Lecture5 Magnetostatics

Electromagnetic Field Simulation
Lecture 5: Static Magnetic Fields
Prof. Dr. Herbert De Gersem, Dr. Mané Harutyunyan, Prof. Dr. Sebastian Schöps
Computational Electromagnetics Group
June 14, 2022 | TU Darmstadt | Fachbereich 18 | Computational Electromagnetics Group | De Gersem, Harutyunyan, Schöps | 1
Overview
1 Magnetostatic Fields
The Magnetic Vector Potential
Application Examples of Magnetostatics
2 Simulation of Electromagnetic Fields

Primary Curl Operator
Dual Curl Operator
Primary Divergence Operator
Properties of the Grid Operators
Magnetic Material Law
The Curl-Curl Equation
Maxwell: Integral Notation
Law of 𝜕𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)

∫ 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = − ∫ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
Faraday-Lenz 𝜕𝐴 𝐴
𝜕𝑡
Law of ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
𝜕𝐷(
∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( + 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
Maxwell-Ampère 𝜕𝐴 𝐴
𝜕𝑡
Law of ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d𝑉

∫ 𝐷(
Gauss 𝜕𝑉 𝑉
No magnetic
∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0
monopoles 𝜕𝑉
𝜕
Static Limit Case 𝜕𝑡
→0
Law of 𝜕𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,
⃗𝑡)
∫ 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = − ∫ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

Faraday-Lenz 𝜕𝐴 𝐴
𝜕𝑡
Law of ⃗ 𝑟,
𝜕𝐷( ⃗
𝑡)
∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( + 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

Maxwell-Ampère 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐴 𝐴
Law of ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d𝑉

Gauss ∫ 𝐷(
𝜕𝑉 𝑉
No magnetic
monopoles ∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0
𝜕𝑉
𝜕
Static fields 𝜕𝑡
=0
Law of
∫ 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = 0
Faraday-Lenz 𝜕𝐴
Law of ∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

Law of ⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟)⃗ d𝑉

∫ 𝐷(
Gauss 𝜕𝑉 𝑉
No magnetic ∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0

monopoles 𝜕𝑉
Static Electric and Magnetic Fields
Law of
∫ 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = 0
Faraday-Lenz 𝜕𝐴
Law of ∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

Law of ⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟)⃗ d𝑉

∫ 𝐷(
Gauss 𝜕𝑉 𝑉

monopoles 𝜕𝑉
Magnetostatics: Integral and Differential Form
Law of
Maxwell-Ampère ∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
𝜕𝐴 𝐴

monopoles 𝜕𝑉
Material law 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝜇(𝑟)⃗ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗
Magnetostatics: Integral and Differential Form
Law of
Maxwell-Ampère ∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
𝜕𝐴 𝐴
↓ ∫ (∇ × 𝐹 ⃗) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐹 ⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗
𝐴 𝜕𝐴
by Stoke’s theorem ∇ × 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗

monopoles 𝜕𝑉
↓ ∫(∇ ⋅ 𝐹 ⃗) d𝑉 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐹 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
𝑉 𝜕𝑉
by Gauss’ theorem ∇ ⋅ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 0
Material law 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝜇(𝑟)⃗ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗
Magnetostatic and Electrostatic Fields (i)
Electrostatics Magnetostatics
∫ 𝐸 ⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = 0 ∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝐴
∫ 𝐷⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚 d𝑉 ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0
𝜕𝑉 𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐷⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗ 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗
𝐻⃗ is not curl-free – unlike 𝐸⃗ in electrostatics
Magnetostatic and Electrostatic Fields (ii)
Fields in Fields in
electrostatics (𝐷)⃗ magnetostatics (𝐵)⃗
Assumptions of Magnetostatics
Simplifications
all fields change so slowly that the time derivatives disappear
𝜕𝐷⃗ 𝜕𝐵⃗
=0 and =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Only excitation currents exist
𝐽 ⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
i.e. no conduction 𝐽𝑙⃗ or convection currents 𝐽k⃗
Common assumption: homogeneous, isotropic, constant permeability,

i.e.
𝜇(𝑟)⃗ ≡ 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 > 0
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
Introduction of the Magnetic Vector Potential
Vector calculus identities:

1. The curl of a gradient field is identically zero
∇ × ∇Φ = 0
2. Divergence of a curl field is identically zero
∇ ⋅ ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0

∇ × ∇Φ = 0
∇ ⋅ ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0
previous introduction of the scalar potential as 𝐸⃗ = −∇Φ for curl-free

fields (∇ × 𝐸⃗ = 0) due to the first identity.

∇ × ∇Φ = 0
∇ ⋅ ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0

Idea: use ∇ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 0 instead ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ for curl fields.

∇ × ∇Φ = 0
∇ ⋅ ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0

Idea: use ∇ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 0 instead ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ for curl fields.
We introduce the magnetic vector potential 𝐴 ⃗ with.
𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗
such that 𝐵⃗ is automatically divergence-free (second identity).
Curl-Curl Equation
Equations in differential form
∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
∇ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 0 𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗
𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗ 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗
Curl-Curl Equation
∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
∇ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 0 𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗
𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗ 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗
General vector differential equation
∇ × (𝜇−1 ∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
Curl-Curl Equation
∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
∇ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 0 𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗
𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗ 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐻⃗
General vector differential equation
∇ × (𝜇−1 ∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
Curl-curl equation for homogeneous and isotropic regions

∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = 𝜇𝐽e⃗
Curl-Curl Operator (i)
In Cartesian coordinates the differential equation system results in

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝐴 − 𝐴 )− ( 𝐴 − 𝐴 ) = 𝜇 𝐽𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝐴 − 𝐴 )− ( 𝐴 − 𝐴 ) = 𝜇 𝐽𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐴𝑧 ) − ( 𝐴𝑧 − 𝐴 ) = 𝜇 𝐽𝑧 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
In operator form
∇
⏟ × ∇× 𝐴 ⃗ = 𝜇𝐽e⃗
=∶curlcurl(⋅)
Curl-Curl Operator (ii)
The curl-curl operator in Cartesian coordinates is therefore
2 2 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⎡ − 2 +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 2 − + 𝜕𝑧
2 2
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 0 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 ⎤ 0
⎢ ⎥
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕𝜕 2𝜕
∇2 =⎢] ⎥ 0
𝜕 𝜕
[ curlcurl 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦0 − 𝜕𝑧 −2 𝜕𝑥
2𝜕𝑥 +2𝜕𝑦2 +𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2 22
𝜕𝜕 ⎥ 𝜕2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧0 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 0− 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥22 + 𝜕𝑦 2
⎣ ⎦
Non-uniqueness of the Magnetic Vector Potential
Like the electrostatic potential Φ the magnetic vector potential 𝐴 ⃗ is not

uniquely defined.
However, the physical quantities derived from the potentials (field or flux)
are unique.
Example:
𝐸1⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = −∇Φ(𝑟)⃗ 𝐵⃗ 1 (𝑟)⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟)⃗

𝐸2⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = −∇ ⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
(Φ(𝑟)⃗ + Φ0 ) (𝐴(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ + ∇Ψ(𝑟))
𝐵⃗ 2 (𝑟)⃗ = ∇ × ⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ ⃗
=∶Φ′ ∶=𝐴′⃗
𝐸1⃗ ≡ 𝐸2⃗ 𝐵⃗ 1 ≡ 𝐵⃗ 2
⇒ Reference potential Φ0 ⇒ Free gradient field ∇Ψ
Magnetic Vector Potential and Gradients
According to Helmholtz’ Theorem a vector field is uniquely defined by its

divergence and curl.

