Written Assignment in

Hinduism and Islamic Studies

On The Schools of Hindu Philosophy: Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimasa and
Vidanta.
-Hosan Gangte; BD-III; R/no.-1.
Introduction: Indian philosophy has been shaped by the evolution of Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism. Hindu Philosophy encompasses six distinct schools or Darshanas: Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. Nyaya prioritizes logic and reasoning,
while Vaisheshika advocates for a pluralistic perspective, positing that everything possesses
its own reality. Samkhya is a dualistic system focused on classification and analysis. Yoga
underscores meditation and self-awareness as paths to understanding one’s true spiritual
essence.1 Let us look at these schools into more detail-
Nyaya School of Hinduism: The Nyāya School is founded by the sage Gotama, who is
familiarized as ‘Aksapāda’.2 The Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy is renowned for its
systematic approach to understanding reality and knowledge, particularly through logic and
reasoning. As one of the six classical schools of Hindu philosophy, known as Darshanas,
Nyaya provides a structured framework for philosophical inquiry. The term “Nyaya” itself
translates to “rule” or “method of reasoning,” highlighting the school’s emphasis on logical
analysis.3
Epistemologically, Nyaya explores the nature of valid knowledge (pramana) and
recognizes several sources of knowledge, including perception (pratyaksha), inference
(anumana), analogy (upamana), and testimony (shabda). It develops sophisticated theories of
epistemology that prefigure contemporary reliabilism, particularly process reliabilism. This
involves understanding the mechanisms by which knowledge is obtained and the criteria for
determining its reliability.4 The school encourages systematic argumentation and debate as a
means of arriving at truth, contributing to the development of rules for logical debate. Its
methods of analysis and argument resolution have influenced not only Hindu philosophical
discourse but also classical Indian literary criticism and legal theory.
Metaphysically, Nyaya defends a robust realism, asserting the existence of universals,
selves, and substances. This stance often puts it in debate with Buddhist anti-realists and
proponents of flux-theory. Nyaya thinkers engage in sophisticated philosophical debates,
defending their position against opposing viewpoints. Additionally, Nyaya addresses ethical
concerns and discussions on justice, albeit not as extensively as its focus on epistemology and

1
“Schools of Indian Philosophy” GeeksforGeeks accessed 28 January 2024.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/schools-of-indian-philosophy/
2
“Nyaya Philosophy” egyankosh accessed 28 January 2024.
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf
3
“Nyaya” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy accessed 29 January 2024. https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/
4
“Nyaya Philosophy” egyankosh accessed 28 January 2024.
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf

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metaphysics. The school considers concepts of dharma (duty/righteousness) and explores
ethical principles within its philosophical framework.5
Overall, the Nyaya school plays a crucial role in shaping Hindu philosophical
discourse and contributing to the diverse intellectual traditions of India. Its emphasis on logic,
reasoning, and systematic inquiry continues to influence philosophical thought within
Hinduism and beyond.
Vaisesika: The term “Vaisesika” is derived from “Vishesa,” signifying “distinction,”
“distinguishing feature,” or “particularity.” Kanāda, also known as Kanabhuk, Aulukya, the
son of Ulǖka, and Kāshyapa, is credited as the founder of Vaisesika. He earned the name
Kanāda due to his ascetic lifestyle, sustaining himself on grains gleaned from harvested
fields. While the precise origins of Vaisesika remain uncertain, it predates Nyāya, potentially
even Buddhism and Jainism. The composition of the Vaishesika Sutra is estimated to have
occurred after 300 B.C.E., likely between the second and fourth centuries C.E. By the fifth
century, Prashastapāda penned a commentary (Bhasya) on the Vaishesika Sutra, subsequently
elaborated upon by Vymasekharācārya, Udayana (984 C.E.), Srivatsācārya, and Shrīdhara.
Vaisesika subscribes to a system of pluralistic realism, emphasizing the diversity within
reality. It categorizes all experiential objects into seven padārtha, or classifications, where
padārtha denotes objects conceivable and namable. These seven categories comprise
substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity
(vishesa), inherence (samavāya), and non-being (abhāvā). Initially, Vaisesika acknowledged
only the first six categories; the inclusion of non-being (abhāvā) emerged later, coinciding
with a more epistemological orientation. Although Kanāda referenced non-being in the
Vaishesika Sutra, he didn’t accord it the status of a padārtha. Later, Vaisesika became
blended together with the Nyaya school, which accepted the Vaisesika ontology and further
developed its own epistemology.6

