit states are applied to three situations, namely, stress limitation, crack
control and deflection control. In the analysis of stress and deflection control, the code
recommends an un-cracked analysis be undertaken whilst in crack control a fully cracked
section is considered, hence in the subsequent sections, analysis of these two cases is
undertaken when necessary.
In this unit the study of serviceability criteria is split into two sections.
1. Code rules.
2. Serviceability limits by calculation. Calculation procedures vary from simple
to rigorous.

PART 1 – CODE RULES
Stress limitations – Code requirements.
The section in the code which governs stress control follows and is self explanatory :-
7.2 Stress limitation

(1)P The compressive stress in the concrete shall be limited in order to avoid longitudinal
cracks, micro-cracks or high levels of creep, where they could result in unacceptable
effects on the function of the structure.
(2) Longitudinal cracks may occur if the stress level under the characteristic combination
of loads exceeds a critical value. Such cracking may lead to a reduction of durability. In
the absence of other measures, such as an increase in the cover to reinforcement in the
compressive zone or confinement by transverse reinforcement, it may be appropriate to
limit the compressive stress to a value k1fck in areas exposed to environments of exposure
classes XD, XF and XS (see Table 4.1 – unit 3).
Note: The value of k1 for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The
recommended value is 0,6. [UK agrees]
(3) If the stress in the concrete under the quasi-permanent loads is less than k2fck, linear
creep may be assumed. If the stress in concrete exceeds k2fck, non-linear creep should be
considered (see 3.1.4)
Note: The value of k2 for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The
recommended value is 0,45. [UK agrees]
(4)P Tensile stresses in the reinforcement shall be limited in order to avoid inelastic
strain, unacceptable cracking or deformation.
(5) For the appearance unacceptable cracking or deformation may be assumed to be
avoided if, under the characteristic combination of loads, the tensile stress in the
reinforcement does not exceed k3fyk. Where the stress is caused by an imposed
deformation, the tensile stress should not exceed k4fyk. The mean value of the stress in
prestressing tendons should not exceed k5fpk. Note: The values of k3, k4 and k5 for use in a
Country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended values are 0,8, 1 and
0,75 respectively. [UK agrees]
Controlling deflections - code rules.
Deflections should not adversely affect the functioning or appearance of the structure.
Generally the problem with deflections concerns the cracking of non-structural elements.
such as partitions or glazing. These will crack much more easily with small movements
than the members themselves.
Limits to the deflections are often specified by the client depending on the use to which
the structure will be put. The code however, provides recommended values based on
tests and experience namely :-
1. The sag assessed relative to the supports of a beam, slab or cantilever, subjected
to quasi permanent loads should not exceed span/250.

2. The deflections after construction should not exceed span/500.
A simple way of overcoming deflection problems is to provide a camber to the formwork

prior to casting such that after construction, the overall deflection is span/500.
Deflection calculations are often inaccurate and deflection is usually controlled by

limiting span/depth ratios.
In a rigorous experimental analysis, span to effective depth ratios for a range of

reinforcement ratios were determined under load. The work was undertaken for a steel
with fyk = 400MPa. The result is shown on the figure below. Further analyses to
examine how span/effective depth ratios interact with reinforcement ratio were
undertaken for 300 and 500MPa steel. The results are also shown on the figure. Further
it was established that it is possible to convert the span/effective depth ratio with a
particular reinforcement ratio relationship, from one steel to another as indicated :-
 span   span  f yk1

   
 d  2  d 1 f yk 2
Span/d
fyk = 300MPa
fyk = 400MPa
fyk = 500MPa
100As/bd
The code requirements.
EC2 provides tables and supporting formulae to define span/effective depth ratios. The
values in the table are derived using the formula. The table below comes from the UK
national annex (December 2009 amendment), and is different from that in the code
proper. The table is applicable if the structure is subject to its full design loads when the
concrete has achieved the design strength fck.

Code formulae.
The above table is derived using the two formulae which may be used as an alternative.
l  0.5  0 0.5   0  
1.5
 K 11  1.5 f ck  3.2 f ck   1  for    o (7.16a)

d      
 0
0.5

0.5   
'
l
 K 11  1.5 f ck
0.5
 (1 / 12) f  
   for    o (7.16b)
  '
ck
d   0  
Where :-
K is a factor for the type of structural system. See table NA.5

ρ0 is the reference reinforcement ratio = 10-3fck0.5
ρ is the required tension reinforcement ratio at mid span of a beam or cantilever support =
As,req/bd. For flanged sections, ρ should be based on an area of concrete above the
centroid of tension steel.
ρ' is the required compression reinforcement ratio at mid span of a beam or cantilever
support = As2/bd.

