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Wastewater production, treatment, and

irrigation in Middle East and North Africa

Article in Irrigation and Drainage Systems · June 2009

DOI: 10.1007/s10795-009-9081-y

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ISSN 0168-6291, Volume 24, Combined 1-2

This article was published in the above mentioned Springer issue.

The material, including all portions thereof, is protected by copyright;
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Irrig Drainage Syst (2010) 24:37–51 Author's personal copy
DOI 10.1007/s10795-009-9081-y

Wastewater production, treatment, and irrigation

in Middle East and North Africa

Manzoor Qadir & Akissa Bahri & Toshio Sato &

Esmat Al-Karadsheh

Published online: 17 November 2009

# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2009

Abstract The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is the driest region of the
world with only 1% of the world’s freshwater resources. The increasing competition for
good-quality water has cut into agriculture’s water share but since the use of freshwater for
domestic, industrial and municipal activities generates wastewater, the volume of
wastewater used in agriculture has increased. About 43% of wastewater generated in the
MENA region is treated; a relatively high percentage compared to other developing-country
dominated regions. This is because of the perceived importance of wastewater as a water
resource and several oil-rich countries with the resources to treat wastewater. The MENA
region has an opportunity for beneficial reuse of wastewater but few countries in the region
have been able to implement substantial wastewater treatment and reuse programs. The
major constraints leading to seemingly slow and uneven reuse of wastewater are:
inadequate information on the status of reuse or disposal of wastewater and associated
environmental and health impacts; incomplete economic analysis of the wastewater
treatment and reuse options, usually restricted to financial feasibility analysis; high costs
and low returns of developing wastewater collection networks and wastewater treatment
plants; lack of wastewater treatment and reuse cost-recovery mechanisms and lack of

M. Qadir (*) : T. Sato

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), P.O. Box 5466,
Aleppo, Syria
e-mail: m.qadir@cgiar.org

M. Qadir
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka

A. Bahri
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Africa Office, PMB CT 112, Cantonments,
Accra, Ghana

T. Sato
Laboratory of Environmental Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan

E. Al-Karadsheh
National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension (NCARE), Baqa 19381, Jordan
38 Author's personal copy

commitment to support comprehensive wastewater treatment programs; mismatch between

water pricing and regional water scarcity; preference for freshwater over wastewater; and
inefficient irrigation and water management schemes undermining the potential of
wastewater reuse. However, some countries such as Tunisia, Jordan, and Israel have
policies in place that address wastewater treatment through a range of instruments.
Policymakers in these countries consider use of treated wastewater to be an essential aspect
of strategic water and wastewater planning and management. With flexible policy
frameworks addressing rapid demographic changes and increasing water scarcity in the
MENA region, water reuse has great potential if integrated with resource planning,
environmental management and financing arrangements.

Keywords Water reuse . Wastewater reclamation . MENA region . Water scarcity .

Water quality

Introduction

Most of the MENA region falls under arid and semiarid climatic conditions. The region ran
out of renewable freshwater decades ago in the sense that it has been unable to meet its
food requirements from the freshwater resources available within its boundaries (Allan
2001). The MENA region has 6% of the existing global population, but only 1% of the
world’s freshwater resources (Allan 2001; Qadir et al. 2007a). The countries in the region
depend on seasonal rainfall, have very few rivers, some of which carry runoff from other
countries, and often rely on fragile, and sometimes non-renewable, aquifers. Consequently,
their economies are much more sensitive to the way that water is extracted, conveyed, and
consumed than are the economies of other regions (Jagannathan et al. 2009).
Agriculture is the dominant user of water in the MENA region. The increasing
competition for good-quality water among different water-use sectors in the MENA region
countries has decreased freshwater allocation to agriculture (Bahri 2008a). The water taken
away from agriculture is diverted to non-agricultural uses. The volume of wastewater
produced in the region by these uses has increased with population, urbanization, improved
living conditions, and economic development, and is expected to continue increasing in the
foreseeable future.
With the increase in wastewater generation, its productive use in agriculture has
increased, often because farmers have no alternative sources of reliable irrigation water
(Qadir et al. 2007b; Jiménez and Asano 2008; Lazarova and Bahri 2008; Keraita et al.
2008). There is limited information available on the extent of wastewater resources that
could potentially be exploited in water scarce MENA region countries. Even in cases where
data are available, there are large differences in the qualitative and quantitative assessment
of these resources because of the different criteria used (Jiménez 2006; Qadir et al. 2007b).
In addition, information on the productivity potential of wastewater, and its impacts on the
environment, social and economic conditions of the dependent farming communities, is
limited.
While irrigation with treated wastewater needs to be a common practice in MENA
countries, larger amounts of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater are currently used
in agriculture, thereby raising concerns for the protection of public health and the
environment. This paper reviews water availability, water use and wastewater production,
treatment, and use as an irrigation source in agricultural production systems in the MENA
region. It addresses the constraints to wastewater reuse and showcases examples where
 Author's personal copy 39