Due to 𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ only the rotational part is considered.
Equivalent vector potentials obtained by adding a gradient field, i.e.,
𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = ∇ × (𝐴
⏟ ⃗ + ∇Ψ)
=𝐴′⃗

𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = ∇ × (𝐴
⏟ ⃗ + ∇Ψ)
=𝐴′⃗
since the divergence ∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ has not been specified yet.

𝐵⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = ∇ × (𝐴
⏟ ⃗ + ∇Ψ)
=𝐴′⃗
since the divergence ∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ has not been specified yet.
A common way to fix this is the Coulomb gauge.

∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0.
Coulomb Gauge
The gradient of the Coulomb gauge is still zero

∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0 → ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0
Coulomb Gauge

∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0 → ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0
For the curl-curl operator we obtain:
∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = ∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ − ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗
Coulomb Gauge

∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0 → ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0
∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = ∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ − ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗
and thus, for homogeneous and isotropic materials,
∇2 𝐴 ⃗ = −𝜇𝐽e⃗
with the vectorial Laplace operator ∇2 𝐹 ⃗ ∶= ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐹 ⃗ − ∇ × ∇ × 𝐹 ⃗
Coulomb Gauge

∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0 → ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ = 0
∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ = ∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 ⃗ − ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗
and thus, for homogeneous and isotropic materials,
∇2 𝐴 ⃗ = −𝜇𝐽e⃗
with the vectorial Laplace operator ∇2 𝐹 ⃗ ∶= ∇∇ ⋅ 𝐹 ⃗ − ∇ × ∇ × 𝐹 ⃗
The vectorial formulation of the gauged system is
Δ (𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑥⃗ ) = −𝜇𝐽e⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑥⃗

∇2 𝐴⃗ = −𝜇𝐽e⃗ Δ (𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑦⃗ ) = −𝜇𝐽e⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑦⃗
Δ (𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑧⃗ ) = −𝜇𝐽e⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑧⃗
Gauged Curl-curl Operator
The differential operator curlcurl simplifies (in Cartesian coordinates) to

2 2 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⎡ − 2 +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 2 − + 𝜕𝑧
2 2
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 0 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 0 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 2 2 2
⎥
[ ∇2 =⎢]
curlcurl
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦0 − 𝜕𝑧𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
+
−2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑦2 +𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2 22
𝜕𝜕 𝜕2 𝜕2 ⎥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧0 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 0− 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥2 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2
⎣ ⎦

2 2 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⎡ − 2 +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 2 − + 𝜕𝑧
2 2
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 0 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 0 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 2 2 2
⎥
[ ∇2 =⎢]
curlcurl
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦0 − 𝜕𝑧𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
+
−2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑦2 +𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2 22
𝜕𝜕 𝜕2 𝜕2 ⎥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧0 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 0− 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥2 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2
⎣ ⎦

2 2 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⎡ − 2 +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 2 − + 𝜕𝑧
2 2
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 0 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 0 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 2 2 2
⎥
[ ∇2 =⎢]
curlcurl
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦0 − 𝜕𝑧𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
+
−2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑦2 +𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2 22
𝜕𝜕 𝜕2 𝜕2 ⎥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧0 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 0− 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥2 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2
⎣ ⎦
⇒ Decoupling with respect to coordinates

2 2 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⎡ − 2 +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 2 − + 𝜕𝑧
2 2
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 0 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 0 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 2 2 2
⎥
[ ∇2 =⎢]
curlcurl
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦0 − 𝜕𝑧𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
+
−2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜕 𝜕
2𝜕𝑦2 +𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2 22
𝜕𝜕 𝜕2 𝜕2 ⎥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧0 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 0− 𝜕𝑥 2 − 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥2 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2
⎣ ⎦
⇒ Decoupling with respect to coordinates

⇒ Diagonal shape of the operator
Boundary Conditions
Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions (BC)

𝜕Ω = ΓD ∪ ΓN where ΓD ∩ ΓN = ∅
The Dirichlet BC specifies the tangential components of 𝐴 ⃗ , where 𝑛⃗

denotes the outward pointing normal vector
𝑛⃗ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐴D⃗ (𝑟)⃗ for 𝑟 ⃗ ∈ ΓD .
If 𝐴D⃗ ≡ 0 then the BC is called homogeneous, as if connected to a perfect

electric conductor (PEC).
The Neumann-BC prescribes the derivative of 𝐴 ⃗ at the boundary, i.e.,
𝑛⃗ × (𝜈∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐻⃗N (𝑟)⃗ for 𝑟 ⃗ ∈ ΓN ,
If 𝑛⃗ × 𝐻⃗N = 0, the BC is called homogeneous. This corresponds to a
perfect magnetic conductor (PMC).
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
Magnetostatics – C-Magnet
Coil: 10 turns, 𝐼 = 1000 A
Magnetostatics – C-Magnet (Linear)
∇ × (𝜈∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝐽𝑒⃗
Magnetostatics – C-Magnet (Linear)
Singularities
∇ × (𝜈∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝐽𝑒⃗
Magnetostatics – C-Magnet (Nonlinear)
⃗
∇ × (𝜈(|𝐵|)∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝐽e⃗
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
Cartesian Grid Pair in Magnetostatics
𝑦3
Primary grid
⌢
𝑏 𝑛 = ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
⌢
̃
𝔾
𝑒 𝑛 = ∫ 𝐸 ⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗
⌢
𝐿𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝑦2
⃗
𝑛 = ∫ 𝐴 ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗
⌢
𝑎 𝜙𝑛 = Φ(𝑃𝑛 )
𝐿𝑛
𝑦1
Dual grid
𝑧1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑦 ⌢ ⌢
𝑗 𝑛 = ∫ 𝐽 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ ℎ𝑛 = ∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗
⌢
𝑧2
𝔾 𝑥
̃
𝐴𝑛
̃𝑛
𝐿
𝑧3
𝑧
→ Integral quantities
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
FIT: Curl in Faraday’s induction law (i)
Faraday’s induction law in integral form:
𝜕
∫𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = − ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ for all surfaces Γ
𝜕𝑡
𝜕Γ Γ
the closed line integral of the electric field strength along 𝜕Γ

corresponds to the negative change of the magnetic flux by Γ
Idea of discretization with FIT:

Special choice: facets 𝐴𝑛 of the primary grid 𝔾
FIT: Curl in Faraday’s induction law (ii)
𝐿2
𝐿1
𝑛⃗
𝐴
𝐿3
𝐿4
𝐿2
𝐿1
𝑛⃗
𝐴
𝐿3
𝐿4
For a rectangular primary facet:

𝜕𝐴 = 𝐿1 ∪ 𝐿2 ∪ 𝐿3 ∪ 𝐿4
𝐿2
𝐿1
𝑛⃗
𝐴
𝐿3
𝐿4
For a rectangular primary facet:

𝜕𝐴 = 𝐿1 ∪ 𝐿2 ∪ 𝐿3 ∪ 𝐿4
Directional convention ⇒ different signs in integral decomposition
∫ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ + ∫𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ − ∫𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ − ∫𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗

𝜕𝐴 𝐿⏟
1 𝐿⏟
2 𝐿⏟
3 𝐿⏟
4
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝑒1 𝑒2 𝑒3 𝑒4
FIT: Curl in Faraday’s induction law (iii)
𝜕
∫ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = − ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝐴
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛

𝜕
𝜕𝑡
Grid equation:
⊤
⌢
⌢ e = [⌢
⌢
𝑒1 … ⌢
𝑒 𝑁𝐿 ] ⌢
⌢
d d
∑𝑖 ±⌢𝑒𝑖 = − d𝑡 𝑏𝑛 ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⊤
Ce
⌢
= − d𝑡 b
⌢ ⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ]
Each row 𝑛 refers to a primary facet 𝐴𝑛

𝜕
𝜕𝑡
Grid equation:
⊤
⌢
⌢ e = [⌢
⌢
𝑒1 … ⌢
𝑒 𝑁𝐿 ] ⌢
⌢
d d
∑𝑖 ±⌢𝑒𝑖 = − d𝑡 𝑏𝑛 ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⊤
Ce
⌢
= − d𝑡 b
⌢ ⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ]

Primary curl matrix C enforces sign-correct sums

𝜕
𝜕𝑡
Grid equation:
⊤
⌢
⌢ e = [⌢
⌢
𝑒1 … ⌢
𝑒 𝑁𝐿 ] ⌢
⌢
d d
∑𝑖 ±⌢𝑒𝑖 = − d𝑡 𝑏𝑛 ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⊤
Ce
⌢
= − d𝑡 b
⌢ ⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ]

Primary curl matrix C enforces sign-correct sums
No approximation by discretization due to integral consideration.
FIT: Curl in Faraday’s induction law (iv)
Rotation matrix collects the sign information:

⌢
d ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
d ⌢d ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ Equation Ce
⌢
= d𝑡 b
+ ℎ1 𝑒+1 +
+ ℎ2 𝑒−2 −
ℎ3 𝑒−3 −
ℎ4 𝑒=4 =
− d𝑡
−𝑑d𝑡𝑛 𝑏+𝑛 𝑗 𝑛
Number of rows:
primary facets 𝑁𝐴
Number of columns:
⎡ ⎤ primary edges 𝑁𝐿
C̃ =⎢⎢ 0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥ Entries are only −1, 0
⎣ Row 𝑛 ⎦ or 1
It follows that C ∈ {−1, 0, 1}𝑁𝐴 ×𝑁𝐿

Positions of entries depend on indexing scheme.
FIT: Primary curl matrix (i)
Primary facet 𝐴𝑥,𝑛 with canonical indexing

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
𝐴𝑥,𝑛 𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧
Integral decomposition
∫ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = +⌢𝑒𝑦,𝑛 −⌢𝑒𝑦,𝑛+𝑀𝑧 −⌢𝑒𝑧,𝑛 +⌢𝑒𝑧,𝑛+𝑀𝑦

𝜕𝐴𝑥,𝑛

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝐿𝑦,𝑛
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
𝐴𝑥,𝑛 𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑥,𝑛

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
𝐴𝑥,𝑛 𝑦
𝐿𝑦,𝑛+𝑀𝑧
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑥,𝑛

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
𝐴𝑥,𝑛 𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝐿𝑧,𝑛
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑥,𝑛

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝐿𝑧,𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
𝐴𝑥,𝑛 𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑥,𝑛
FIT: Primary curl matrix (ii)
𝜕 𝜕
0 − 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝐸𝑥 𝐵
⎡ 𝜕 𝜕 ⎤ ⎡𝐸 ⎤ 𝜕 ⎡ 𝑥⎤
Curl of 𝐸⃗ is ⎢ 𝜕𝑧 0 − 𝜕𝑥 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑦⎥ =− ⎢ 𝐵𝑦 ⎥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑡
⎣− 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 0 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐸𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐵𝑧 ⎦
FIT: Primary curl matrix (ii)
𝜕 𝜕
0 − 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝐸𝑥 𝐵
⎡ 𝜕 𝜕 ⎤ ⎡𝐸 ⎤ 𝜕 ⎡ 𝑥⎤
Curl of 𝐸⃗ is ⎢ 𝜕𝑧 0 − 𝜕𝑥 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑦⎥ =− ⎢ 𝐵𝑦 ⎥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑡
⎣− 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 0 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐸𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐵𝑧 ⎦
Indexing with the canonical index results in
⌢
⌢
e⌢
b𝑥 0 −P𝑧 P𝑦
𝑥 d ⎡⌢ ⌢ ⎤
C ⎢ e𝑦 ⎤
⎡ where C=⎡ P 0 −P𝑥 ⎤
⌢
⎥ = − b𝑦 ⎥
d𝑡 ⎢ ⌢ ⎢ 𝑧 ⎥
⎣ e𝑧 ⎦
⌢ ⌢
⎣ b𝑧 ⎦ ⎣−P𝑦 P𝑥 0 ⎦
for all spatial directions with

𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑧
+1
+1
+1
P𝑥 = −1 P𝑦 = −1 P𝑧 = −1
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
FIT: Ampère’s circuital law (i)
Ampère’s circuital law in integral form:
𝜕 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( 𝐷⃗ + 𝐽 ) for all surfaces Γ
𝜕𝑡
𝜕Γ Γ
the closed line integral of the magnetic field strength along 𝜕Γ

corresponds to the sum of all current densities through Γ

Special choice: facets 𝐴 ̃ of the dual grid 𝔾
̃
𝑛
FIT: Ampère’s circuital law (ii)
̃2
𝐿
̃1
𝐿
𝑛⃗
̃
𝐴
̃3
𝐿
̃4
𝐿
̃2
𝐿
̃1
𝐿
𝑛⃗
̃
𝐴
̃3
𝐿
̃4
𝐿
For a rectangular dual facet:

̃= 𝐿
𝜕𝐴 ̃1 ∪ 𝐿
̃2 ∪ 𝐿
̃3 ∪ 𝐿
̃4
̃2
𝐿
̃1
𝐿
𝑛⃗
̃
𝐴
̃3
𝐿
̃4
𝐿
For a rectangular dual facet:

̃= 𝐿
𝜕𝐴 ̃1 ∪ 𝐿
̃2 ∪ 𝐿
̃3 ∪ 𝐿
̃4
Directional convention ⇒ different signs for integral decomposition
∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ + ∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ − ∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ − ∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗

̃
𝜕𝐴 ̃⏟
𝐿1
̃⏟
𝐿2
̃⏟
𝐿 3
̃⏟
𝐿4
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4
FIT: Ampère’s circuital law (iii)
𝜕 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( 𝐷⃗ + 𝐽 ) for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝐴̃
𝜕𝑡
̃
𝜕𝐴 ̃
𝐴
𝑛 𝑛

𝜕 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( 𝐷⃗ + 𝐽 ) for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝐴̃
𝜕𝑡
̃
𝜕𝐴 ̃
𝐴
𝑛 𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢ ⌢ ⊤
h = [𝑒1
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
… ℎ𝑁̃ ] ⌢ ⌢
⌢
d ⌢
d ⌢ ⌢
C̃h =
𝐿
∑𝑖 ±ℎ𝑖 = 𝑑 + 𝑗𝑛
d𝑡 𝑛 ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ d𝑡
d +j
d und j
̃
Each row 𝑛 refers to a dual facet 𝐴 𝑛

𝜕 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( 𝐷⃗ + 𝐽 ) for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝐴̃
𝜕𝑡
̃
𝜕𝐴 ̃
𝐴
𝑛 𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢ ⌢ ⊤
h = [𝑒1
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
… ℎ𝑁̃ ] ⌢ ⌢
⌢
d ⌢
d ⌢ ⌢
C̃h =
𝐿
d𝑡 𝑛 ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ d𝑡
d +j
d und j
̃
Dual curl matrix C̃ enforces sign-correct sums

𝜕 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ ( 𝐷⃗ + 𝐽 ) for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝐴̃
𝜕𝑡
̃
𝜕𝐴 ̃
𝐴
𝑛 𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢ ⌢ ⊤
h = [𝑒1
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
… ℎ𝑁̃ ] ⌢ ⌢
⌢
d ⌢
d ⌢ ⌢
C̃h =
𝐿
d𝑡 𝑛 ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ d𝑡
d +j
d und j
̃
Dual curl matrix C̃ enforces sign-correct sums
FIT: Ampère’s circuital law (iv)
Curl matrix collects the sign information:
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
d d
ℎ1 ⌢
++ ℎ2 ⌢
𝑒+1 + ℎ3 ⌢
𝑒−2 − ℎ4 ⌢
𝑒−3 − 𝑒=4 =
− d𝑡
−𝑑d𝑡𝑛 𝑏+𝑛 𝑗 𝑛 ̃ =
Equation Ch
⌢ ⌢
d ⌢
⌢
⌢
d𝑡 d +j
Number of rows:
dual facets 𝑁𝐴̃
⎡ ⎤ Number of columns:
C̃ =⎢⎢ 0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
⎥
⎥ dual edges 𝑁𝐿
⎢ ⎥ ̃
⎣ Row 𝑛 ⎦ Entries are only −1, 0 or 1
It follows that C̃ ∈ {−1, 0, 1}𝑁𝐴̃×𝑁̃𝐿

Positions of entries depend on indexing scheme.
FIT: Dual curl matrix (i)
̃ with canonical indexing

Primary facet 𝐴 𝑥,𝑛
̃
𝑃𝑛−𝑀 𝑧
𝑃𝑛̃
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
̃
𝐴 𝑦
𝑥,𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
̃
𝑃𝑛−𝑀𝑦
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∫ 𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = +ℎ𝑦,𝑛−𝑀𝑧 −ℎ𝑦,𝑛 −ℎ𝑧,𝑛−𝑀𝑦 +ℎ𝑧,𝑛
̃
𝜕𝐴 𝑥,𝑛

̃
𝑃𝑛̃
̃𝑦,𝑛−𝑀
𝐿 𝑧
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
̃
𝐴 𝑦
𝑥,𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
̃
𝑃𝑛−𝑀𝑦
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
̃
𝜕𝐴 𝑥,𝑛

̃
𝑃𝑛̃
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
̃
𝐴 𝑦
̃𝑦,𝑛
𝐿 𝑥,𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
̃
𝑃𝑛−𝑀𝑦
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
̃
𝜕𝐴 𝑥,𝑛

̃
𝑃𝑛̃
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
̃
𝐴 𝑦
𝑥,𝑛
𝑥
̃𝑧,𝑛−𝑀
𝐿 𝑦 𝑧
̃
𝑃𝑛−𝑀𝑦
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
̃
𝜕𝐴 𝑥,𝑛

̃
̃𝑧,𝑛
𝐿
𝑃𝑛̃
𝑛⃗ 𝑥
̃
𝐴 𝑦
𝑥,𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
̃
𝑃𝑛−𝑀𝑦
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
̃
𝜕𝐴 𝑥,𝑛
FIT: Dual curl matrix (ii)
𝜕 𝜕
0 − 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝐻𝑥 𝐷 𝐽
⎡ 𝜕 𝜕 ⎤ ⎡𝐻 ⎤ 𝜕 ⎡ 𝑥⎤ ⎡ 𝑥⎤
Curl of 𝐻⃗ is ⎢ 𝜕𝑧 0 − 𝜕𝑥 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑦⎥ = ⎢ 𝐷𝑦 ⎥ + ⎢𝐽𝑦 ⎥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑡
⎣− 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 0 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐻𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐷𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐽𝑧 ⎦
FIT: Dual curl matrix (ii)
𝜕 𝜕
0 − 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝐻𝑥 𝐷 𝐽
⎡ 𝜕 𝜕 ⎤ ⎡𝐻 ⎤ 𝜕 ⎡ 𝑥⎤ ⎡ 𝑥⎤
Curl of 𝐻⃗ is ⎢ 𝜕𝑧 0 − 𝜕𝑥 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑦⎥ = ⎢ 𝐷𝑦 ⎥ + ⎢𝐽𝑦 ⎥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑡
⎣− 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 0 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐻𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐷𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ 𝐽𝑧 ⎦
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
j𝑥
⌢
h𝑥 d 0 −P̃𝑧 P̃𝑦
d ⎡ ⌢⌢𝑥 ⎤ ⎡⌢ ⌢ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
C̃ ⎡
⌢ ⎤
h
⎢ ⌢ 𝑦 ⎥ d𝑡 ⎢d
= 𝑦⎥ + ⎢
⎢⌢
j𝑦⎥
⎥ where C̃ = ⎢ P̃𝑧 0 −P̃𝑥 ⎥
⌢
⎣ h𝑧 ⎦ ⎣−P̃𝑦 P̃𝑥
⌢
0 ⎦
⌢
⎣ d𝑧 ⎦ ⎣ j 𝑧 ⎦
for all spatial directions with
P̃𝑥 = +1 P̃𝑦 = +1 P̃𝑧 = +1

−1
−1
−1
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
FIT: Non-existence of magnetic monopoles (i)
Magnetic Gauss’ law in integral form:
∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0 for all Ω ⊂ ℝ3