Controlling crack widths – code requirements.
In order that crack widths are as determined the steel in the section must not yield. If
steel yields on crack formation further loading will simply extend the steel at the existing
crack and no further cracks will form. The stress and cross sectional area of steel are
related so to reduce stresses area must be increased. Consequently the code requires a
minimum area of reinforcement to control cracking.
With reasonably proportioned members this is usually feasible but with oddly shaped
elements such as deep beams special attention to the problem may be necessary.
In most common design situations, it is more common to control cracking indirectly by

limiting bar diameters and controlling the spacing of bars. Tables are provided which
ensure crack widths of 0.3 mm are not exceeded.
For completeness, the entire code requirement is included followed by an explanation of

the tables.
7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation

(1) For reinforced or prestressed slabs in buildings subjected to bending without
significant axial tension, specific measures to control cracking are not necessary where
the overall depth does not exceed 200 mm and the provisions of 9.3 have been applied.
(2) The rules given in 7.3.4 may be presented in a tabular form by restricting the bar
diameter or spacing as a simplification.
Note: Where the minimum reinforcement given by 7.3.2 is provided, crack widths are
unlikely to be excessive if:
- for cracking caused dominantly by restraint, the bar sizes given in Table 7.2N are not
exceeded where the steel stress is the value obtained immediately after cracking (i.e. σs in
Expression (7.1)).
- for cracks caused mainly by loading, either the provisions of Table 7.2N or the
provisions of Table 7.3N are complied with. The steel stress should be calculated on the
basis of a cracked section under the relevant combination of actions. For pre-tensioned
concrete, where crack control is mainly provided by tendons with direct bond, Tables
7.2N and 7.3N may be used with a stress equal to the total stress minus prestress. For
post-tensioned concrete, where crack control is provided mainly by ordinary
reinforcement, the tables may be used with the stress in this reinforcement calculated
with the effect of prestressing forces included.

cnom = 25mm, fct,eff (=fctm) = 2.9MPa
(3) Beams with a total depth of 1000 mm or more, where the main reinforcement is
concentrated in only a small proportion of the depth, should be provided with additional
skin reinforcement to control cracking on the side faces of the beam. This reinforcement
should be evenly distributed between the level of the tension steel and the neutral axis
and should be located within the links. The area of the skin reinforcement should not be
less than the amount obtained from 7.3.2 (2) taking k as 0,5 and σs as fyk. The spacing and
size of suitable bars may be obtained from 7.3.4 or a suitable simplification (see 7.3.3
(2)) assuming pure tension and a steel stress of half the value assessed for the main
tension reinforcement.
(4) It should be noted that there are particular risks of large cracks occurring in sections
where there are sudden changes of stress, e.g.
- at changes of section
- near concentrated loads
- positions where bars are curtailed
- areas of high bond stress, particularly at the ends of laps
Care should be taken at such areas to minimise the stress changes wherever possible.
However, the rules for crack control given above will normally ensure adequate control at
these points provided that the rules for detailing reinforcement given in Sections 8 and 9
are applied.
(5) Cracking due to tangential action effects may be assumed to be adequately controlled
if the detailing rules given in 9.2.2, 9.2.3, 9.3.2 and 9.4.4.3 are observed.

Concrete Centre Advice.
In order to limit crack widths to acceptable levels,
1. Where restraint is the main cause of cracking, limit the bar diameter to that shown
in Table 7.2N. Any level of stress may be chosen, but this value must then be
used to determine As,min and the size of bar limited as shown.
2. When loading is the main cause of cracking, limit bar diameter to that shown in
table 7.2N or limit bar spacing to that shown in Table 7.3N.
The steel stress should be determined assuming a cracked section. The UK National
Annex recommends wmax as 0.3mm but this may be relaxed to 0.4mm under X0 and XC1
exposure conditions.
Deflection Check – Example.
Span/effective depth ratio method.

Information on deflection control can be found in Clauses 7.4.1 and 7.4.2 of BS EN
1992-1-1.
Check the deflection limit of an internal square slab which has a span dimension of 5.2 m
in each direction. The effective depth of the slab is 104 mm. The flexural design has
resulted in the following reinforcement areas :
As,req = 158 mm2 per m width
As,prov = 287 mm2 (H8 @ 175 mm centres)
Limiting L/d for two way spanning slab = 30 (Table NA.5 UK NA to BS EN 1992-1-1 :
interior slab).
This basic L/d should be multiplied by the following factors :

K = structural factor = 1.5 (Table NA.5 UK NA to BS EN 1992-1-1 interior slab)
310 500
F1    1.81  1.5  use 1.5
s  f yk As ,req 
 
 A 
 s , prov 
F2 = Flanges sector factor = 1.0 (no flange)

F3 = Factor for long spans associated with brittle partitions = 1.0 (span<7.0 m)
Hence basic limiting L/d = 30 x 1.5 = 45. But the notes in the Table NA.5 limit this to
40.0K
Hence limiting L/d = 40 x 1.5 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 60.0
Actual L/d = 5200/104 = 50
50 < 60 so OK.
Another example is in the presentations.