planning, policies, guidelines, and financial arrangements exist to collect, treat, and
promote the reuse of treated wastewater.

The MENA region and countries

In terms of geographical dimensions, MENA has no standardized definition and there are
several classifications in terms of grouping countries for MENA region.1 The region is
diverse in terms of physical and environmental conditions, institutional settings, and
population distribution in rural and urban areas, among others. Despite several oil-rich
economies within the region, about 20% of the population lives on less than US$ 2 a day
(World Bank 2006).

Water availability in the MENA region

In order to achieve adequate living standards equivalent to those seen in western and
industrialized countries, annual renewable water resources (ARWR) of at least 2,000 m3/capita
are required, while a country with ARWR of 1,000–2,000 m3/capita may suffer occasional or
local water shortages (Bouwer 2002). With 1,000 m3/capita as the critical value (Falkenmark
and Lindh 1993), countries with less than this will suffer serious water shortages that could
impact on economic development, and human health and well-being. Generally known as the
‘Falkenmark Indicator’, this is the most widely used water scarcity index. It is based on an
approximate minimum level of water required per capita to maintain an adequate quality of
life in a moderately developed country. With ARWR less than 500 m3/capita, a country is
likely to experience ‘absolute water scarcity’.
Estimates and projections of country-based populations and ARWR reveal that most
MENA countries will have ARWR of less than 1,000 m3/capita by the year 2025 (Fig. 1).
At present only three countries (Iraq, Iran, and Lebanon) have ARWR of more than
1,000 m3/capita. Several countries such as Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates, and Yemen have ARWR of less than 100 m3/capita. In 1975, the MENA region
had an average ARWR of 1,325 m3/capita but it has declined to 525 m3/capita, and is
expected to decline further to 414 m3 per capita in 2025.
The recent evaluations and reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC 2007) for MENA region anticipate declining precipitation (−10% to −25%);
declining soil moisture (−5% to −10%), declining runoff (−10% to −40%), and increasing
evaporation (+5% to +20%). In addition, there are no opportunities of developing additional
water resources. These trends also suggest interrelated implications that higher temperatures
will lead to greater evaporation from surface water storage reservoirs and losses in soil
moisture; higher evapotranspiration rates in vegetated areas leading to decrease runoff and
groundwater recharge rates; and increased crop water requirements in agriculture (Trenberth
et al. 2003). These changes are expected to create a new and more difficult context for
water management in MENA region countries, which depend on seasonal rainfall, have few
rivers and often rely on fragile aquifers. Consequently, their economies are sensitive to the
way water is extracted, conveyed, and consumed.

1
This paper discusses Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Morocco, Oman, Palestinian territories of Gaza and West Bank (later referred to as Palestine), Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen
40 Author's personal copy

Yemen

UAE

Tunisia

Syria

Saudi Arabia

Qatar
2025
Palestline

Oman 2009

Morocco
1975
Libya

Lebanon

Kuwait

Jordan

Iraq

Iran

Egypt

Bahrain

Algeria

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000

ARWR (m3 /capita)

Fig. 1 Annual renewable water resources (ARWR) in the MENA region countries (Based on water
resources data from FAO available at http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm and population
data from WRI available at http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/population-health/country-profiles.html)

Water use in the MENA region

Agriculture is the dominant user of water in most MENA region countries. On the average,
86% of the water withdrawn for different water-use sectors is used in crop production
systems. The water use in household activities forms 8%, while the share of industrial
sector is 6%. Of the total annual volume of water used in the region for these three sectors
(308.7 km3), agriculture uses 264.4 km3, followed by domestic sector (26.2 km3) and
industries (18.2 km3).
Most MENA region countries are agrarian although tourism and oil production are also
important in many countries. Consequently, there are large differences between these
countries in terms of water use in agricultural, domestic, and industrial sectors; for example,
 Author's personal copy 41

Bahrain uses 29% of its total renewable water for agriculture. Other countries using
relatively less water than the MENA average in agriculture are Israel (58%), Qatar (59%),
Lebanon (60%), and Jordan (65%). Iran (92%), Egypt (86%) and Iraq (79%) are the top
three countries in terms of percentage of water use in agriculture.

