UJIAN KOMPREHENSIF

LINGUISTICS (TOPIK RUANG LINGKUP KAJIAN LINGUISTIK)

1. DEFINITION OF LINGUISTICS

It is a scientific study of language. Its components are Phonetics, concerns on the sounds of
language. Phonology, scientific study of human speech sounds. Morphology, concerns with the
structure of the words. Syntax, concerns with the structure of phrases and sentences. Semantics,
scientific study of meanings. Another major subfield of Linguistics are Pragmatics, scientific
study of the speaker’s meaning or interaction between language and the cintexts in which it is
used. Synchronic, concerns on form of language at a fixed time in history, past or present.
Diachronic, the way how language changes over time. Sociolinguistics, the scientific study of
language and social, its function in society. Psycholinguistics, concerns on the process of
psychology when someone is communicating.

Sedangkan linguistik menurut Ferdinand de Saussure; Father of Linguistics in 20th Century,

dasar pemikirannya Language kenyataan dari ujar manusia yang terdapat pada seluruh manusia
normal/ warisan. Langue it is a store house. The sum of word-images stored in the minds of
individual Parole the act of speaking. Dan linguistic menurut Noam Chomsky menyatakan
bahwa Langue (Competence) dan Parole (Performance)

2. PANDANGAN SAUSSURE MENGENAI LANGAGE, LANGUE DAN PAROLE

Langue and parole are more than just 'language and speech' (although this is a useful quick way
of remembering them). Langue is the whole system of language that precedes and makes speech
possible. A sign is a basic unit of langue. Learning a language, we master the system of
grammar, spelling, syntax and punctuation. These are all elements of langue. Langue is a system
in that it has a large number of elements whereby meaning is created in the arrangements of its
elements and the consequent relationships between these arranged elements.

Langue adalah bahasa konvensional, bahasa yang sesuai ejaan yang telah disempurnakan, bahasa
yang mengikuti tata aturan baku bahasa. Lebih jauh Saussure mengatakan bahwa langue
merupakan keseluruhan kebiasaan (kata) yang diperoleh secara pasif yang diajarkan dalam
masyarakat bahasa, yang memungkinkan para penutur saling memahami dan menghasilkan
unsur-unsur yang dipahami penutur dan masyarakat. Langue bersenyawa dengan kehidupan
masyarakat secara alami. Jadi, masyarakat merupakan pihak pelestari langue. Dalam langue
terdapat batas-batas negatif (misalnya, tunduk pada kaidah-kaidah bahasa, solidaritas, asosiatif
dan sintagmatif) terhadap apa yang harus dikatakannya bila seseorang mempergunakan suatu
bahasa secara gramatikal. Langue merupakan sejenis kode, suatu aljabar atau sistem nilai yang
murni. Langue adalah perangkat konvensi yang kita terima, siap pakai, dari penutur-penurut
terdahulu. Langue telah dan dapat diteliti; langue juga bersifat konkret karena merupakan
perangkat tanda bahasa yang disepakati secara kolektif. Nah, tanda bahasa tersebut dapat
menjadi lambang tulisan yang konvensional.

Parole is the concrete use of the language, the actual utterances. It is an external manifestation of
langue. It is the usage of the system, but not the system. A parole is any particular meaningful
utterance, spoken or written.

Parole adalah bahasa tuturan, bahasa sehari-hari. Singkatnya, parole adalah keseluruhan dari apa
yang diajarkan orang temasuk konstruksi-konstruksi individu yang muncul dari pilihan penutur,
dan pengucapan-pengucapan yang diperlukan untuk menghasilkan konstruksi-konstruksi ini
berdasarkan pilihan bebas juga. Parole merupakan manifestasi individu dari bahasa. Jadi, parole
adalah dialek. Parole bukan fakta sosial karena seluruhnya merupakan hasil individu yang sadar,
termasuk kata apapun yang diucapkan oleh penutur; ia juga bersifat heterogen dan tak dapat
diteliti.

