1.

4 THE THEORY OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Why it is important to understand: The Theory of Matrices and Determinants

“Matrices are used to solve problems in electronics, optics, quantum mechanics, statics,
robotics, linear programming, optimisation, genetics, and much more. Matrix calculus is a
mathematical tool used in connection with linear equations, linear transformations, systems
of differential equations, and so on, and is vital for calculating forces, vectors, tensions,
masses, loads and a lot of other factors that must be accounted for in engineering to ensure
safe and resource-efficient structure. Engineers, chemists, biologists and scientists all need
knowledge of matrices to solve problems. In computer graphics, matrices are used to project
a three-dimensional image on to a two-dimensional screen, and to create realistic motion.
Matrices are therefore very important in solving engineering problems”. Bird, J., 2017. Higher
engineering mathematics. Routledge.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

 Write simultaneous equations in matrix form.

 Define a determinant.
 Evaluate a determinant of order 2 and 3.
 Apply Cramer’s rule to solve simultaneous equations with 2 or 3 unknowns.

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INTRODUCTION

There are many real-world situations where solving an equation is valuable. The world is a
very complicated place and many more situations lead to more than one variable. In that
case, solving a system of equations becomes important. In this section, we will describe
another method for solving linear systems called Cramer’s rule, which uses determinants.
However, this method can only be used on square matrices; when the number of equations
equals the number of variables and is typically used for systems with either two or three
equations.

1.4.1 Matrix Notation

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in horizontal rows and vertical

columns. Matrices are handy for storing and processing data in applications. The
coefficients of the variables for linear simultaneous equations may be shown in matrix form.
The coefficients of x and y in the simultaneous equations

2x  y  4
3x  2 y  5

2 1 
become   in matrix notation.
 3  2

Similarly, the coefficients of x , y and z in the equations

2x  3y  4  z
4 x  y  3  3 y  z  2

2  3 1
 
become 4 1 0 in matrix form.
 
0 3 1

The numbers within a matrix are called an array and the coefficients forming the array are
called the elements of the matrix (matrix definition and notation will be considered in detail
later in semester 2).

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1.4.2 Second-Order Determinants

Every square matrix has a number associated with it called its determinant. A system of two
equations and two variables has a corresponding 2  2 matrix. The determinant of the 2  2
a b 
matrix   is given by:
c d 
a b
D  ad  bc (1)
c d
Notice that brackets,  , are used to denote a matrix, whereas vertical lines similar to

absolute value, , are used to denote the determinant of a matrix.

3  4 3 4
Thus, the determinant of   is written as and is equal to 3  6   4 1  22 .
1 6  1 6

The rule is: top left times bottom right minus bottom left times top right.

Example 1.1 Evaluating a Second-Order Determinant

1. Find the determinant of each matrix:

 2  5 0,5 0,2  2 1
1.1)  1 3  1.2)  3  4,2 1.3)  3 
     2 3

Solution:

2 5
1.1)  (2) (3)  (1) (5)  6  5  1
1 3

0,5 0,2
1.2)  0,5 4,2   30,2  2,1  0,6  1,5
 3  4,2

2 1 2
1.3) 3    3  2 1  2  2  0
2 3 3

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1.4.3 Third-Order Determinants

There are actually three different methods used to evaluate a 3 3 determinant:

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

1.4.3.1 Method 1 – Expansion by minors

 a1 b1 c1 

Given the square matrix A  a2 b2 c2  , the third-order determinant of A can be

 a3 b3 c3 
defined in terms of second-order determinants as follows:
a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 b1 c1 b1 c1
D  a2 b2 c2  a1  a2  a3
b3 c3 b3 c3 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

 a1 b2 c3  b3 c 2   a 2 b1c3  b3 c1   a3 b1c 2  b2 c1  (2)

To better understand evaluating third order determinants, we introduce the concept of a

minor of an element, sign of an element and cofactor of an element.