𝜕Ω
Describes the magnetic flux density through the hull of any volume. Ω

Special choice: cells 𝑉 of the primary grid 𝔾
FIT: Non-existence of magnetic monopoles (ii)
𝑛̃⃗ 33
𝐴
̃ 𝑉
Ω
𝑉̃ ̃
𝐴4 𝐴1
̃6
𝐴
𝑧 6
𝑛̃⃗ 33
𝐴 𝑛̃⃗ 33
𝐴
̃ 𝑉
Ω
𝑉̃ ̃ ̃ 𝑉
Ω
𝑉̃ ̃
𝐴4 𝐴1 𝐴 4 𝐴1
̃6
𝐴 ̃6
𝐴
𝑧 6 𝑧 6
𝑥 𝑥
For a hexahedral primary cell:

𝜕𝑉 = 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ 𝐴4 ∪ 𝐴5 ∪ 𝐴6
𝑛̃⃗ 33
𝐴 𝑛̃⃗ 33
𝐴
̃ 𝑉
Ω
𝑉̃ ̃ ̃ 𝑉
Ω
𝑉̃ ̃
𝐴4 𝐴1 𝐴 4 𝐴1
̃6
𝐴 ̃6
𝐴
𝑧 6 𝑧 6
𝑥 𝑥
For a hexahedral primary cell:

𝜕𝑉 = 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ 𝐴4 ∪ 𝐴5 ∪ 𝐴6
Direction convention ⇒ different signs when decomposing the integral
∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ +∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ +∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ −∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ −∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ −∫𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

𝜕𝑉 𝐴⏟
1 𝐴⏟
2 𝐴⏟
3 𝐴⏟
4 𝐴⏟
5 𝐴⏟
6
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏4 𝑏5 𝑏6
FIT: Non-existence of magnetic monopoles (iii)
∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0 for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑉
𝜕𝑉𝑛
∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0 for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑉
𝜕𝑉𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ T
⌢
⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ] ⌢
⌢
∑𝑖 ± 𝑏 𝑖 = 0 Sb = 0
∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0 for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑉
𝜕𝑉𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ T
⌢
⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ] ⌢
⌢
∑𝑖 ± 𝑏 𝑖 = 0 Sb = 0
Each row 𝑛 refers to a primary cell 𝑉𝑛
∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0 for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑉
𝜕𝑉𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ T
⌢
⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ] ⌢
⌢
∑𝑖 ± 𝑏 𝑖 = 0 Sb = 0

Source matrix S enforces sign-correct sums
∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0 for all 𝑛 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑉
𝜕𝑉𝑛
Grid equation:
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢ T
⌢
⌢
b = [𝑏1 … 𝑏 𝑁𝐴 ] ⌢
⌢
∑𝑖 ± 𝑏 𝑖 = 0 Sb = 0

Source matrix S enforces sign-correct sums
FIT: Non-existence of magnetic monopoles (iv)
Divergence matrix S collects the sign information:

⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ Equation Sb = 0
𝑞0𝑛 = + 𝑏𝑑11 + 𝑏𝑑22 + 𝑏𝑑33 − 𝑏𝑑44 − 𝑏𝑑55 − 𝑏𝑑66
Number of rows:
primary cells 𝑁𝑉
Number of columns:
⎡ ⎤ primary facets 𝑁𝐴
S̃ =⎢⎢ 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0 −1 0
⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥ Entries are only −1, 0
⎣ row 𝑛 ⎦ or 1.
It follows S ∈ {−1, 0, 1}𝑁V ×𝑁A .

Positions of entries depend on the indexing scheme.
FIT: Primary divergence matrix (i)
Primary volume 𝑉𝑛 with canonical indexing

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑥
𝑥
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = − 𝑏 𝑥,𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑥,𝑛+𝑀𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑦,𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑦,𝑛+𝑀𝑦 − 𝑏 𝑧,𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑧,𝑛+𝑀𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑦
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑥
𝑥
𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛

𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑦
𝑥
𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑦
𝑃𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛
𝑥
𝑧
𝑃𝑛+𝑀𝑧
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝜕𝑉𝑛
FIT: Primary divergence matrix (ii)
𝐵𝑥
Divergence of the 𝐵⃗ is given by ∇ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = [ 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝜕𝑧 ] ⋅⎡ ⎤
⎢𝐵𝑦 ⎥ = 0
⎣ 𝐵𝑧 ⎦
𝐵𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝜕𝑧 ] ⋅⎡ ⎤
⎢𝐵𝑦 ⎥ = 0
⎣ 𝐵𝑧 ⎦
⌢
⌢
b
⎡ ⌢⌢𝑥 ⎤
S ⎢ b𝑦 ⎥ = 0 where S = [P𝑥 P𝑦 P𝑧 ]
⌢
⌢
⎣ b𝑧 ⎦
for all spatial directions, so that
+1
+1
+1
P𝑥 = −1 P𝑦 = −1 P𝑧 = −1
𝐵𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝜕𝑧 ] ⋅⎡ ⎤
⎢𝐵𝑦 ⎥ = 0
⎣ 𝐵𝑧 ⎦
⌢
⌢
b
⎡ ⌢⌢𝑥 ⎤
S ⎢ b𝑦 ⎥ = 0 where S = [P𝑥 P𝑦 P𝑧 ]
⌢
⌢
⎣ b𝑧 ⎦
for all spatial directions, so that
+1
+1
+1
P𝑥 = −1 P𝑦 = −1 P𝑧 = −1
̃ = −S⊤
The dual gradient results analogous to the primary one as G
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
FIT: Properties of the grid operators (i)
Vector identities for scalar and vector fields
div curl(⋅) ≡ 0 and curl grad(⋅) ≡ 0
The grid operators have similar properties
SC = 0, S̃C̃ = 0, and CG = 0, C̃G

̃=0
The grid operators have similar properties
SC = 0, S̃C̃ = 0, and CG = 0, C̃G

̃=0
Formal proof by calculation, e.g.
SC = [P𝑦 P𝑧 − P𝑧 P𝑦 −P𝑥 P𝑧 + P𝑧 P𝑥 P𝑥 P𝑦 − P𝑦 P𝑥 ] = 0
because P𝑣 P𝑤 = P𝑤 P𝑣 for 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} commutate.
Alternative: geometric interpretation
FIT: Properties of the grid operators (ii)
Vector Laplace operator in Cartesian coordinates

Δ𝐸𝑥 (𝑟)⃗
∇2 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = ⎡ ⎤
⎢Δ𝐸𝑦 (𝑟)⃗ ⎥ = grad div 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ − curl curl 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ .
⎣ Δ𝐸𝑧 (𝑟)⃗ ⎦

∇2 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = ⎡ ⎤
⎣ Δ𝐸𝑧 (𝑟)⃗ ⎦
For the FIT matrices
̃
SG 0 0
⎡ ⎤⌢
⎢0 ̃
SG 0 ⎥ e = GS̃e − CC
̃ e
⌢ ⌢
⎣0 0 ̃ ⎦
SG

∇2 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = ⎡ ⎤
⎣ Δ𝐸𝑧 (𝑟)⃗ ⎦
For the FIT matrices
̃
SG 0 0
⎡ ⎤⌢
⎢0 ̃
SG 0 ⎥ e = GS̃e − CC
̃ e
⌢ ⌢
⎣0 0 ̃ ⎦
SG
where the diagonal blocks
̃ = P⊤𝑥 P𝑥 + P⊤𝑦 P𝑦 + P⊤𝑧 P𝑧
A = SG
correspond to the discrete (scalar-valued) Laplace operator.
FIT: Geometric interpretation of grid operators (i)
Application of vector identity to the (static) continuity equation, i.e.