Langage is the implicit system of elements, of distinctions and oppositions, and of principles of
combination, which make it possible, within a language community, for a speaker to produce and
the auditor to understand a particular parole. Langage adalah gabungan antara parole dan langue
(gabungan antara peristiwa dengan kaidah bahasa atau tata bahasa, atau struktur bahasa).
Menurut Saussure, langage tidak memenuhi syarat sebagai fakta sosial karena di dalam langage
ada faktor-faktor bahasa individu yang berasal dari pribadi penutur. Bahkan langage tidak
memiliki prinsip keutuhan yang memungkinkan kita untuk menelitinya secara ilmiah. Langage
mencakup apapun yang diungkapkan serta kendala yang mencegahnya dalam mengungkapkan
hal-hal yang tak gramatikal. Contohnya, kata materiil. Kata ini memang serta sosial banyak
digunakan bahkan seolah-olah dianggap sebagai bahasa konvesional. Padahal, kata “materiil”
tidaklah baku, tidak sesuai dengan ejaan yang telah disempurnakan (EYD). Langage memiliki
segi individual (parole) dan segi sosial (langue) tetapi kita tidak dapat menelaah yang satu tanpa
yang lain. Dengan demikian, langage memiliki multi bentuk dan heteroklit; dan psikis.

3. PHONOLOGY

Phonology, study of the sound patterns that occur within languages. Some linguists
include phonetics, the study of the production and description of speech sounds, within the study
of phonology.

Diachronic (historical) phonology examines and constructs theories about the changes and
modifications in speech sounds and sound systems over a period of time. For example, it is
concerned with the process by which the English words “sea” and “see,” once pronounced with
different vowel sounds (as indicated by the spelling), have come to be pronounced alike
today. Synchronic (descriptive) phonology investigates sounds at a single stage in the
development of a language, to discover the sound patterns that can occur. For example, in
English, nt and dm can appear within or at the end of words (“rent,” “admit”) but not at the
beginning.

Phonetics vs. phonology

Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior
knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially
different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of
sounds in different positions in words etc.

Phonology as grammar of phonetic patterns

 The consonant cluster /st/ is OK at the beginning, middle or end of words in English.
 At beginnings of words, /str/ is OK in English, but /ftr/ or / tr/ are not (they are
ungrammatical).
 / tr/ is OK in the middle of words, however, e.g. in "ashtray".
 / tr/ is OK at the beginnings of words in German, though, and /ftr/ is OK word-initially in
Russian, but not in English or German.
A given sound have a different function or status in the sound patterns of different
languages

For example, the glottal stop [ ] occurs in both English and Arabic BUT. In English, at the
beginning of a word, [ ] is a just way of beginning vowels, and does not occur with consonants.
In the middle or at the end of a word, [ ] is one possible pronunciation of /t/ in e.g. "pat" [pa ]. In
Arabic, / / is a consonant sound like any other (/k/, /t/ or whatever): [ íktib] "write!", [da íi a]
"minute (time)", [ a ] "right".

Phonemes and allophones, or sounds and their variants

The vowels in the English words "cool", "whose" and "moon" are all similar but slightly
different. They are three variants or allophones of the /u/ phoneme. The different variants are
dependent on the different contexts in which they occur. Likewise, the consonant phoneme /k/
has different variant pronunciations in different contexts. Compare:

keep /kip/ The place of articulation is fronter in the mouth [k+h]

The place of articulation is not so front in the

cart /k t/ [kh]
mouth

The place of articulation is backer, and the lips

coot /kut/ [khw]
are rounded

seek /sik/ There is less aspiration than in initial position [k`]

scoo
/skup/ There is no aspiration after /s/ [k]
p

These are all examples of variants according to position (contextual variants). There are also
variants between speakers and dialects. For example, "toad" may be pronounced [tëUd] in high-
register RP, [toUd] or [to d] in the North. All of them are different pronunciations of the same
sequence of phonemes. But these differences can lead to confusion: [toUd] is "toad" in one
dialect, but may be "told" in another.
4. MORPHOLOGY

Morphology, in linguistics, study of the internal construction of words. Languages vary

widely in the degree to which words can be analyzed into word elements, or morphemes. In
English there are numerous examples, such as “replacement,” which is composed of re-, “place,”
and -ment,and “walked,” from the elements “walk” and -ed. Many American Indian languages
have a highly complex morphology; other languages, such as Vietnamese or Chinese, have very
little or none. Morphology includes the grammatical processes of inflection and derivation.
Inflection marks categories such as person, tense, and case; e.g., “sings” contains a final -
s, marker of the 3rd person singular, and the German Mannes consists of the stem Mann and the
genitive singularinflection -es. Derivation is the formation of new words from existing
words; e.g., “singer” from “sing” and “acceptable” from “accept.” Derived words can also be
inflected: “singers” from “singer. Morphology is the study of investigating basic forms in
language or the study of forms. A beeter way of looking at linguistic forms in different languages
would be to use this nation of elements in the message, rather tha identifying only words. For
example : in Swahili (spoken through out East Africa), the nitakupenda convoys what
in English would haveto be represented as separate words like I wiil love you.