PART 2 – SERVICEABILITY LIMITS BY CALCULATION.
Stress checks – by calculation.
The following section summarises the approach EC2 recommends to determine stress in
concrete at serviceability loads by calculation. The main difference to ultimate loading is
that a triangular, not a rectangular stress block is used, this being more appropriate at
lower loads.
Stress and strain diagrams for a cracked and uncracked concrete

section.
b εcc fcc fcc
Fc Fc
x
zct 2x/3 2x/3
Neutral zs
h d axis
2(h-x)/3
As Fct
εs
Fs Fs
εct fct
Strain Uncracked Cracked
diagram section section
Notation.
b – beam width
h – beam height
d – effective depth of beam
x – neutral axis depth from top chord.
εcc – compressive strain in concrete
εs – tensile strain in steel
εct - tensile strain in concrete
Fc – compressive force in concrete
Fct tensile force in concrete
Fs – tensile force in steel

Basic principal.
In Table 3.1 of EC2 values for the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete are
given. In the Figure above, the tensile stress in the concrete is defined as fct. In table 3.1
fctm is given and this refers to the mean tensile strength of the concrete. When the tensile
strength in the concrete reaches fctm the concrete cracks. From this point on the tensile
strength of the concrete is ignored and the section is a cracked section. Hence in an
uncracked section, fct always ≤ fctm
Example. A plain concrete section is 300mm wide and 600mm deep. What is the
cracking moment in the beam if fctm = 3.2MPa.
My I
 or M
I y
bh 3
For a rectangular section I  and for a plain concrete section the neutral axis is at the
12
mid height so y = h/2.
bh 2
Hence M cr  f ctm  57.6kNm
6
When cracked, the concrete below the neutral axis is assumed to have “0” strength and is
ignored. The strain in the concrete above the neutral axis is assumed to have a triangular
distribution as is the stress. This is based on the assumption that the concrete behaves
elastically at low loads, an assumption which experimental findings validate. {Concrete
stress – strain diagram is reasonably linear at low values}.
Uncracked analysis.
For equilibrium, Fc = Fct + Fs
0.5bxf cc  0.5b(h  x) f ct  As f s (1)
Taking moments about Fc : M = Fct zct + Fs zs
M  0.5b(h  x) f ct (2h / 3)  As f s (d  x / 3) (2)
Transform the steel to concrete.
Transformed steel area = AsEs/Ec = αeAs where αe is the modular ratio
Take area moments about the top of the equivalent concrete section to give location of
the neutral axis.
x  ( Ax) / ( A)

bh0.5h  ( e  1) As d
x (3)
bh  ( e  1) As
(0.5h  ( e  1)  g d )
x (3a)
1  ( e  1)  g
Where  g  As /(bh)
From the geometry of the strain diagram :-
 x 
 cc    ct (4)
h  x
d  x
s    ct (5)
h  x
Therefore as stress = E times strain.
f ct  E c  ct (6)
 x 
f cc    f ct (7 )
h  x
d  x
fs    e f ct (8)
h  x
Knowing M, As and αe, the stresses and strains in the concrete and steel can be found
from 1 – 8.
Cracked section analysis.
For equilibrium, Fc = Fs
0.5bxf cc  As f s (1)
Taking moments: M = Fc zs + Fs zs
M  0.5bxf cc (d  x / 3)  As f s (d  x / 3) (2)
Transform the steel to concrete.
Transformed steel area = AsEs/Ec = αeAs where αe is the modular ratio

Take area moments about the top of the equivalent concrete section to give location of
the neutral axis.
x  ( Ax) / ( A)
bx0.5 x   e As d
x (3)
bx   e As
0.5bx 2   e As x   e As d  0
As
With  
bd
x
 ( e  (2   e  )) 0.5   e  (3a)
d
From the geometry of the strain diagram :-
x  cc
 (4)
d  cc   s
Therefore as stress = E times strain.
f cc
 cc  (5)
Ec
fs
s  (6)
Es
Knowing M, As and αe, the stresses and strains in the concrete and steel can be found
from 1 – 6.

Controlling deflection – Calculation procedure I.
Complex calculations involving numerical integration are given later, however,

numerical integration is a tedious process and in most instances simpler calculation
approaches are acceptable. A common simplification is to calculate the curvature at one
point only, (unlike in the more rigorous method where it is calculated all along the beam)
usually at the maximum bending moment, and to use this one value in the calculation.
Even using rigorous calculation procedures accuracies only to within 20 – 30% can be
expected.
x w kN/m
Rx = wL/2 L
At x, M : 0.5wLx – 0.5wx2 and at mid span M = wL2/8
d2y 1 EI
For small deflections, 2
 and M  so
dx r r
d2y M 1
2
  (0.5wLx - 0.5wx 2 )
dx EI EI
dy 1  wLx 2 wx 3 
    C1  When x = L/2, dy/dx = 0 so C1 = -wL3/24
dx EI  4 6 
1  wLx 3 wx 4 wL3 x 
y     C 2  and when x = 0, y = 0, so C2 = 0
EI  12 24 24 
 5wL4
Also when x = L/2, y 
384 EI
wL2 EI w 8
But M Applied  and M Re sisting  so  2
8 r EI rL
Therefore, at mid span,
5L4 8 40 L2 kL2
y  or as a general equation 
384 rL2 384r r
k depends on the distribution of the moment and typical values are given in the table
below and 1/r = M/(EI) which is know, but requires I for the cracked section.