Wastewater production, treatment, and irrigation in the MENA region

As the pressure placed on freshwater resources in water-deficient MENA region countries

will further increase, so will the need to conserve and use available freshwater resources
more efficiently. In addition, these countries will have to increasingly rely on the use of
marginal-quality water resources in crop production systems to partly alleviate water
scarcity. Wastewater generated by domestic, industrial and municipal activities is an
important category of marginal-quality water resources. Collection, treatment, and use of
treated wastewater for irrigation can play an increasingly important role in crop production
systems in MENA region.
Based on the estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO-AQUASTAT 2009) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA
2004), the volume of wastewater generated by the domestic and industrial sectors in MENA
region is 13.2 km3/yr, of which 5.7 km3 undergo treatment (Fig. 2). These numbers suggest
that on the average 43% of the wastewater generated in MENA region is treated, which is
higher than Asia (35%), Latin American/Caribbean (14%) and Africa (1%) (WHO/UNICEF
2000), because even though many of the countries in the MENA region are considered to
be developing economies, the oil-rich MENA countries have the resources and the
wastewater treatment plants.
The terminology ‘treated wastewater’ does not represent the reality in the MENA region.
The reasons are that the efficiency of the wastewater treatment processes is highly variable
and many wastewater treatment plants have design limitations to treat the mix domestic-
industrial wastewater, which is usually the most prevalent form of wastewater that reaches
the wastewater treatment plants. Besides, with the increase in urban population and
discharge of greater volumes of wastewater, the wastewater treatment plants don’t have the

Fig. 2 Volume of wastewater

produced, disposed of or used
for irrigation in the MENA region Treated wastewater used 4.73
(Based on the data from
FAO-AQUASTAT 2009;
USEPA 2004) Wastewater treated 5.71

Wastewater untreated 7.53

Wastewater produced 13.24

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Wastewater volume (km3 /year)
42 Author's personal copy

capacity to handle such large volumes of wastewater. In some treatment plants, the retention
times for wastewater treatment have become too short to be effective.
The annual volume of wastewater discharged in untreated form in MENA countries is
7.5 km3, which is 57% of the total wastewater produced in the region. In addition to about
83% of treated wastewater used in agriculture, most of the partly treated, diluted or
untreated wastewater is used by urban and peri-urban farmers to grow a range of crops.
The information on the provision of sewerage rate and treatment level in urban and rural
areas and treatment rate of wastewater collected reveals large differences between countries
of the MENA region (Table 1). In addition, the countries also use a range of wastewater
treatment options. For example, all the wastewater collected in Bahrain is treated by
activated sludge and tertiary treatment processes, while less than 10% of the wastewater
collected in Iran, Lebanon, Morocco, and Libya undergoes treatment. In case of Djibouti,
although small amounts of wastewater are produced, there is no wastewater treatment. In
certain cases, such as Iran, there is a lack of information on the type(s) of wastewater
treatment used, while there is no information available on the status of sewerage rate in
urban and rural areas as well as on the treatment of the wastewater collected from different
water-use sectors.
The cumulative amount of water used annually in the MENA region in the domestic and
industrial sectors (44.4 km3) and the volume of wastewater produced (13.2 km3) reveal that
about 30% returns to the system as wastewater. The factors for this low percentage return
may be under-reporting of the wastewater volume produced, lack of relevant data, or
evaporation or infiltration of the wastewater.

Constraints to wastewater treatment and reuse in the MENA region

Considering the acute problem of water scarcity and emerging problem of water quality
deterioration amid climate change events, the MENA region has an opportunity in terms of
planned beneficial reuse of wastewater. The rate of wastewater treatment is still low in many
MENA countries. Indeed, many wastewater treatment plants are plagued by poor operation and
maintenance and are operated well beyond their design capacity. These conditions eventually
question wastewater treatment reliability and reclaimed water reuse possibilities. In addition,
the regulations prohibiting the agricultural use of untreated or partly treated wastewater exist,
but their implementation remains a challenge (Qadir et al. 2007a; Bahri 2008b).
The major constraints leading to seemingly slow and uneven reuse of wastewater in
MENA countries can be grouped into:

& Inadequate information on the status of reuse and/or disposal of different forms of
wastewater and associated environmental and health impacts;
& Incomplete economic analysis of the wastewater treatment and reuse options, usually
restricted to financial feasibility analysis;
& Perceived high cost of developing wastewater collection networks and wastewater
treatment plants and low returns;
& Lack of wastewater treatment and reuse cost-recovery mechanisms including commitment
in most countries to support comprehensive wastewater treatment programs;
& Mismatch between water pricing and regional water scarcity;
& Preference for freshwater over wastewater; and
& Overall inefficient irrigation and water management schemes undermining the potential
of water reuse.
 Author's personal copy 43

Table 1 Sewerage provision in urban and rural areas and wastewater treatment rate in Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) region countries (Based on the data and information from Kfouri et al. 2009;
information updated where possible)

Country Sewerage rate (%) Wastewater treatment Wastewater treatment type and description
rate (% collected)
Urban Overall

Algeria 78–85 65 73 Secondary: Mostly lagoons

Bahrain 70–77 NAa 100 Secondary and tertiary: Activated sludge,
some tertiary
Djibouti 5 4 0 None
Egypt 68 42 79 Primary(19%) and secondary: Activated sludge,
ponds, trickling filters
Iran 17–20 11 4 NA
Iraq NA NA NA NA
Israel NA 92–95 79 Ponds, activated sludge process with
nitrification-denitrification followed by soil
aquifer treatment
Jordan 70 50 88 Secondary and tertiary: Lagoons and activated
sludge; overloading frequent
Kuwait NA 85 87 Tertiary and advanced
Lebanon NA 40 2 Secondary: Planning treatment and reuse around
Beirut and Ba’albeck treatment plant (tertiary)
Libya 54 54 7 Secondary and tertiary
Morocco 70 40 6–8 Secondary: Raw sewage mostly discharged
to sea and other surface water bodies
Oman 90 81 13 Secondary (activated sludge or aerated ponds)
followed by and tertiary
Palestine 25 23 34–54 Primary and secondary: ponds; frequent
overloading
Qatar NA 80 NA Secondary and tertiary
Saudi Arabia 45 37 75 Secondary (activated sludge or aerated ponds)
followed by and tertiary
Syria 96 71 57–67 Secondary: Activated sludge; lagoons; Damascus
upgrade for reuse of tertiary-treated effluents
Tunisia 68 50 79 Secondary: Mostly activated sludge; ponds;
moving to tertiary
UAE 91 87 22 Tertiary moving to advanced
Yemen 40 12 62 Secondary: Ponds, frequent overloading
a
Data or information not available

Most countries of the MENA region are generally characterized by increased population
growth and urbanization, improved living conditions, and economic development; all are
drivers of increased volumes of wastewater emanating from the domestic and industrial
sectors. While these changes are rapid, there is inadequate information on the status of
reuse and/or disposal of different forms of wastewater (untreated, partly-treated, diluted,
and treated) and associated environmental and health impacts. Even in cases where such
information is available, there are large differences in the qualitative and quantitative
assessment of wastewater because of the different criteria used (Qadir et al. 2007b). The
44 Author's personal copy

inadequate information and weak institutional arrangements lead to a laissez-faire attitude