The school’s philosophy is based on the idea that all physical objects are made up of a
finite number of atoms. The Vaisheshika system holds that the smallest part of the world is an
atom, which is indivisible and indestructible. It also holds that all physical things are a
combination of the atoms of earth, water, fire, and air.
Samkhya: Samkhya is one of India’s six philosophical schools (darshans). The sage Kapila
Muni is considered the founder of the Sankhya philosophy. Ishvarakrishna is credited with
authoring the first significant text of this philosophical school, the Samkhya Karika. 7 The
word ‘Samkhya’ is a word of Sanskrit origin that stands for enumeration, empirical, and
number. It is one of the classic schools of Indian philosophy. Samkhya is essentially a dualist
philosophy in which the world is perceived as comprising two elements: Prakriti and Purusha.
Purusha is referred to as eternal spirit, while Prakriti can be described as matter. 8
5
“Nyaya: Indian Philosophy” Britannica accessed 30 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nyaya
6
“Vaisheshika” New World Encyclopedia accessed 31 January 2024.
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Vaisheshika
7
“What is Samkhya Philosophy?” Byjus accessed 31 January 2024. https://byjus.com/current-affairs/samkhya-
philosophy/
8
“Samkhya” Unacademy accessed 1 February 2024.
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/philosophy/samkhya/

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Yoga: Yoga school, founded by the Sage Patanjali, is one of the orthodox schools in Indian
philosophy. It presents a method of physical and mental discipline. Yogic techniques control
the body, mind, and sense organs, and are thus thought to be a means of achieving freedom or
mukti. Yoga acknowledges God’s existence as a teacher and guide. 9 Patanjali outlines eight
limbs, or stages, that one should follow to reach moksha. The eight limbs include the yamas
and niyamas, asanas (physical practice), pranayama (breathing exercises), pratyahara
(withdrawal), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (union with God).10
Mimamsa: The Mimamsa philosophy, also known as Purva Mimamsa, is one of the six
classical schools of Indian philosophy. Mimamsa is a Sanskrit term meaning “to analyse and
realise deeply”. Founded by Jaimini, its core focus is on the interpretation of the Vedas,
particularly the ritualistic portion known as the Karma Kanda. Mimamsa seeks to establish
the correct interpretation and performance of Vedic rituals as the means to achieve desirable
ends, such as prosperity, heaven, and ultimately, liberation (moksha). 11
Characteristics of Mimamsa philosophy include:12
Shruti Authority: Mimamsa holds the Vedas as eternal and authorless, considering them the
ultimate source of knowledge and authority. It emphasizes textual analysis and interpretation
to derive the correct meaning of Vedic injunctions (mantras) and rituals (karmas).
Karma: The performance of Vedic rituals, as prescribed in the scriptures, is considered
crucial for fulfilling one's duties (dharma) and attaining desired goals (artha). Mimamsa
elaborates on the nature of rituals, their components, and the proper manner of their
execution.
Dharma: Mimamsa defines dharma as the moral and ethical duties enjoined by the Vedas. It
emphasizes the performance of one's duties without attachment to the results, as a means to
purify the mind and attain spiritual progress.
Atheism: Mimamsa is often characterized as atheistic, as it does not posit the existence of a
creator God in the same way as other schools of Hindu philosophy. Instead, it focuses on the
efficacy of rituals and the law of karma in governing the universe.
Language and Hermeneutics: Mimamsa places great importance on language and
hermeneutics (interpretation). It develops sophisticated methods of interpretation to derive
the intended meaning of Vedic texts, including rules for grammar, semantics, and logic.
Vedanta: Vedanta, one of the most ancient spiritual philosophies globally, traces its roots
back to the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of India. Serving as the philosophical cornerstone of
Hinduism, Vedanta extends far beyond the confines of any specific culture or tradition. While

9
“Yoga School of Indian Philosophy” Lotusarise accessed 1 February 2024. https://lotusarise.com/yoga-school-
of-indian-philosophy-upsc/
10
“Yoga Philosophy” YogaPedia accessed 1 February 2024. https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/5159/yoga-
philosophy
11
“Mimasa” Unacademy accessed 2 February 2024.
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/philosophy/mimamsa/
12
“Mimasa” NewworldEncyclopadia accessed 2 February 2024.
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mimamsa