Values of k for typical bending moment diagrams

0.104
Ma
k = 0.104(1-0.1β)
Mb
β = (Ma + Mb)/Mc
Mc
k = 0.25
k = 0.333
Usually there is close agreement between a rigorous analysis and this simplified
approach.

Controlling cracks – calculation procedures and background.
Cracks in reinforced concrete elements arise from numerous causes such as flexure,
torsion, external restraint or movement etc. The codes have generally accepted the
existence of cracks and attempted to limit their size. Crack widths should be limited to
reduce the potential for water ingress, minimize leakage into buildings through cracks,
and for the sake of appearance. In most situations crack widths should be limited to
0.3mm. This would apply to the exposure classes, X0, XC1, XC2, XC3 (Table 4.1).
However, provided appearance was not an issue crack widths in exposures X0 and XC1
could be relaxed to 0.4mm. More onerous exposures may require additional crack
limitations.

Cracking due to direct loading and imposed deformations.
Under load a tensile reinforced concrete element will extend until the first crack forms at
the weakest point. At the crack all load is transferred to the steel and the crack
immediately widens. The concrete either side of the crack is unstressed but by a distance
so from the crack, the stresses in the concrete have returned to those that existed before
the crack formed. Further load will result in the concrete cracking at a second location,
this being the second weakest point along the section. The same then happens. Crack
widens, all stress at the crack is taken by the steel, the concrete adjacent to the crack is
under zero stress but so from the crack stresses have built up to a level that existed prior
to cracking. During the loading and until the first crack forms, all extension is in the
composite. After the first crack forms increased extension is initially accommodated by
the crack widening and the steel in the vicinity of the crack extending and then by a
complex combination of the steel in the crack extending and the uncracked concrete
extending as prior to cracking further than so either side of the crack but to varying
degrees between the crack and so from the crack. Eventually cracks will exist all along
the member at spacings of slightly less than 2so and any further extending of the element
will be due to the steel in the cracks which will widen. As the number of cracks increase
so the stiffness of the element decreases.
If an element is subject to an increasing deformation due to settlement or similar

occurrence, the concrete will extend as a composite element until the first crack forms at
the weakest point. The crack will widen and stress will be released everywhere along the
element. Hence the load will reduce slightly. At this point the steel in the crack will be
stressed but concrete adjacent to the crack will not be loaded. At some distance so from
the crack the concrete will be under a stress similar (but slightly lower) than before the
crack formed. Further deformation will result in the loads increasing and a second crack
forming at the next weakest point along the member. Again the cycle is repeated.
Stresses reduce everywhere as the crack widens, concrete adjacent to the crack is un
stressed whilst at a distance so from the crack stresses are similar (but slightly lower) than
before the second crack. This will continue until there are cracks spaced at about 2so
along the element at which point all extension of the element will be accommodated by
the steel in the crack.
These two situations are illustrated graphically. Of interest is that load induced cracks
are likely to be wider than strain induced defects.

Load
Increasing load
Load deformation
for steel
Load control
Deformation
Load
Increasing strain
Load deformation
for steel
Displacement control
Deformation

Calculation of crack widths.
s0 s0
With the formation of the first crack the stresses in the concrete are influenced to a
distance s0 from the crack. If εsm is the average strain in the reinforcement over this
length, then assuming all deformation s0 either side of the crack is accommodated in the
crack, then the crack width W = 2s0εsm.
When all cracks have developed :-
Wm  S rm sm
Where :-
Wm is the average crack width

Srm – is the average crack spacing
εsm is the average strain in the reinforcement.
The code alters this equation to :-
Wk  S r ,max ( sm   cm )
Where :-
Wk is the characteristic crack width,

Sr,max is the maximum crack spacing. Determined using an empirical formulae.
εcm is the average strain in the concrete.
Determining Sr,max.
sr,max = 3.4c + 0.425k1k2φ /ρp,eff
where:
φ is the bar diameter. Where a mixture of bar diameters is used in a section, an
equivalent diameter, φeq, should be used. For a section with n1 bars of diameter φ1
and n2 bars of diameter φ2, the following expression should be used

n112  n2 22
 eq 
n11  n2 2
c is the cover to the longitudinal reinforcement
k1 is a coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bonded

reinforcement:
= 0,8 for high bond bars,
= 1,6 for bars with an effectively plain surface (e.g. prestressing tendons)
k2 is a coefficient which takes account of the distribution of strain:

= 0,5 for bending
= 1,0 for pure tension.
For cases of eccentric tension or for local areas, intermediate values of k2 should be used
which may be calculated from the relation:
k2 = (ε1 + ε2)/2ε1.
Where ε1 is the greater and ε2 is the lesser tensile strain at the boundaries of the section
considered, assessed on the basis of a cracked section.
ρp,eff is the effective reinforcement ratio = As/Ac,eff