Ni -ta -ku -penda

I will you love

Morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical fungtion. It is a minimal unit which

indicates the meaning. For example of elements are –s, -er, -ed, -ing, ect.

e.g : “reopened” consists of three morphemes, re-, open, -ed

re- : again open : open -ed : indicating past tense

Morphs and Allomorphs. Morphs are the actual forms used to realize morphemes. For
example, the form cars consists of two morphs, car + -s, realizing a lexical morpheme (plural),
so there are one morph used to realize the inflectional morpheme “plural”. Allomorphs are a
particular morphemes or a group of different morphs, all versionsof one morpheme. We can use
the prefix “allo-“ (= one of a closely related set). For example, man + plural, we have a vowel
change in the word (a becomes e) as the morphs that produces the so- called “irregural” plural
form men.

Free and bound morphemes There are two types of morphemes, free morphemes and bound
morphemes. a. free morphemes is the morphemes which can stand by them self as single words.
For example : open and tour. Bound morphemes is the morphemes which can not stand alone
and are typically attached to another forms/ suffix and affix (re-, -ist, -ed, -s, ect.). for example :

Undressed

un- dress -ed

prefix stem suffix

(bound) (free) (bound)

Lexical and functional morphemes. Lexical morphemes are free morphemes which fall into
two catagories set nouns, adjectives, and verbs as a content. It is treated as an ‘open’ class of
words. For example : girl, man, house, ect. Functional morphemes are also free morphemes,
but the se consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions,
prepositions, articles, and pronouns. It is described as a ‘close’ class of words. For example :
and, but, when, on, near, above, in, the, that, ect.

Derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes are used to make new
words or to make words of different grammatical category from the stem. For example :

-ness changes the adjective “good” to the noun “goodness”

-full changes the noun “care” to the adjective “careful”

Inflectional morphemes are used to produse new words in the language, but rather to indicate
aspects of the grammatical function of a word. It shows if a word is plural or singular, past tense
or not, comparative orpassive form.

Noun + -s, s

Verbs + -s, -ed, -ing, -en

 Adjective + -est, -er

Problems in morphological description

English words in different morphemes are easily identifiable as saperate elements. In analysis of
different language, the solution to some of this problems are clearer in some instances than in
others. For example: law and legal. A full description of English morphology will have to take
account of both historical influences and the effect of borrowed elements.

5. SYNTAX
Syntax is the way in which linguistic elements (such as words) are put together to form
constituents (such as phrases or clauses). In linguistics, "syntax" refers to the rules that govern
the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term "syntax"
comes from the greek, meaning "arrange together." the term is also used to mean the study of the
syntactic properties of a language. In computer contexts, the term refers to the proper ordering of
symbols and codes so that the computer can understand what instructions are telling it to do.
6. SEMANTIC
Semantic is one of the important branches of linguistics, and deals with interpretation and
meaning of the words, sentence structure, and symbols. It deals with the reading
comprehension of the readers, in how they understand others and their interpretations. In
addition, semantics constructs a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a
sentence, whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative.

Connotative Semantic is when a word suggests a set of associations, or is an imaginative or

emotional suggestion connected with the words, while readers can relate to such
associations. Simply, it represents figurative meaning. Usually poets use this type of meaning in
their poetry.

Denotative Semantic is it suggests the literal, explicit, or dictionary meanings of the words,
without using associated meanings. It also uses symbols in writing that suggest expressions of
writers, such as an exclamation mark, quotation mark, apostrophe, colon, or quotation mark.

7. PRAGMATIC
Pragmatic in linguistics is the study of the practical aspects of human action and thought.
The study of the use of linguistic signs, words and sentences, in actual situations. Pragmatics
outlines the study of meaning in the interactional context. It looks beyond the literal meaning of
an utterance and considers how meaning is constructed as well as focusing on implied meanings.
It considers language as an instrument of interaction, what people mean when they use language
and how we communicate and understand each other.