Kirchhoff’s first law
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
0 = div(𝐽 )⃗ = div curl(𝐻)⃗ = 0 0 = S̃ j = S̃C̃h
In integrated form
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
0 = ∫ 𝐽 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = [ S ̃ j ] with 𝑗 𝑚 = ∫ 𝐽 ⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗
⌢
𝑙
̃𝑙
𝜕𝑉 ̃
𝐴𝑚
and
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
𝑗 𝑚 = [C̃h] with ℎ𝑛 = ∫𝐻⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗
⌢
𝑚
̃𝑛
𝐿
⌢ ⌢
Summary: ∑𝑚 ± 𝑗 𝑚 = ∑𝑚 ± (∑𝑛 ±ℎ𝑛 ) = 0
FIT: Geometric interpretation of grid operators (ii)
Summation
⌢ ⌢
∑ ± 𝑗 𝑚 = ∑ ± (∑ ±ℎ𝑛 ) = 0
𝑚 𝑚 𝑛
Interpretation
Summation
⌢ ⌢
∑ ± 𝑗 𝑚 = ∑ ± (∑ ±ℎ𝑛 ) = 0
𝑚 𝑚 𝑛
Interpretation
Summation
⌢ ⌢
∑ ± 𝑗 𝑚 = ∑ ± (∑ ±ℎ𝑛 ) = 0
𝑚 𝑚 𝑛
Interpretation
Each edge is passed through twice with different signs.
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
FIT: Material laws
Fields and differential operators are already discretized
FIT: Material laws

We now consider the (linear) material laws:
⌢
⌢
𝐷⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜖 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐸⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d = M𝜖 e
⌢
𝐽 ⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜎 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐸⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
FIT ⌢
⌢
j = M𝜎 e
⌢
⌢
𝐵⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜇 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐻⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
⌢ ⌢
b = M𝜇 h
FIT: Material laws

⌢
⌢
𝐷⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜖 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐸⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d = M𝜖 e
⌢
𝐽 ⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜎 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐸⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
FIT ⌢
⌢
j = M𝜎 e
⌢
⌢
𝐵⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜇 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐻⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
⌢ ⌢
b = M𝜇 h
Each grid equation is a relation between a flux and its corresponding

voltage.
FIT: Material laws

⌢
⌢
𝐷⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜖 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐸⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d = M𝜖 e
⌢
𝐽 ⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜎 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐸⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
FIT ⌢
⌢
j = M𝜎 e
⌢
⌢
𝐵⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜇 (𝑟 ⃗ ) 𝐻⃗ (𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
⌢ ⌢
b = M𝜇 h
Each grid equation is a relation between a flux and its corresponding

voltage.
Only the material laws establish a link between primal and dual grid
quantities.
FIT: Staircase Filling
Simplest model – primary computational grid determines material

distribution
𝜖1 , 𝜎 1 , 𝜇 1
Material interface
𝜖2 , 𝜎 2 , 𝜇 2
Assumption: each primary cell is homogeneously filled with one material

→ Staircase filling
Improvements have been proposed in the literature (e.g. PBA)
FIT: Material relations: 𝜇−1 -Averaging (i)
̃𝑛 and primary facet 𝐴𝑛

Let’s look at a dual edge 𝐿
Two primary cells with isotropic permeability 𝜇𝑙
Midpoint value 𝐵norm exists thanks to normal continuity of 𝐵⃗
Aim: a (diagonal) material matrix M𝜈 = M𝜇−1
̃𝑛 ⌢
𝐿 ℎ𝑛 = ∫ 𝜇−1 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ ≈ 𝐵norm ∫ 𝜇−1 d𝑠
𝜇2 𝐴𝑛 ̃𝑛
𝐿 ̃𝑛
𝐿
⌢
𝑏 𝑛 = ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ ≈ 𝐵norm ∫ d𝐴
⌢
𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝜇1
FIT: Material relations: 𝜇−1 -Averaging (i)
̃𝑛 and primary facet 𝐴𝑛

Let’s look at a dual edge 𝐿
Two primary cells with isotropic permeability 𝜇𝑙
Midpoint value 𝐵norm exists thanks to normal continuity of 𝐵⃗
Aim: a (diagonal) material matrix M𝜈 = M𝜇−1
̃𝑛 ⌢
𝐿 ℎ𝑛 = ∫ 𝜇−1 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ ≈ 𝐵norm ∫ 𝜇−1 d𝑠
𝜇2 𝐴𝑛 ̃𝑛
𝐿 ̃𝑛
𝐿
⌢
𝑏 𝑛 = ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ ≈ 𝐵norm ∫ d𝐴
⌢
𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛
⌢
ℎ𝑛 𝐵norm ∫̃ 𝜇 d𝑠 −1
𝐿𝑛
[M𝜈 ]𝑛,𝑛 = ⌢ ≈
𝜇1
⌢
𝑏𝑛 𝐵norm ∫ d𝐴
𝐴𝑛
FIT: Material relations: 𝜇−1 -Averaging (ii)
⌢
ℎ𝑛 𝐵norm ∫̃ 𝜇−1 d𝑠 ∫̃ 𝜇−1 d𝑠
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛
⌢ ≈ =
̃𝑛
⌢
𝑏𝑛 𝐵norm ∫ d𝐴 ∫ d𝐴
𝐿 𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝜇2 𝐴𝑛
𝜇1
⌢
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛
⌢ ≈ =
̃𝑛
⌢
𝜇2 𝐴𝑛
̃(1)
̃𝑛 = 𝐿
𝐿 ̃(2)
𝑛 ∪ 𝐿𝑛
𝜇1
⌢
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛
⌢ ≈ =
̃𝑛
⌢
𝜇2 𝐴𝑛
̃(1)
̃𝑛 = 𝐿
𝐿 ̃(2)
𝑛 ∪ 𝐿𝑛
∫ 𝜇−1 d𝑠 = 𝜇−1 ̃(1) −1 ̃(2)