As is the area of reinforcemet contained within the effective tension area, Ac,eff. Ac,eff is
the area either side of the tension reinforcement and in practical terms taken to be of
depth 2.5(h-d) and positioned symmetrically around the tension reinforcement.
A maximum crack spacing, sr ,max  1.3(h  x) must not be exceeded.
Determining (εsm – εcm)
To obtain εsm – εcm the code recommends use of the following equation :-
 f ct ,eff 
( sm   cm ) E s   s  k t  (1   e  p ,eff )  0.6 s
 
 p ,eff 
Where :-
σs is the stress in the tension steel calculated using a cracked section.

kt is a coefficient taking account of the duration of loading, sustained loading reduces
bond effectiveness. kt = 0.6 for short term loading, = 0.4 for long term loading.
fct,eff is mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete when the first cracks may be
expected. This is set at fctm unless cracking is anticipated before 28 days.
ρp,eff is effective reinforcement ratio = As/Ac,eff.
As is the area of reinforcement contained within the effective tension area Ac,eff
αe is the modular ratio = Es/Ec.

Creep, Shrinkage and thermal strains – Their impact on deflection, cracking and
stresses.
Creep effects.
Creep is continuous deformation under sustained loads. It occurs with many materials
but particularly with concrete. Creep effects can last for many years but in most design
situations they are considered to be over after 30 years.
Deformation Elastic
recovery
Creep
Creep
recovery
Initial elastic deformation
30 years Age (years)

Creep depends on :-
1. Age and strength when load is first applied.
2. Composition of the concrete particularly how much cement paste there is.
3. Ratio of applied load to strength of section.
4. Duration of load.
5. Relative humidity of the surrounding air.
6. Aspect ratio of the cross section.
Creep, in serviceability calculations, is defined in terms of the creep coefficient. This is

defined as the ratio of creep to the initial elastic deformation.
If concrete is first loaded at time to and is currently of age t, then the creep coefficient
φ(t,to) is determined in accordance with clause 3.1.4 (2) of EC2 which in turn refers to
Figure 3.1 (attached). How to use the charts will become evident through the examples.
Annex B1 of the code gives formulae if more accuracy is needed.
The importance of the creep coefficient in serviceability calculations is that it is related to

what is termed the effective modulus of concrete Ec,t. This is the modulus of concrete at
time t, presumably the time we are interested in it.
Ec ,t 0
Ec ,t 
1   (t , t0 )

The creep coefficient gives the deformation of the concrete at a particular age as a
multiple of initial elastic deformation, information which is significant in situations of
high creep

Shrinkage.
Shrinkage or drying shrinkage as it is sometimes called, occurs when the water in the gel
pores of the concrete evaporates and the remaining concrete shrinks. The process is
partly reversible and cyclic but the amount of shrinkage and expansion reduces with
increased cycles of wetting and drying. As with creep, shrinkage affects deformation,
cracking and the stresses in concrete.
Shrinkage depends on
1. Relative humidity of the surrounding concrete.
2. Aspect ratio of the section.
3. Composition of the concrete. The more cement paste there is the more prone to
shrinkage concrete is.
Free shrinkage strain εcs.
If concrete is allowed to shrink freely, there will be no additional stresses in the concrete
Concrete as cast
Plain concrete after

unrestrained shrinkage
Free shrinkage εcs

Plain concrete unrestrained.
With the addition of reinforcement, the shrinkage will reduce. If there are no external
restraints, then the concrete will be restrained from shrinking freely by the reinforcement
and end up under a tensile strain εct whilst the steel will be put into compression due to
the shrinking concrete and end up under a compressive strain εsc.
εct
εsc
Reinforced concrete - unrestrained
Equating forces and strains and with some manipulation of equations gives :
 cs   ct   sc
f ct f
 cs   sc
E c.ef Es
Ac f ct  As f sc

Where :-
αe is the modular ratio = Es/Ec.ef and
Ec,ef is the effective modulus of the concrete.
Es is the modulus of the steel.
Hence :-
A
f ct  s f sc
Ac
 cs E s
f sc 
As
1 e
Ac
Example. For a fully restrained concrete member, fctm is 3.2MPa and Ec,ef = 16GPa, what
is the minimum value of the free shrinkage strain for the concrete to crack?
3.2
 cs   0.0002
16 x10 3
When a member is fully restrained, then εsc = 0 and the tensile strain induced in the
concrete εct will equal the free shrinkage strain εcs:- (εct = εcs)
Reinforced concrete
fully restrained. εct
The tensile stress in the concrete fct will probably be sufficient to cause cracking unlike in
an unrestrained member where the tensile stresses are much lower.
f ct   ct Ec   cs Ec Note. εcs = εct + εsc but εsc = 0.0
Total shrinkage strain.
Besides drying shrinkage, concrete undergoes what is termed autogenous shrinkage.

