Adaptations of some organelles to their functions

Structure Feature Function

Cell membrane Small pores Controls the movement of materials in

and out of the cell
Lysosome Lytic enzymes Destroy worn out organelles

Sap vacuole Contains a solution of Controls osmotic pressure

sugars and salts
Nucleus Nuclear pores Controls the movement of materials in
and out of the nucleus

Nucleolus Manufactures ribosomes

Chromatin Contains hereditary/genetic materials

Cell wall Made up of cellulose Gives the cell a definite shape.
Provides mechanical support
Mitochondrion Inner membrane is greatly Increases the surface area for
folded into cristae attachment of respiratory enzymes

Has matrix Provides site for respiration.

Chloroplast Has grana Contains chlorophyll to absorb light
energy for photosynthesis.

Has stroma Contains enzymes that speed up the

process of photosynthesis

Preparation of temporary slides

Types of slides
(i) Temporary slides- for immediate use during a laboratory practical.
(ii) Permanent slides- can be preserved for reuse
Procedures carried out when preparing temporary slides

(i) Sectioning- refers to cutting/ making of thin sections to allow light to pass through.
It is done by use of a sharp razor blade to ensure that cells are not distorted.
(ii) Adding a drop of water/ placing the sections in water- to keep the cells turgid and
prevent dehydration.
(iii) Staining- to make different parts of the cell more distinct and clear.
Stains commonly used are iodine solution, methylene/bromothymolblue, neutral red
and eosin.

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(iv) Mounting- Involves placing the specimen on the slide and then gently pressing it down
with a cover slip to flatten it.
Advantages of placing a coverslip over the specimen include: Holds the specimen in
place, protects specimen from drying up/dust particles and protects the objective lens.
(v) Fixation- Involves making the specimen hard or stiff for sectioning.
It can also be done after sectioning to maintain the structure of the specimen.
Commonly used fixative is 70% ethanol.
Note:

 The stage should be kept dry for easy manipulation of specimen as wetness causes the slide
to stick onto the stage.
 Plant materials are stiff enough and do not require fixation.

Estimation of cell size

(a) With the low power objective lens in place, a transparent ruler is placed on the stage of the
microscope.
(b) An estimation of the diameter of the field of view is made in millimetres.
Practice question 1
Below is a diagram of a millimeter ruler as it appears under the low power objective lens of
a light microscope. The thick dark lines represent the millimeter marks on the ruler.
Estimate the diameter of the field of view in millimeter. (1mk)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) The diameter of the field of view is converted into micrometres.
(1millimetre=1000micrometres)
Practice question 2
Convert the diameter of the field of view in (b) above into micrometers. (1mk)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(d) The ruler is then replaced with a prepared slide of onion epidermis.
(e) The cells along the diameter of the field of view are counted.

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 Practice question 3
What is the number of cells along the diameter of the field of view in the figure below?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(f) The diameter of the field of view (in micrometres) is divided by the number of cells along
the diameter of the field of view.
Practice question 4
Using your answers in (c) and (e) above, estimate the size of each cell. (2mks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Practice question 5
The diameter of the field of view was estimated to be 5mm under a certain magnification. 5
cells were observed along the diameter of the field of view. What was the diameter of one
cell in microns? (3mks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Cell specialization
 This is the structural modification of a cell to perform a specific function.

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Specialized plant cells
Specialized Function Structural modification Diagram (to be drawn by the
plant cell learner)
Root hair cell Absorption of Has an extension called
water and the root hair to increase
mineral salts surface area for
from the soil absorption of water and
mineral salts from the soil

Guard cell Controls the Has chloroplasts for

opening and photosynthesis.
closing of Thinner elastic outer wall
stomata and thicker less elastic
inner wall.

Palisade cell Photosynthesis Has numerous

chloroplasts which
contain chlorophyll to
absorb light energy for
photosynthesis.

©Gibson Gilbert
Specialized animal cells

Specialized Function Structural Diagram (to be drawn by the

animal cell modification learner)
Nerve cell Receives and Has axons and
transmits nerve dendrites
impulses

Sperm cell Fertilizes the egg Middle piece has

cell/ ovum numerous
mitochondria.
The head has
acrosome
Long tail
Red blood cell Transports Has biconcave shape
oxygen and Has haemoglobin
carbon (IV) oxide Lacks nucleus.
within the body
White blood Protects the body Has large nucleus
cell against infections Have the ability to
change their shape

Muscle cell Brings about Has contractile

movement fibrils

Ovum Stores food for Has large cytoplasm

the developing
embryo

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 Tissues

 A tissue is a group/ collection of cells that are specialized to perform similar functions.

Animal tissues

Type of tissue Function Characteristics

Epithelial tissue Covers and protects the internal
and external surfaces
Connective tissue Connects other tissues and organs
holding them together in position.
Skeletal tissue Contract and relax to bring about
movement.
Blood tissue Protects the body against infections
Transports materials in the body
e.g. oxygen, metabolic wastes and
nutrients.
Has several layers of epithelial
cells found on the outside of the
body or around internal organs.
Consists of strong fibres
Consists of units called myofibrils
Consists of platelets, white blood
cells and red blood cells
suspended in a fluid medium
(Plasma)

Plant tissues

Type of tissue Function Characteristics

Epidermal tissue Protects inner tissues of plant from Consists of a single layer of
mechanical damage and entry of epidermal cells covering the outer
pathogens. surface of leaves and on young parts
of the stem and roots.
Palisade tissue Photosynthesis Has numerous chloroplasts which
contain chlorophyll to absorb light
energy for photosynthesis.

©Gibson Gilbert
 Vascular tissue Xylem transports water and mineral Consists of cells that are
salts from the roots to the leaves. arranged/joined end to end
Phloem transports manufactured
food from the leaves to other parts
of the plant.
Meristematic Actively divide to allow growth. Found at growing regions of plants.
tissue Note: Consists of small, thin walled cells
Apical meristems bring about with no vacuoles but dense
primary growth. cytoplasm.
Lateral meristems bring about
secondary growth.
Parenchyma Provides mechanical support Consists of thin walled and
tissue Packaging and storage of food and irregularly shaped cells.
water

Organs

 An organ is a group of tissues that are specialized to perform a similar function.

Examples of animal organs include: stomach, brain, kidney, liver, heart, eye and ear.

Examples of plant organs include: roots, leaves, flowers and stem.

Organ system

 An organ system is a group of organs that perform a similar function.

Examples of animal organ systems include: digestive system, circulatory system, respiratory
system, excretory system, nervous system and reproductive system.

Example in plants include transport and support systems.

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