1.4.3.1.1 Minor of an element

The minor of an element in a 3 3 determinant is a second-order determinant obtained by

deleting/covering the row and column that contains the element.

a1 b1 c1
b c2
For instance, in the determinant a2 b2 c2 , the minor of a1 is 2 , the minor of
b3 c3
a3 b3 c3

a1 c1 a1 b1
b2 is and the minor of c 3 is .
a3 c3 a2 b2

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1.4.3.1.2 Sign factor of an element

The sign factor associated with an element depends on the position of the element in the
determinant. To find the sign factor, add the row number and column number, and:

 If the sum is even, the sign factor is  1 and;

 If the sum is odd, the sign factor is  1

In a 3 3 determinant, the sign factor can also be determined with the following grit pattern:

  
  
  

1.4.3.1.3 Cofactor of an element (or signed minor)

A quantity closely associated with the minor of an element is the cofactor of an element,
which is defined as the product of the minor and the sign factor associated with that element.

Example 1.2 Finding Cofactors

Find the cofactors of  2 and 5 in the determinant

2 0 3
1 6 5
1 2 0

Solution:

6 5
The minor of  2 is  0  10  10 . Since the place sign of  2 is  1 , the
2 0
required cofactor is still  10 .

1 6
The minor of 5 is  2  6   4 . Since the place sign of 5 is  1 , the required
1 2
cofactor is 4 .

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Theorem 2 will give us a step-by-step procedure for finding third-order determinants without
having to memorize formula (2).

THEOREM 2 Computing a Third-Order Determinant

The value of a determinant of order 3 is the sum of three products obtained by multiplying
each element in any row or any column by its cofactor. This is called expanding along a row
or column.

Example 1.3 Evaluating a Third-Order Determinant

4 3 2
1. Evaluate 2 1 2
1 2 3

Solution:

It is important to note that the determinant will work out the same regardless of which row or
column you choose to expand along. Hence, if possible, you should choose a row or column
with one or more zeros to minimize the number of computations.

If we choose the first row, we get

4 3 2
1 2 2 2 2 1
2  1 2   4   3  2 
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3

 4  13  2  2   3 2 3  2 1  2 2  4   11

 4  3  4  3 6  2  2  4  1

 4  12  6

 22

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 2 2 0
2. Evaluate  3 1 2
1  3 1

Solution:

We can choose any row or column to expand along. We will choose the first row because of
the zero: we won’t need to find that cofactor because it will be multiplied by zero.

2 2 0
1 2 3 2
3 1 2 2 2 0
 3 1 1 1
1  3 1
 2  1  6  2 3  2 
 2 5  2 1
 12

Note: This method of evaluating determinants is actually more valuable than our second
method, because it works with any size determinant from 3 3 to 4  4 to any higher
order determinant. Method 2 works only on 3 3 determinants. It cannot be used on
a 4  4 determinant.

1.4.3.2 Method 2 – Sarrus’ rule

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2  a1b2 c3  b1c2 a3  c1a2 b3  a3b2 c1  b3 c2 a1  c3 a2 b1
a3 b3 c3

This is another way of evaluating a third order determinant, without using the co-factor
method. We begin by writing the determinant with the first two columns repeated on the
right:
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2
a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3

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The positive products in the definition come from multiplying down the three full diagonals:

a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3
  

The negative products come from multiplying up the three diagonals

  
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2
a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3

Example 1.4 Evaluating a Third-Order Determinant

2 2 0
Find the value of  3 1 2 , using Sarrus’ rule
1  3 1

Solution:

1 3 21 3
2 0 1 2 0
4 1 1 4 1

 (1)(0)(1)  (3)(1)(4)  (2)(2)(1)  (4)(0)(2)  (1)(1)(1)  (1)(2)(3)

 0  12  4  0  1  6
 11

1.4.3.3 Method 3 – Using a scientific calculator

Since the use of electronic calculators is now commonplace, the application of these
properties has somewhat decreased. Learn how to use your calculator to evaluate a 3 3
determinant.

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1.4.4 Using Cramer’s Rule to Solve Systems of Equations

We will now see how determinants can be used to solve systems of equations. We’ll start by
investigating two equations in two variables, and then extend our results to three equations
in three variables.