toward wastewater treatment and use, as authorities face more important challenges of
urbanization and poverty alleviation.
Although the economic impacts of reusing wastewater largely depend on the degree of
treatment and the nature of the water reuse options, economic assessments of wastewater
treatment and reuse options in the MENA region countries are usually restricted to financial
feasibility analysis (Kfouri et al. 2009). In fact, there are costs and benefits associated with
the specific wastewater treatment and reuse systems. There is a need to consider other
factors such as centralized and decentralized treatment options, levels of treatment (primary,
secondary, and tertiary), intended reuse options, wastewater collection and conveyance
infrastructure leading to wastewater treatment plant in locations where such infrastructure
does not exist, and transportation options for treated effluent to specific locations for
intended reuse. In addition, the opportunity cost of water reuse should be considered under
conditions where new uses and moving a given supply of water from one place to another
specific location are anticipated. In doing so, the economic analysis therefore needs to
consider the implications of wastewater distribution as well as certain restrictions on crop
choices based on the quality and quantity of reclaimed water in the anticipated reuse
projects.
The perceived high cost of establishing wastewater collection networks and treatment
plants capable of satisfactory wastewater treatment is another major constraint leading to
uncertainty in terms of adopting comprehensive wastewater treatment and reuse programs.
Wastewater treatment facilities and costs vary from location to location and are based on the
infrastructure needed, the quality of the wastewater collected and the anticipated quality of
the treated wastewater. Lee et al. (2001) estimate that the cost of wastewater treatment
ranges from 0.46 to 0.74 US$/m3, with an average of 0.53 US$/m3. The major components
of the cost based on these estimates in 2001 include: capital (0.10–0.16 US$/m3), operation
(0.25–0.40 US$/m3), maintenance (0.08–0.15 US$/m3), and miscellaneous (0.03 US$/m3).
There are differences in the approaches used to calculate the overall cost of wastewater
treatment. These range from only considering the cost of reclaimed water recycling
(additional treatment, storage, and distribution) to adjusting for other associated costs such
as that of the wastewater collection and treatment (Lazarova et al. 2001).
The lack of wastewater treatment cost-recovery mechanisms has led to low demand for
cost-based reclaimed water when compared with treated or untreated wastewater supplied
free of charge to the farmers. The reasons are that both farmers and households have
skepticism about the quality of the reclaimed water as they do not have access or means to
monitor and verify the quality of water they use. In addition, the availability of untreated
wastewater free of charge adds to the complexity of the whole issue and makes it difficult to
convince farmers to pay anything for reclaimed water that is not of high quality. For
example, despite low price charged to Tunisian farmers for reclaimed water (0.02 US$/m3)
compared to approximately four-fold higher conventional water supply costs (0.08 US$/m3),
the demand for reclaimed water was lower than other water supplies (Bahri 2000; Lahlou
2005; Kfouri et al. 2009).
The mismatch between water pricing and water scarcity is another important constraint
affecting the whole process of wastewater treatment in a region like MENA where water
pricing should also consider its scarcity value. This aspect has particular importance in the
agricultural sector. According to Kfouri et al. (2009), the price of freshwater delivered to
irrigators does not reflect even the cost of water supply. At best, some countries such as
Tunisia charge sufficient rates to cover operation and maintenance costs (Bucknall et al.
2007; Bazza and Ahmad 2002). In general, most MENA region countries do not charge or
 Author's personal copy 45

control groundwater abstractions other than the private cost of pumping and the permitting
process.
In general, the lack of commitment on the part of several governments to advocate and
support comprehensive wastewater treatment programs has led to the lack of understanding
among farmers and households about the perceived environmental benefits of wastewater
treatment and reuse of reclaimed water. Because of the collection and conveyance of
wastewater away from urban areas, households do not recognize the benefits of wastewater
treatment and reuse amid extreme water scarcity. The governments therefore find it easier to
collect fees for connection and wastewater service than for eventual treatment of
wastewater. In addition, they do not take into consideration regulatory and monitoring
costs. In most MENA region countries, irrigation and water management schemes are
inefficient and do not pay due attention to the potential of reclaimed water as a resource that
can be used for irrigation, environment conservation, and other purposes such as
groundwater recharge, municipal, recreational or industrial uses.

Opportunities for wastewater treatment and reuse in the MENA region

Despite these constraints, some countries such as Tunisia, Jordan, and Israel employ a range
of conventional and non-conventional systems and have national standards and regulations
for reuse. Although each country has taken a slightly different path, they also are similar in
important ways. Policymakers in Tunisia, Jordan, and Israel consider reuse of reclaimed
water as an essential aspect of strategic water and wastewater sector planning and
management.

Tunisia

Since the early 1980s, Tunisia has launched a nation-wide water reuse program to increase
the country’s usable water resources. Most municipal wastewater receives secondary
biological treatment (mostly activated sludge) and there is some tertiary treatment. Several
treatment plants are located along the coast to protect coastal resorts and prevent marine
pollution. Reusing reclaimed water for irrigation in Tunisia is viewed as a method to
increase water resources, provide supplemental nutrients, and enhance wastewater treatment
in a way that protects coastal areas, water resources, and water receiving bodies sensitive to
water quality. Restrictions for water reuse designed to protect public health have received
considerable attention in Tunisia and are in line with recommendations of the World Health
Organization.
Reclaimed water is used in Tunisia for agricultural irrigation of 8,100 ha including
vineyards, citrus, olives, peaches, pears, apples, pomegranates, alfalfa, sorghum, grain and
industrial crops. In addition, treated wastewater is used for landscape irrigation such as golf
courses (1,030 ha) and green areas (420 ha). The Tunisian regulations allow the use of
secondary treated effluent on all crops except vegetables, whether eaten raw or cooked.
Regional agricultural departments supervise the presidential decree on treated wastewater
reuse and collect charges from the farmers (about $ 0.02 m−3). The government is also
investigating through some pilot projects the use of treated wastewater for groundwater
recharge, irrigation of forests and highways, wetlands development and industrial use.
Of the 0.23 km3 of wastewater collected in 2003, 0.19 km3 received treatment (Qadir et
al. 2007a). Currently, the annual volume of treated wastewater in Tunisia stands at 0.24 km3
and is expected to reach 0.29 km3 by 2020 (Bahri 2009). At that point, the expected amount
46 Author's personal copy