1 |𝐿𝑛 | + 𝜇2 |𝐿𝑛 |
̃𝑛
𝐿
̃ (1)
−1 ̃ (2)
𝜇−1
1 |𝐿𝑛 | + 𝜇2 |𝐿𝑛 | ̃
𝜇1 =
̃𝑛 |
|𝐿𝑛 |
|𝐿
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
=𝜈𝑛
FIT: Material relations: 𝜇−1 -matrix
This averaging leads to:
⌢ ̃𝑛 | ⌢
𝜈𝑛 |𝐿 ⌢
ℎ𝑛 = 𝑏 + 𝒪 (𝛿 2..3 )
|𝐴𝑛 | 𝑛
⌢
Error is at best 3rd order in edge length 𝛿 for ℎ𝑛 . This can be calculated
by Taylor expansion.
Averaging of the reluctance (inv. permeability) ⇒ Grid material law:
⌢ ⌢
⌢
h = M𝜈 b
with diagonal matrix
̃𝑛 | ̃ (1)
−1 ̃ (2)
𝜈𝑛 |𝐿 𝜇−1
1 |𝐿𝑛 | + 𝜇2 |𝐿𝑛 |
[M𝜈 ]𝑛,𝑛 = mit 𝜈𝑛 =
|𝐴𝑛 | ̃𝑛 |
|𝐿
FIT: Comparison of the material laws (i)
Permittivity 𝜖 and conductivity 𝜎 Permeability 𝜇
̃𝑛
𝐿
𝐿𝑛 𝜇2 𝐴𝑛
̃
𝐴 𝑛
𝐸tan
𝜖4 𝜖3
𝜇1
𝜖1 𝜖2
All material properties piecewise on primary grid cells

Two different constructions of material matrices
Field strengths and flux densities on⌢
dual and primary grid elements,
respectively, e.g. e
⌢
on primary, but h on dual edges
Approximation due to integral approximation inevitable
FIT: Comparison of the material laws (ii)
Electric material matrix: Facet-averaged permittivity:

̃ |
𝜖𝑛 | 𝐴 4
|𝐴
(𝑖)
̃𝑛 |
𝑛
[M𝜖 ]𝑛,𝑛 = 𝜖𝑛 = ∑ 𝜖𝑖
|𝐿𝑛 | ̃ |
|𝐴
𝑖=1 𝑛
Conductivity matrix: Facet-averaged conductivity:
̃ | 4 (𝑖)
̃𝑛 |
𝜎𝑛 |𝐴 𝑛 |𝐴
[M𝜎 ]𝑛,𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛 = ∑ 𝜎𝑖
|𝐿𝑛 | 𝑖=1
̃ |
|𝐴𝑛
Magnetic material matrix: Edge-averaged reluctivity:

2 (𝑖)
̃𝑛 |
̃ |
𝜈 |𝐿 |𝐿
[M𝜈 ]𝑛,𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 𝜈𝑛 = ∑ 𝜈𝑖
|𝐴𝑛 | 𝑖=1
̃𝑛 |
|𝐿
Overview

Dual Curl Operator
Grid equations in Magnetostatics
Mimetic discretization of Maxwell’s equations
𝜕 d ⌢⌢
∇ × 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = − 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) Ce(𝑡)
⌢
=− b(𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 d𝑡
𝜕 ⌢ d ⌢⌢ ⌢
⌢
∇ × 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝐷( ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) + 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) C̃h(𝑡) = d(𝑡) + j (𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜚(𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
∇ ⋅ 𝐷(
FIT ⌢
d𝑡
̃ ⌢ = q(𝑡)
Sd(𝑡)
⌢
⌢
∇ ⋅ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 0 Sb(𝑡) = 0(𝑡)
⌢
𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = ∇ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ , 𝑡)
⌢
b(𝑡) = Ca(𝑡)
⌢
Grid equations in Magnetostatics
Mimetic discretization of Maxwell’s equations
𝜕 d ⌢⌢
∇ × 𝐸(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = − 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) Ce(𝑡)
⌢
=− b(𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 d𝑡
𝜕 ⌢ d ⌢⌢ ⌢
⌢
∇ × 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝐷( ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) + 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) C̃h(𝑡) = d(𝑡) + j (𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 𝜚(𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)
∇ ⋅ 𝐷(
FIT ⌢
d𝑡
̃ ⌢ = q(𝑡)
Sd(𝑡)
⌢
⌢
∇ ⋅ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = 0 Sb(𝑡) = 0(𝑡)
⌢
𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) = ∇ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ , 𝑡)
⌢
b(𝑡) = Ca(𝑡)
⌢
but: (static) fields are space-dependent functions (𝐸⃗ ∶ Ω → ℝ3 ),

discretizations are only vectors (e
⌢
∈ ℝ3𝑁𝑃 )
Discretization in magnetostatics
static grid equations for the discrete field quantities:

⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
C̃h = j e , h = M𝜇−1 b, b = Ca
⌢
⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je
where the dual curl matrix satisfies C̃ = C .

⊤

⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
C̃h = j e , h = M𝜇−1 b, b = Ca
⌢
⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je

⊤
As a reminder and comparison
⃗ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟))
∇ × (𝜇−1 (𝑟)∇ ⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ (𝑟)⃗

⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢ ⌢
⌢
C̃h = j e , h = M𝜇−1 b, b = Ca
⌢
⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je

⊤
As a reminder and comparison
⃗ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟))
∇ × (𝜇−1 (𝑟)∇ ⃗ = 𝐽e⃗ (𝑟)⃗
Result is a mimetic discretization: each continuous derivative operator

(curl, divergence and gradient) has its own matrix representative with
similar properties
Numerical solution of the grid vector potential equation
Grid vector potential equation

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je
Construct matrices and vectors

Computational grid determines C; it shall approximate the geometry well.
Distribution of 𝜇 determines the material matrix M𝜇−1 .
⌢
⌢
Integration of the (given) current density 𝐽e⃗ yields j . e

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je

⌢
⌢
Remove ghost figures from the grid

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je

⌢
⌢
Plug the boundary conditions for 𝐴 ⃗ into the vector a
⌢

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je

⌢
⌢
⌢
Regularize the problem with a gauge condition

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je

⌢
⌢
⌢

Solve a (symmetric) linear system of equations

⊤ ⌢
⌢
C M𝜇−1 Ca
⌢
= je

⌢
⌢
⌢

Solve a (symmetric) linear system of equations
Boundary conditions in magnetostatics
The magnetostatic problem is not well defined without a condition on the

whole boundary Γ

whole boundary Γ
The condition defines the behavior between the fields inside and outside
of the domain

whole boundary Γ
of the domain
Classic boundary conditions on 𝑟 ⃗ ∈ Γ are:
1. the outside world is perfectly electrically conductive (𝜎 → ∞), i.e.,
𝐸𝑡⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐸𝑡⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = 0 by the Dirichlet condition 𝑛⃗ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 0.
2. the outside world is perfectly magnetic conductive (𝜇 → ∞), i.e.,
𝐻⃗𝑡 (𝑟)⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 0 by the Neumann condition 𝑛⃗ × (𝜇−1 ∇ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟))
⃗ = 0.