Instead of thinking of each system of linear equations in two variables as a different problem,
let’s see what happens when we attempt to solve the general system:
a1 x  b1 y  c1 (1A)

a2 x  b2 y  c2 (1B)
We proceed by multiplying equations (1A) and (1B) by suitable constants so that when the
resulting equations are added, left side to left side and right side to right side, one of the
variables drops out. If we choose to eliminate y , we will multiply equation (1A) by b2 and

(1B) by  b1 ; then add:

a1b2 x  b1b2 y  b2 c1
 a 2 b1 x  b1b2 y  b1c 2

a1b2 x  a2 b1 x  b2 c1  b1c 2
x a1b2  a2 b1   b2 c1  b1c 2
b2c1  b1c 2
x a1b2  a2b1  0
a1b2  a2b1

At this point, the numerator and denominator might remind you of second-order
determinants. In fact, the value of x can be written as:

c1 b1
c b2
x 2
a1 b1
a 2 b2
Similarly, starting with system (1A) and (1B) and eliminating x (this is left as an exercise),
we obtain:
a1 c1
a2 c2
y
a1 b1
a2 b2

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These results are summarized by what is commonly known as Cramer’s rule, which is
named after the Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer (1704–1752).

1.4.4.1 Cramer’s Rule for Two Equations and Two Variables

Given the system:

a1 x  b1 y  c1 a1 b1
with D 0
a 2 x  b2 y  c2 a2 b2
then:

c1 b1 a1 c1
c2 b2 D a2 c2 D y
x  x and y 
a1 b1 D a1 b1 D
a2 b2 a2 b2

The determinant D is called the coefficient determinant. If D  0 , then the system has
exactly one solution, which is given by Cramer’s rule. If, on the other hand, D  0 , then it
can be shown that the system is either inconsistent and has no solutions or is dependent
and has an infinite number of solutions. In that case, we would need to use other methods to
determine the exact nature of the solutions.

Example 1.5 Solving a Two-Variable System with Cramer’s Rule

1. Given the system of linear equations below, solve for x and y by using Cramer's rule:

3x  5 y  2
 4 x  3 y  1
Solution:

First find the determinant of the coefficient matrix:

3 5
D  9  20  11
4 3

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Now replace the x column with the constants and find the determinant.

2 5
Dx   6 5 1
1 3

Now repeat, this time replacing the y column with the constants.

3 2
Dy   3  (8)  5
 4 1

The solution to the system is:

Dx 1 Dy 5
x  and y 
D 11 D 11

4 x  3 y  12
2. Solve using Cramer’s rule:
2 x  5 y  8

Solution:

12 3 4 12
D 8 5 84 Dy 2  8  56
x x   6 and y    4
D 4 3 14 D 4 3 14
2 5 2 5

Cramer’s rule can be generalized completely for any size linear system that has the same
number of variables as equations. However, it cannot be used to solve systems where the
number of variables is not equal to the number of equations. Below, we state without proof
Cramer’s rule for three equations in three variables.

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1.4.4.2 Cramer’s Rule for Three Equations in Three Variables

Given the system:

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 a1 b1 c1
a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 z  d1 with D  a2 b2 c2  0
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d 3 a3 b3 c3
then:

d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
d2 b2 c2 a2 d2 c2 a 2 b2 d2
d b3 c3 D x a d3 c3 D y a b3 d 3 Dz
x 3  , y 3  and z 3 
a1 b1 c1 D a1 b1 c1 D a1 b1 c1 D
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

You can easily remember these determinant formulas for x , y , and z if you observe the
following:

 Determinant D is formed from the coefficients of x , y , and z , keeping the same

relative position in the determinant as found in the system of equations.

 Determinant D appears in the denominators for x , y , and z .

 Determinants D x , D y and Dz are obtained by replacing columns 1, 2 and 3,

respectively, by the right side of the system above. In short, the constants on the right
side of the system are used to replace the coefficients of the variable you are solving
for.