Hence the total shrinkage strain εcs = εcd + εca
Where :-
εcs – Total concrete shrinkage strain
εcd – Total drying shrinkage in concrete
εca – Total autogenous shrinkage strain

Drying shrinkage in accordance with EC2 and at time ∞ = εcd(∞) = khεcd,o
kh is a coefficient which depends on the notional size of the cross section., ho = (2Ac/u)
as indicated in the following table.
Ac – cross section of concrete element

u – perimeter exposed to drying.
ho (mm) kh
100 1.0
200 0.85
300 0.75
≥500 0.70
Values of εcd,o within about 30% are determined from the following table :-
Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage strains εcd,o for concrete

Concrete Relative humidity (%)
grade
20 40 60 80 90 100
C20/25 0.00064 0.00060 0.00050 0.00031 0.00017 0
C40/50 0.00051 0.00048 0.00040 0.00025 0.00014 0
C60/75 0.00041 0.00038 0.00032 0.00020 0.00011 0
C80/90 0.00033 0.00031 0.00026 0.00016 0.00009 0
C90/105 0.00030 0.00028 0.00023 0.00015 0.00005 0
Use linear interpolation for intermediate values
Autogenous shrinkage at time ∞ :-
 ca ()  2.5( f ck  10) x10 6
The code also provides expressions to determine the drying and autogenous shrinkage at
intermediate times.

Thermal strains.
Hydration of concrete while setting generates heat which causes expansion. The heat
generation occurs mainly in the first week or 10 days of the concrete’s life and then
decreases. With age the heat generated in the concrete dissipates and the material
contracts. This creates thermal strains. Obviously thermal strains due to hydration are
unlikely to be important after 28 days although with very large pours of concrete this
period can be exceeded. Movement due to thermal change depends on the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the concrete (αc) and reinforcing steel (αs), and will influence
cracking stresses in the concrete and deformations.
1. Differential movement between concrete and reinforcing steel.
The movement between steel and concrete in terms of temperature change is :-
Movement = T(αc - αs).
Where :-
T represents the change in temperature over which the movement is recorded,
αc - coefficient of thermal expansion of the concrete [8 – 12 x 10-6 per oC]
αs – coefficient of thermal expansion of steel. [10 x 10-6 per oC]
As the two coefficients are similar there will be little movement relative to each other.
The thermal strain is added to the shrinkage strain if significant.
2. Overall movement of the concrete.
This is significant and often leads to the first crack in a restrained member. Temperature
drops over night are sufficient to cause cracking.
Example. If αc = αs = 10 x 10-6 per oC, fctm = 2.5MPa and Ec = 20GPa, what is the
minimum temperature drop to cause cracking in a restrained element?
2.5
 ct   0.000125
20 x10 3
 ct 125 x10 6
Tdrop    12.5 o C
c 10 x10 6

Examples.
1. An exposed internal rectangular beam is 600 x 300 and has a concrete strength of
C20/25. If the cement is rapid hardening, and the age at loading is 20 days,
estimate the final creep coefficient φ(∞,to).
ho = 2Ac/u = 2(300 x 600)/(1800) = 200
Using the charts, φ(∞,to) = 2.9. This means the deformations due to creep will be 2.9
times those due to initial elastic loads.
1 5
2. A rectangular section of class C34/45 has b = 300, d = 450 and h = 500mm and As
= 2400mm2. What is the stress in the reinforcement in MPa and the cracking
moment in kNm when the concrete reaches its mean tensile strength fctm?
Concrete properties ; - These are determined from Table 3.1.

The analysis uses the uncracked section.
Ecm = 34GPa and fctm = 3.2MPa. Also Es = 200GPa.
Hence αe = 200/34 = 5.8824
ρg =As/Ac = 2400/(400 x 500) = 0.012
0.5  500  4.8824  0.012  450

So x   261.1
1  4.8824  0.012
[uncracked analysis equation (3a)]
At initial cracking, fct = fctm

Therefore,
dx 188.9
f s   e f ctm  5.8824  3.2  14.9MPa
hx 238.9
[uncracked analysis eqn (8)]
Taking moments about Fcc :
M cr  As f s (d  x / 3)  b0.5(h  x) f ctm (2h / 3)

[uncracked analysis eqn (2)]
M cr  2400  14.9  363  400  0.5  238.9  3.2  333.33  63.9kNm
3. A rectangular section of strength class C40/50 has b= 350, d = 400mm and As =

2900mm2. What is the moment of resistance of the section when the stress in the
steel is 350MPa?
Concrete properties ; - These are determined from Table 3.1.

The analysis uses the cracked section.
Ecm = 35GPa and fctm = 3.5MPa. Also Es = 200GPa.
Hence αe = 200/35 = 5.714
ρ = 2900/(350 x 400) = 0.0207
At a steel stress of 350MPa the concrete will be cracked,

x
 ( e  (2   e  )) 0.5   e 
d
[cracked analysis eq (3a)]
x
Thus  5.714  0.0207  (2  5.714  0.0207)) 0.5  5.714  0.0207  153mm
d
Taking moments about Fcc
x
M r  As f s (d  )  2900  350  349  354.3kNm
3
[cracked analysis equation (2)]

Deflections - Rigorous calculation procedures.
Determining deflections accurately is very difficult because :-
1. The restraint provided by a support can only be estimated.