of treated wastewater will be approximately equal to 18% of the available groundwater

resources and could be used where excessive groundwater mining is causing seawater
intrusion in coastal aquifers.
In general, there is a strong government support for wastewater reclamation and reuse
(Bahri and Brissaud 1996; Bahri et al. 2001). However, this support has yet to trigger its
widespread use. Irrigators continue to use groundwater even though large efforts have been
made to provide reclaimed water to them. There are a number of issues related to social
acceptance, regulations concerning crop choices, and other agronomic considerations that
affect these decisions. Farmers in the arid south have expressed their concerns about the
long-term impacts of saline wastewater on their crops and soils. In addition, farmers also
consider crop restrictions as an impediment as they can not grow high-value crops such as
vegetables with reclaimed water.
Considering these challenges, the Tunisian policymakers have started to pay greater
attention through better coordination and demand driven approaches to better plan
wastewater reclamation and irrigation with treated effluent in Tunisia. To bridge the gap
between the needs of different parties, ensure the achievement of development objects, and
preserve the human and natural environment, inter-departmental coordination and follow-
up commissions with representatives from the different ministries and their respective
departments or agencies, the municipalities and representatives of the water users’
associations have been set up at national and regional levels (Bahri 2008b).
A water reuse strategy considering reclaimed water as a water resource has been drafted.
Forthcoming projects aimed at meeting a real water demand—in quantity and quality—
should allow a higher utilization of reclaimed water primarily for agricultural purposes and
secondarily in other sectors. Although water reuse has steadily increased over time in
Tunisia, it is expected to gain wider acceptance in the future by upgrading the water quality
dimension and with widespread information and dissemination advocating reuse of
reclaimed water for productivity enhancement, water quality improvement, and environ-
ment and health protection.

Jordan

In terms of the use of reclaimed water in agriculture, Jordan is one of the countries where
relevant wastewater policy framework and institutional structure exist (McCornick et al.
2004; Pasch and Macy 2005). The wastewater policy of 1998 has three cornerstones: (1)
reclaimed water to be considered as a part of the water budget in the country with no
consideration of disposal; (2) water reuse to be planned on a basin scale; and (3) fees for
wastewater treatment may be collected from the water users (Nazzal et al. 2000). The
Jordanian wastewater policy of 1998 is unique and innovative in the MENA region.
Although the government has not achieved full success in implementing the policy, it
represents a different way of thinking about water reuse (Kfouri et al. 2009).
The country has implemented an aggressive campaign to rehabilitate and improve
wastewater treatment plants. In addition, enforceable standards have been introduced to
protect the health of fieldworkers and consumers. Considering the needs of a severely water
scarce country, these standards are regularly reassessed, with contributions from technical
experts and government agencies. In addition, Jordan has extensive research on water reuse
planning, as evidenced in master plans and general literature (Al-Jayyousi 1995;
McCornick et al. 2001; Grabow and McCornick 2007). The share of reclaimed water in
the total water supply in Jordan is about 10%. There are three categories of water reuse in
Jordan: (1) planned direct use within or adjacent to wastewater treatment plants; (2)
 Author's personal copy 47