whole boundary Γ
of the domain
Classic boundary conditions on 𝑟 ⃗ ∈ Γ are:
1. the outside world is perfectly electrically conductive (𝜎 → ∞), i.e.,
𝐸𝑡⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐸𝑡⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = 0 by the Dirichlet condition 𝑛⃗ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 0.
2. the outside world is perfectly magnetic conductive (𝜇 → ∞), i.e.,
𝐻⃗𝑡 (𝑟)⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 0 by the Neumann condition 𝑛⃗ × (𝜇−1 ∇ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟))
⃗ = 0.
Apart from these conditions, there are other possibilities (e.g. periodic)
FIT: Implementation of the boundary conditions
Examplary computational domain
boundary ΓD with 𝑛⃗ × 𝐴 ⃗ = 𝑛⃗ × 𝐴D⃗
The system matrix is without boundary conditions singular

One may solve only for the unknown components of the vector a
⌢

One may solve only for the unknown components of the vector a
⌢
The edge integrals at the edge are set to the known value
⊤
a
⌢ ⌢
= [𝑎 ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , … , 𝑎𝑁𝐿 ] ,
⃗
so that 𝑎 𝑛 = ∫ 𝐴D ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ depending whether 𝐿𝑛 ∈ ΓD or not.
⌢
𝐿𝑛
FIT: Discrete gauge

⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je
⌢⋆
Not uniquely solvable: if a
⌢
solution, then also a =a
⌢
+ GΦ due to CG = 0.
⌢
⌢ ⌢⋆ ⌢⋆
On the other hand b = Ca = Ca , therefore any solution a
⌢
is suitable.
FIT: Discrete gauge

⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je
⌢⋆
⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢⋆ ⌢⋆
⌢
is suitable.
Interative methods (e.g. the conjugate cradient method) for linear
⌢⋆
systems of equations can find a representative a
FIT: Discrete gauge

⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je
⌢⋆
⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢⋆ ⌢⋆
⌢
is suitable.
⌢⋆
LU decomposition with Coulomb gauge: if material and computational
grid are homogeneous and one neglects boundary effects, then
1 ⌢ ⌢⌢
C̃ Ca = j e and S̃a
⌢
=0
𝜇|𝐿|
where |𝐿| denotes the constant edge length of the grid cells
FIT: Discrete gauge

⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je
⌢⋆
⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢⋆ ⌢⋆
⌢
is suitable.
⌢⋆
1 ⌢ ⌢⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢
=0 → ̃ − GS)
(CC ̃ a
⌢
= 𝜇|𝐿| j e
𝜇|𝐿|
FIT: Discrete gauge

⌢ ⌢
̃ 𝜇−1 Ca
CM ⌢
= je
⌢⋆
⌢
⌢
⌢
⌢ ⌢⋆ ⌢⋆
⌢
is suitable.
⌢⋆
1 ⌢ ⌢⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⌢
=0 → ̃ − GS)
(CC
⏟⏟⏟
̃ ⌢
⏟⏟ a = 𝜇|𝐿| j e
𝜇|𝐿|
vectorial Laplace matrix

Lecture5 Magnetostatics

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Lecture5 Magnetostatics

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Electromagnetic Field Simulation

Lecture 5: Static Magnetic Fields

2 Simulation of Electromagnetic Fields

Law of 𝜕𝐵(⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡)

Law of ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d𝑉

Law of ⃗ 𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟,⃗ 𝑡) d𝑉

Law of ∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

Law of ⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟)⃗ d𝑉

No magnetic ∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0

Law of ∫ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝑠 ⃗ = ∫ 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗

Law of ⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜚(𝑟)⃗ d𝑉

No magnetic ∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0

No magnetic ∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0

Material law 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝜇(𝑟)⃗ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗

by Stoke’s theorem ∇ × 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝐽 (⃗ 𝑟)⃗

No magnetic ∫ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ ⋅ d𝐴 ⃗ = 0

by Gauss’ theorem ∇ ⋅ 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 0

Material law 𝐵(⃗ 𝑟)⃗ = 𝜇(𝑟)⃗ 𝐻(⃗ 𝑟)⃗

𝐻⃗ is not curl-free – unlike 𝐸⃗ in electrostatics

i.e. no conduction 𝐽𝑙⃗ or convection currents 𝐽k⃗

Common assumption: homogeneous, isotropic, constant permeability,

2 Simulation of Electromagnetic Fields

Vector calculus identities:

Vector calculus identities:

previous introduction of the scalar potential as 𝐸⃗ = −∇Φ for curl-free

Vector calculus identities:

previous introduction of the scalar potential as 𝐸⃗ = −∇Φ for curl-free

Vector calculus identities:

previous introduction of the scalar potential as 𝐸⃗ = −∇Φ for curl-free

Equations in differential form

Equations in differential form

Equations in differential form

Curl-curl equation for homogeneous and isotropic regions

In Cartesian coordinates the differential equation system results in

The curl-curl operator in Cartesian coordinates is therefore

Like the electrostatic potential Φ the magnetic vector potential 𝐴 ⃗ is not

𝐸1⃗ (𝑟)⃗ = −∇Φ(𝑟)⃗ 𝐵⃗ 1 (𝑟)⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴(⃗ 𝑟)⃗

⇒ Reference potential Φ0 ⇒ Free gradient field ∇Ψ

According to Helmholtz’ Theorem a vector field is uniquely defined by its

According to Helmholtz’ Theorem a vector field is uniquely defined by its

According to Helmholtz’ Theorem a vector field is uniquely defined by its

since the divergence ∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ has not been specified yet.

According to Helmholtz’ Theorem a vector field is uniquely defined by its

since the divergence ∇ ⋅ 𝐴 ⃗ has not been specified yet.

A common way to fix this is the Coulomb gauge.

The gradient of the Coulomb gauge is still zero

The gradient of the Coulomb gauge is still zero

The gradient of the Coulomb gauge is still zero

The gradient of the Coulomb gauge is still zero

Δ (𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑥⃗ ) = −𝜇𝐽e⃗ ⋅ 𝑒𝑥⃗

The differential operator curlcurl simplifies (in Cartesian coordinates) to

The differential operator curlcurl simplifies (in Cartesian coordinates) to

The differential operator curlcurl simplifies (in Cartesian coordinates) to

⇒ Decoupling with respect to coordinates

The differential operator curlcurl simplifies (in Cartesian coordinates) to

⇒ Decoupling with respect to coordinates

Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions (BC)

The Dirichlet BC specifies the tangential components of 𝐴 ⃗ , where 𝑛⃗

If 𝐴D⃗ ≡ 0 then the BC is called homogeneous, as if connected to a perfect

2 Simulation of Electromagnetic Fields

Coil: 10 turns, 𝐼 = 1000 A

∇ × (𝜈∇ × 𝐴)⃗ = 𝐽𝑒⃗

2 Simulation of Electromagnetic Fields

2 Simulation of Electromagnetic Fields