2. Precise loading and duration can only be estimated.
3. Actual values of material properties are not known.
4. The stiffening effect of non-structural members is difficult to assess and is
generally ignored. Its effect can be significant.
Calculating deflections.
Deflections in beams can be determined using the curvatures of the section by double
integration, and using the boundary conditions to solve for the constants.
Rigorous methods of calculation enable the curvature to be determined at many locations

along the beam and to account for where cracks are likely to develop first. The procedure
is straight forward for statically determinate elements but for indeterminate elements an
iterative process is used and which could be adapted to spreadsheets. Member curvatures
are derived from bending moments and section properties and used to calculate
deflections by integrating twice.
L
x
dx
P
m n
ds
y
r
dθ
d2y M
From elastic bending theory,  for small deflections. If M can be expressed in
dx 2 EI
terms of x, and then if the expression is integrated twice using the boundary conditions to
determine the constants, y can be found. M=P(L-x)
EI d 2 y
 ( L  x)
P dx 2
First integration
EI dy x2
 Lx   C1
P dx 2

When x = 0, dy/dx = 0 so C1 = 0
Second integration:
EI x3
y  Lx 2 / 2   C2
P 6
When x = 0, y = 0 so C2 = 0.
Px 2
Therefore, y  (3L  x)
6 EI
If moments cannot be expressed in terms of x, then the deflections can be found by

numerical integration of the curvatures at regular intervals along the beam using the
trapezoidal rule.
Practical situations.
Most curvatures (and deflections) are not determined accurately but are controlled by
limiting the span/effective depth ratios. Tables to undertake this are provided in the code
but the rationale behind it is now explained.
Span : effective depth ratios.
For an elastic material, the curvature is related to the bending moments via :
1 M
 (1)
r EI
In addition to flexure, shrinkage can also cause curvature and should be included.
Further, in buildings a stable curvature will be attained under “quasi permanent”
combinations of load, the loading having been on the structure for a long time. Under
these situations, the creep effects need to be included and this is achieved using the
effective concrete modulus, Ec,eff which can be found if the creep coefficient is known.
Ecm
Ec ,eff 
1   (, t o )
In equation (1) M is known, Ec,eff (or Ec) known so only I remains to be found. This is a
simple problem if the section is either cracked or uncracked but there are situations in
between when cracking has commenced and the cracked concrete still contributes to the
section stiffness - that is difficult to analyse. Here the partially cracked state and some
empiricism is included.

Total curvature
1 1 1

rtot  r rcs
1/rtot is the total curvature in the beam.

1/r is the curvature due to bending and
1/rcs is the curvature due to shrinkage.
Code method of determining curvature.
When cracks occur in a beam there will be a different curvature where the beam is
cracked to where it is intact. The code procedure is to determine the cracking moment
Mcr = (fctm I)/y and if Mcr > M (design moment) then a curvature 1/rm (1/rmean) based on an
average of cracked and uncracked curvatures is used, otherwise 1/run (1/runcracked) is used.
Where :-
Mcr – cracking moment of the concrete
fctm – meam tensile stress in concrete.
M – design moment under serviceability loading.
1/rm – mean curvature over a length of beam, part of which is cracked, part intact
1/run – curvature of uncracked beam.
The curvature of an uncracked section is:-

1 M

run EI
Where : -
E is the modulus of concrete given as Ec,eff (see above)
I – Second moment of area of an uncracked section.
The curvature of a cracked part of the beam is :-
1  1 1
   (1   ) (1)
rm s rcr run
Where :-
θ – rotation of the beam over the length in question.
δ – a distribution coefficient. This portions the curvature between the cracked and
uncracked parts of the beam.
S – crack spacing
1/rcr – mean curvature over a cracked length of beam

The distribution coefficient ζ.
2
 
  1    sr 
 s 
Where :-
β – A coefficient to take accounto of the form of loading the beam suffers from.
Sustained long term loading reduces the effectiveness of the loading on the beam
β = 1 single short term loading.
β = 0.5 sustained or repesated loads. Use discretion for intermediate cases.
σsr – stress in tension steel determined when a section has or is on the point of cracking
σs – stress in the steel when the section is fully cracked.
The distribution coefficient has been developed as a tool to distribute curvatures between
the cracked and uncracked sections of the beam. It is equally valid if used to apportion
moments or shears provided these are caused predominantly through flexure.
2
M 
Hence,   1    cr 
 M 
And again for the uncracked condition, δ = 0.

I Uncracked.
Consider a doubly reinforced section as shown :
Depth of neutral axis x :
( Ax )
x
A
Taking moments about top of equivalent concrete section and knowing αe = Es/Ec
d2
As2 x
Neutral
d
h axis
As Figure 1
Uncracked section
bh0.5h  ( e  1) As d  ( e  1) As 2 d 2
x
bh  ( e  1) As  ( e  1) As 2
Iun – Second moment of area uncracked.
bh3
I un   bh( x  0.5h) 2  ( e  1) As (d  x) 2  ( e  1) As 2 ( x  d 2 ) 2
12
In a similar manner Icr (I cracked) can be computed.
Again, consider a doubly reinforced section as shown :
Depth of neutral axis x :
( Ax )
x
A
Taking moments about top of equivalent concrete section and knowing αe = Es/Ec

d2
As2 x
Neutral
d
h axis
Figure 2
As Cracked section
bh0.5h   e As d  ( e  1) As 2 d 2
x
bh   e As  ( e  1) As 2