unplanned reuse of reclaimed water in wadis; and (3) indirect reuse after mixing with
surface water supplies, which is mainly practiced in the Jordan Valley.
The planned direct use of reclaimed water is administrated by the authority responsible
for managing wastewater treatment plants, i.e. the Water Authority of Jordan, which has
special contracts with the farmers formalizing their rights to use reclaimed water directly. At
the policy level, the Jordanian National Wastewater Management Policy requires that the
reclaimed water supply prices cover at least oil and maintenance of the reclaimed water
delivery to the farmers (McCornick et al. 2001). However, reclaimed water supply prices do
not include costs incurred on wastewater collection and treatment. Other planned direct
reclaimed water users are some private enterprises and experimental pilot projects
cosponsored by the international donors. There is no alternative water supply besides
reclaimed water in most of these direct reuse projects.
Despite emphasis by the Jordanian government, the desired quality of reclaimed water
from the main treatment facility is not achieved consistently (Bazza 2003). Overloading of
the main wastewater treatment facility, Khirbet As-Samra Wastewater Treatment Plant, is
one of the major reasons. The plant was designed to handle wastewater volume of
0.025 km3/year; however, it used to process at least double amount of wastewater.
According to McCornick et al. (2001), the fecal coliform counts exceeded Jordanian
standards 1 month in 4. The treatment plant has been upgraded recently to handle
wastewater expected to generate in the next 50 years. This has also led to the improvement
in the quality of the reclaimed water compatible with the Jordanian standards (Esmat Al-
Karadsheh, personal communication 2009).
Jordan has taken lead in terms of treating part of the domestic wastewater, generally
known as greywater, at the household level and making use of it in home gardens to irrigate
a range of plant species. Greywater is generated from domestic processes such as dish
washing, laundry and bathing, i.e. wastewater generated from all of the domestic uses
except for the toilets (water from toilets being black water). Greywater is distinct from
black water in the amount and composition of its chemical and biological contaminants.
Greywater gets its name from its cloudy appearance and from its status as being neither
freshwater nor heavily polluted like black water or wastewater (Redwood 2008). It
comprises 55–75% of residential wastewater (Carden et al. 2007). The projects on the
treatment and use of greywater have been implemented in north-east part and three southern
governorates (Karak, Tafilah, and Maan) in Jordan.
The greywater reuse projects have revealed considerable potential of greywater reuse in
irrigation at household level in poor communities. In addition to increasing yields of high-
value crops and economical returns, greywater reuse has increased community participation
in the national efforts to conserve limited water resources on-site and low-cost greywater
treatment and reuse systems. However, more efforts are needed to reduce the environmental
risks and enhance sustainable use of greywater through monitoring greywater composition
and improving the treatment and reuse systems compatible with environmental quality
(Albalawneh 2003) as well as addressing social and cultural resistance to greywater use in
the country (Redwood 2008).

Israel

The country’s long history of reclaimed water reuse is backed by the national level capable
human resources. As early as 1953, Israel drafted the standards for water reuse, which have
continued to evolve to reflect the latest scientific findings on microbiological and chemical
risks (Tal 2006). The Water Law of 1959 and policy enacted by the administration up until
48 Author's personal copy

today define sewage as a “water resource” and an integral part of the water resources of the
country. However, until the 1970s, water reuse in the country was irregular, based on
isolated small projects without clear policy. The potential transmission of diseases via water
reuse was also somehow overlooked until 1970. Since the early 1970s, Israel has planned and
aggressively implemented water reuse for agricultural irrigation and is presently reusing
almost 75% of all the wastewater produced in the country. During the 1970s, a major health
effects study was carried out in 81 agricultural communities. Through this experience, Israel
has largely perfected the use of simple technologies for reclaimed water storage and reuse,
such as oxidation ponds and soil-aquifer treatment (Juanicó and Milstein 2004).
Most of Israel’s farmers using reclaimed water are organized into different types of
communities and cooperatives. The Ministry of Agriculture provides professional guidance
through an efficient extension service. Part of the success of the practice of water reuse in
Israel is due to the capacity of the well-organized and informed farmers to adapt quickly to
the switch to reclaimed water from other water resources (Friedler 2001; Juanicó 2008).
The reuse of reclaimed water has provided a politically attractive means of increasing water
supply in the country.
In contrast to most MENA region countries, the proportion of collected wastewater that
is treated is relatively high (75%) as the municipalities are responsible for the treatment of
wastewater generated in their territories according to the national standards. On the water
reuse front, the institutional set-up of the water sector in Israel has played a pivotal role in
facilitating the reuse of reclaimed water in agriculture. The cost the farmers pay per unit of
reclaimed water is about 20% lower than that of the equivalent amounts of freshwater
supplies. There is no provision of private wells as this type of infrastructure belongs to the
government. Therefore, the farmers have no alternate sources of water for irrigation within
the zones that use reclaimed water. This governance structure largely solves problems of
reduced reclaimed water demand while ensuring a regular supply of water for irrigation
(Kfouri et al. 2009).
Despite the fact that the microbiological levels and nutrient composition of reclaimed
water are satisfactory in Israel and generally fall within the WHO guidelines for unrestricted
reuse, some technical concerns remain. As in other water-scarce countries, Israel has a
substantial risk of long-term salinization of groundwater as a consequence of reclaimed
water irrigation over the long run. Wastewater produced by the domestic, municipal, and
industrial sectors becomes more saline than the water used in these sectors. This concern
has led to expanding research on developing crops that can withstand higher levels of salts
in the growth medium (Kfouri et al. 2009). It is important to note that there are no
inexpensive ways to remove salts once they enter sewage and the prevention of sewage salt
enrichment by controlling sources is the most immediately available solution. Therefore,
the Ministry of the Environment has been engaged in a campaign to reduce the addition of
salts to sewage since the early 1990s.
Israel is a country that has practiced massive water reuse for decades. Most reclaimed
water is still dedicated to restricted irrigation, which helps liberate freshwater resources for
unrestricted irrigation. The country has one of the best-documented and analyzed experiences
of water reuse demonstrating much innovation, particularly over the past three decades.