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Example 1.6 Solving a Three-Variable System with Cramer’s Rule

1. Solve using Cramer’s rule:

x yz 6
2x  y  z  3
x  2 y  3 z  4
Solution:

1 1 1
1 1 2 1 2 1
D  2 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3

 13  2   1 6  1  14  1

 13

6 1 1
1 1 3 1 3 1
Dx  3 1 1 6 1 1
2 3 4 3 4 2
4 2 3

 6 1  1 5  12 

 13

1 1 6
6 1 1 1 1 6
Dy  2 1  23 3 1
4 3 1 3 1 4
1 4 3

 2  14  3  4  1 10 
 26

1 1 6
1 3 1 6 1 6
Dz  2  1 3 1 2 1
2 4 2 4 1 3
1 2 4

 1 2  2  16   19 
 39

Dx 13 Dy 26 Dz 39
x   1, y  2 and z  3
D 13 D 13 D 13

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2. Use Cramer’s rule to solve:

x  y  1
2x  z  3
y  2 z  1

Solution:

It is helpful to rewrite the system using zeros for the coefficients of those variables not shown
in each equation:
x  y  0 z  1
2x  0 y  z  3
0 x  y  2 z  1

The four determinants used in Cramer’s rule are:

1 1 0 1 1 0
D  2 0  1  3 Dx  3 0  1  6
0 1 2 1 1 2

1 1 0 1 1 1
Dy  2 3  1  9 D z  2 0 3  3
0 1 2 0 1 1

Dx  6 Dy 9 Dz  3
x   2, y   3 and z  1
D 3 D 3 D 3

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3. Use Cramer’s rule to solve:

3 4 2
  1
x y z
2 5 2
  3
x y z
1 2 1
  2
x y z

Solution:

1 1 1
Letting p  , q and r  and re-writing the equations give:
x y z
3 p  4q  2r  1
2 p  5q  2 r  3
p  2q  r  2

The four determinants used in Cramer’s rule are:

3 4 2 1 4 2
D  2 5  2  45 D p  3 5  2  45
1 2 1 2 2 1

3 1 2 3 4 1
Dq  2 3  2  15 Dr  2 5 3  15
1 2 1 1 2 2

Dp 45 Dq 15 1 Dr 15 1
p  1, y   and z  
D 45 D 45 3 D 45 3

Thus, x  1, y  3 and z  3

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 ACTIVITY 5

1. Evaluate:

1 2
1.1 10
3 4

8 4
1.2  4
7 3

2  10
1.3  2
3  16

2. Evaluate each of the following determinants:

1 2 3
2.1 2 3 4  78
3 4 5

1 2 3
2.2 x 2 x 3x 0
8 9 10

1 1 1
2.3 5 2 0 52
0 2 6

3 2 7
3. Given A  9 1 0 , determine the cofactor of:
3 1 2

3.1 The element in row 2, column 1  11

3.2 The element in row 1, column 3  12

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4. Expand the determinants and solve for x in each of the following equations:

3 x 2 1
4.1  x  8
1 2 x 5

4 x2 x 4
4.2  x  1 or x  4
1 1 2 3

3 x 1
2 x
4.3 x 0 2  x  1
x 4
4 0 1

x 1 2
2 2
4.4 2 x 3  x  3 or x  4
5 x
4  3 1

5. Solve each of the following systems using Cramer’s rule:

3x  2 y  4  8 46 
5.1
 4 x  3 y  10  x  17 , y   17 
 

1  x  2y  1 2
5.2
2x  y  x  5 , y  5 

1
3x  y 1
2  1 
5.3
1 5  x  2 , y  1
4x  y 
3 3

2 3
 2
x y  1 3
5.4
5 6 x  3 , y  4 
 7 
x y

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6. Solve the simultaneous equations given, using determinants:

2x  y  2
 1 
6.1 z  4y  0  x  2 , y  1 , z  4
 
4x  z  6

2 x  3 y  4  5z
 1 2 4
6.2 2 z  3x  3  2 y x   3 , y  3 , z  3 
 
y  4z  6  4x

1 2 2
  4
x y z
3 1 4  1 1 1
6.3    25  x  2 , y   3 , z  4 
x y z
3 2 1
   4
x y z

2x  3 y  4  z  1 
6.4
4 x  y  3  3 y  z  2  x   2 , y  1 , z  2

2x 2z
y 2
3 3
6.5 x  8 y  3 z  31 x  5 , y  4 , z  2
6x 4 y 2z
   2
5 5 5

7. Use determinants to solve for y only:

2x  3 y  4z  7
7.1 y  3 
3x  2 y  0  5 y  3z

x  2 y  z  7 y  2 
7.2
3x  y  3x  2  y  3  z

94