Icr – Second moment of area cracked.
bx3
I cr   bx(0.5 x) 2   e As (d  x) 2  ( e  1) As 2 ( x  d 2 ) 2
12
Curvature due to shrinkage.
When an uncracked section is symmetrically reinforced, no overall curvature exists, but

when the beam has non-symmetrical reinforcement, curvatures are induced which can be
significant and should be included.
Consider a member which shrinks by the free shrinkage, εcs,
Centroid
Neutral
y axis
As
Compressive stress in reinforcement = εcs Es
Force in reinforcement = As εcs Es
When the member is released,
Moment about centroid = As εcs Es y
Curvature = 1/rcs = M/EI = (As εcs Es y)/Ec,eff I
Using αe = Es/Ec,eff and S = Asy,
Curvature = (εcs αe S)/I

Curvature in cracked sections.
The method in the code is speculative but considered reasonable.
1. Calculate S for cracked and uncracked sections.

2. Use the distribution equation.
1 (1   ) 
 
rcs rcsun rcsc r
Using Figures 1 and 2 above,
Sun = As(d-x)-As2(x-d2)
1  cs e S un

rcsun I un
Scr = As(d-x)-As2(x-d2)
1  cs e S cr

rcsc r I cr

Self assessment questions.
1. A rectangular section, of strength class C30/37 has b = 350mm, d = 500mm, h =

550mm, As = 2300mm2, M = 225kNm. What is the tensile strain in the steel and
the maximum concrete compressive strain?
2. A beam of class C30/37 concrete is fully restrained. The creep coefficient φ = 2.
What value of free shrinkage strain will cause the beam to crack?
3. A continuous beam has a span of 9m with uniform load, equal support moments
of 300kNm and a span moment of 250kNm. If the total curvature at the
maximum span is 2.9 x 10-6 rad/mm, what is the deflection?
Learning outcomes.
At the end of this unit you should be conversant with :
 The three serviceability criteria of stress limitation, controlling deflections and

limiting crack widths.
 Simple code rules to limit stress and control deflection and crack widths.
 Stress and strain diagrams for cracked and uncracked sections at serviceability
loads.
 Simple calculation procedures to determine deflection.
 Calculation procedures to determine crack widths.
 The impact of creep, shrinkage, and thermal strains on deflection, cracking and
stresses.
 Rigorous calculation procedures to determine deflections

Engm041 Unit 10

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Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey

Unit 10 - Serviceability conditions for reinforced concrete.

(Study time allocation – 15 hours)

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.1

Serviceability limit states and EC2.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.2

PART 1 – CODE RULES

Stress limitations – Code requirements.

7.2 Stress limitation

Controlling deflections - code rules.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.3

2. The deflections after construction should not exceed span/500.

A simple way of overcoming deflection problems is to provide a camber to the formwork

Deflection calculations are often inaccurate and deflection is usually controlled by

In a rigorous experimental analysis, span to effective depth ratios for a range of

 span   span  f yk1

The code requirements.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.4

 K 11  1.5 f ck  3.2 f ck   1  for    o (7.16a)

K is a factor for the type of structural system. See table NA.5

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.5

Controlling crack widths – code requirements.

In most common design situations, it is more common to control cracking indirectly by

For completeness, the entire code requirement is included followed by an explanation of

7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.6

cnom = 25mm, fct,eff (=fctm) = 2.9MPa

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.7

Concrete Centre Advice.

In order to limit crack widths to acceptable levels,

Deflection Check – Example.

Span/effective depth ratio method.

This basic L/d should be multiplied by the following factors :

F2 = Flanges sector factor = 1.0 (no flange)

Another example is in the presentations.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.8

PART 2 – SERVICEABILITY LIMITS BY CALCULATION.

Stress checks – by calculation.

Stress and strain diagrams for a cracked and uncracked concrete

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.9

For equilibrium, Fc = Fct + Fs

0.5bxf cc  0.5b(h  x) f ct  As f s (1)

Taking moments about Fc : M = Fct zct + Fs zs

M  0.5b(h  x) f ct (2h / 3)  As f s (d  x / 3) (2)

Transform the steel to concrete.

Transformed steel area = AsEs/Ec = αeAs where αe is the modular ratio

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.10

From the geometry of the strain diagram :-

Therefore as stress = E times strain.

Cracked section analysis.

Transform the steel to concrete.

Transformed steel area = AsEs/Ec = αeAs where αe is the modular ratio

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.11

From the geometry of the strain diagram :-

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.12

Controlling deflection – Calculation procedure I.

Complex calculations involving numerical integration are given later, however,

At x, M : 0.5wLx – 0.5wx2 and at mid span M = wL2/8

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.13

Values of k for typical bending moment diagrams

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.14

Controlling cracks – calculation procedures and background.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Civil, Bridge & Structural Engineering Page ENGM041.10.15

Cracking due to direct loading and imposed deformations.