Perspectives

Increased population growth and rapid urbanization, improved living conditions, and
economic development in the MENA region countries are responsible for the increased
 Author's personal copy 49

volumes of wastewater generated by the domestic and industrial sectors. However, there are
several constraints to the collection, treatment, and widespread use of wastewater. There is
inadequate and in some cases outdated information on the status of reuse and/or disposal of
different forms of wastewater (untreated, partly-treated, diluted, and treated). The
limitations with such information have resulted in under-reporting of the extent of
wastewater resources that could be potentially exploited in the MENA region.
Public budgets in many MENA region countries are inadequate to collect domestic and
industrial wastewater separately for treatment. The farmers provide a service by using
wastewater for irrigation. The revenue they generate enables them to support their families,
perhaps enhancing local, national, and regional economic activity. The downside of using
wastewater in untreated or partly treated forms is the increasing aggregate risk to farmers,
consumers, and the environment. The long-term health effects of the increasing use of
wastewater might eventually weigh on public budgets, either directly in the form of public
expenditures to protect health and welfare, or indirectly in declining productivity of lands
irrigated perpetually with low-quality wastewater.
Water policies considering water scarcity can influence integrated water resource
management and new approaches for the assessment, management, and development of
water resources, including wastewater. The policy process pertaining to wastewater use in
crop production systems in the MENA region is complicated by three factors: (1) most
wastewater is generated outside the agricultural sector; (2) many individuals and
organizations have interest in policies pertaining to wastewater use; and (3) most consumers
of the wastewater produce are outside the agricultural sector. The same applies to other
developing-country dominated regions. This necessitates policy level interventions and
strong institutional coordination. In addition, public concern regarding water reuse varies
with the types of water involved, treatment levels, and the amount of information available.
Effluent standards, taxes, and tradable permits can be used to motivate improvements in
water management by households and industries discharging wastewater from point
sources. With flexible policy framework addressing rapid demographic changes and
increasing problems of water scarcity, the development of mechanisms for the collection,
treatment, and use of treated wastewater can help in demonstrating that water reuse has
great potential in highly water-scarce MENA region. In this regards, the policies outside the
water sector are as important as those within the sector.
Water pricing while taking into consideration regional water scarcity, comprehensive
economic analysis of the wastewater treatment and reuse options, and wastewater
reclamation and reuse cost-recovery mechanisms can play a vital role in water governance
in general and potential use of reclaimed water in particular. This will help most countries
of the MENA region reluctant to charge for water services because of the general belief
suggesting water to be a free commodity.
As the pressure placed on freshwater resources in water-deficient MENA region countries
will further increase, so will the need to conserve and use available water resources more
efficiently. Freshwater scarcity in MENA region is a challenge, which could be partly
addressed by exploiting the potential contribution of reclaimed water in irrigation. We believe
that the use of reclaimed water and implementation of food safety and other phyto-sanitary
measures may help governments in acknowledging reclaimed water irrigation without the
fear of economic repercussions in trading agricultural products in international markets.

Acknowledgments This publication is a part of the joint initiative of the International Center for
Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
addressing the assessment and management of marginal-quality water resources and salt-affected soils.
50 Author's personal copy

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