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Hinduism encompasses various aspects of Indian culture, Vedanta's teachings transcend
geographical and cultural boundaries, offering profound insights that are equally applicable to
people of all nations, cultures, and religious backgrounds.
The term “Vedanta” itself holds significant meaning. It is a fusion of two Sanskrit words:
“Veda,” which signifies “knowledge,” and “anta,” meaning “the end” or “the goal.” Vedanta,
therefore, represents the culmination of knowledge or the ultimate aim of understanding. At
its core, Vedanta expounds the fundamental principles of oneness, affirming the inherent
unity of existence, the divine essence of the individual soul, and the inherent harmony
underlying all religious traditions. Central to Vedanta is the notion that the purpose of human
life is to realize and manifest our innate divinity. According to Vedanta, every individual
possesses a divine essence, and the realization of this truth is the rightful inheritance of all
beings. This realization is not merely an intellectual pursuit but a transformative journey
towards embodying our true nature. 13
Furthermore, Vedanta emphasizes the universality of spiritual truths found across various
religious traditions. While the forms and rituals may differ, Vedanta asserts that all authentic
spiritual paths lead to the same ultimate truth about the nature of God, the universe, and the
interconnectedness of all beings. In this view, Vedanta fosters a spirit of inclusivity and
tolerance, encouraging individuals to explore and appreciate the diverse expressions of the
divine present in different cultures and faiths. In essence, Vedanta offers a comprehensive
framework for understanding the nature of reality, the purpose of life, and the
interconnectedness of all existence. Its teachings serve as a guiding light for seekers of truth,
inspiring them to embark on a journey of self-discovery and spiritual realization, regardless
of their cultural or religious background.14
Conclusion: Thus, the diverse schools of Hindu philosophy collectively form a rich tapestry
of thought, offering profound insights into the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate
purpose of existence. From the logical rigor of Nyaya to the mystical depth of Vedanta, each
school presents unique perspectives and methodologies for understanding the world and
attaining spiritual liberation. While they may differ in their ontological assumptions,
epistemological approaches, and practical implications, all these schools share a common
goal: the pursuit of wisdom and the alleviation of human suffering. Through their teachings,
they inspire seekers to explore the depths of consciousness, cultivate moral and ethical
virtues, and ultimately realize their fullest potential as spiritual beings. In a world
characterized by diversity and complexity, the schools of Hindu philosophy stand as timeless
guides, offering pathways to truth, meaning, and fulfilment for generations to come.

13
“What is Vedanta?” Vedanta.org accessed 3 February 2024. https://vedanta.org/what-is-vedanta/
14
“What is Vedanta?” Vedanta.org accessed 3 February 2024. https://vedanta.org/what-is-vedanta/

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 Sources-
“Mimasa” Unacademy accessed 2 February 2024.
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/philosophy/mimamsa/
“Mimasa” NewworldEncyclopadia accessed 2 February 2024.
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mimamsa
“Nyaya Philosophy” egyankosh accessed 28 January 2024.
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf
“Nyaya” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy accessed 29 January 2024.
https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/
“Nyaya Philosophy” egyankosh accessed 28 January 2024.
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf
“Nyaya: Indian Philosophy” Britannica accessed 30 January 2024,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nyaya
“Samkhya” Unacademy accessed 1 February 2024.
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/philosophy/samkhya/
“Vaisheshika” New World Encyclopedia accessed 31 January 2024.
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Vaisheshika
“What is Vedanta?” Vedanta.org accessed 3 February 2024. https://vedanta.org/what-is-
vedanta/
“What is Samkhya Philosophy?” Byjus accessed 31 January 2024. https://byjus.com/current-
affairs/samkhya-philosophy/
“Yoga School of Indian Philosophy” Lotusarise accessed 1 February 2024.
https://lotusarise.com/yoga-school-of-indian-philosophy-upsc/
“Yoga Philosophy” YogaPedia accessed 1 February 2024.
https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/5159/yoga-philosophy
“Schools of Indian Philosophy” GeeksforGeeks accessed 28 January 2024.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/schools-of-indian-philosophy/