3.

1 RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS (1945 TO PRESENT)

● According to UN, “human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of
race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status.”
● HUMAN RIGHTS INClUDE: right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and
torture, freedom of opinion and expression, right to work and education.
Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination’.

● Throughout 20th century, Aus. struggled with many social and political changes: incl.
For women and First Nations Peoples of Australia.

3.2 WHAT DO SOURCES TELL US ABOUT RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS?

● Go over source analysis and questions to analyse

3.3 HOW DID THE FIRST NATIONS AUSTRALIANS PROTEST MOVEMENT BEGIN?
● 3.3.1 Protests during the 1920’s
- When Captain James Cook claimed Australia's east coast for Britain in 1770,
the principle of terra nullius was applied, meaning no treaty was made with
the First Nations Peoples. The arrival of the First Fleet in Sydney Cove on 26
January 1788 marked the beginning of European settlement or, from the First
Nations' perspective, an invasion of their land.

- First Nations Australian political organisations emerged in the 1920s, notably

the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association (AAPA) founded by Fred
Maynard in 1924. Inspired by black activists in the U.S., the AAPA advocated
for self-determination, land rights, and an end to the forced removal of
children. They gained public attention through rallies, meetings, and petitions.

- Jane Duren wrote to King George V about First Nations conditions, and
Maynard protested to NSW Premier Jack Lang for land restitution. The AAPA
disbanded in late 1927 due to a campaign against them by the New South
Wales Aboriginal Protection Board.

● 3.3.2 A Day of Mourning

- In 1937, the Aborigines Progressive Association (APA) was formed in New
South Wales with three main aims:
- full citizenship rights for First Nations Peoples
- representation in parliament
- the abolition of the New South Wales Aboriginal Protection Board
 - The Association focused on Australia Day 1938 for action, marking the
anniversary of Captain Arthur Phillip planting the British flag at Port Jackson
on 26 January 1788. As the city prepared for celebrations, including 120 street
floats, activists led by William Cooper and Jack Patten, having been denied
access to Sydney Town Hall, walked in silent protest to Australia Hall, entering
through the back door. For white Australians, it was a day of celebration; for
First Nations Australians, it was a day of mourning.

● Building a Movement
- In the months leading up to January 1938, Jack Patten, the first president of
the APA, and William Cooper, secretary of the Australian Aborigines League,
visited missions and reserves to rally support for the Day of Mourning protest.
Patten and William Ferguson, APA founder, created a 12-page document titled
"Aborigines Claim Citizenship Rights," which was published in many national
newspapers. Despite significant support within First Nations communities,
only about 100 people attended due to Australian laws forbidding First
Nations Australians from gathering to protest. Although the invitation stated
that only those of Aboriginal descent could attend, four non-Aboriginal
individuals were present: two police officers and two representatives from
Man magazine, who documented the event in a story titled "Aborigines Meet,
Mourn While White-Man Nation Celebrates."

● 3.3.3 Results of the Day of Mourning

- During the Day of Mourning protest, telegrams of support from across
Australia were read out, and Jack Patten read a resolution protesting the
callous treatment of First Nations Peoples and appealing for full citizenship
and equality. The group discussed the brutal treatment by the Aboriginal
Protection Board, the unfair removal of children from reserves, and the need
for equal rights. They approved a ten-point plan for equality, demanding full
citizenship status, access to education, health services, employment, the right
to own property, the right to a bank account, and the right to a pension.

- The protest ended with members walking to La Perouse, where they released
funeral wreaths into the sea. After the protest, a delegation led by Jack Patten
and William Ferguson presented the ten-point plan to Prime Minister Joseph
Lyons. Ferguson also wrote to the National Missionary Council of Australia,
leading to the establishment of "Aborigines Day" on the Sunday before
Australia Day from 1940 to 1955. In 1957, Aborigines Day was moved to the
first Sunday in July, shifting the focus to celebrating First Nations Peoples'
 cultures. The National Aborigines Day Observance Committee (NAIDOC) was
founded to oversee this day and still exists today.

3.4 WHAT DID THE MEMBERS OF THE STOLEN GENERATIONS EXPERIENCE?

● 3.4.1 Government Policy: from ‘Protection’ to assimilation
- During the 1800s, colonial authorities implemented a protection system for
First Nations Peoples of Australia, creating special communities where they
could farm and live off the produce. This forced relocation was alien to their
culture, displacing them from their land, lifestyle, and families. The welfare
act was intended to remove neglected children but was often misused.

- The Aborigines Protection Act (NSW) 1909 empowered authorities to oversee

the custody, maintenance, and education of First Nations children. By 1911, all
states except Tasmania, along with the Northern Territory, had given the
Board for Protection control over First Nations Australians, making it the legal
guardian of all their children. Enforcing this legislation fell to 'protectors,'
usually police officers, leading to the Stolen Generations.

- Governments believed that assimilating First Nations children, especially

those of mixed descent, into European society required their removal from
families to institutions or foster homes. Paul Hasluck, Federal Minister for
Territories in 1951, explained this strategy, expecting all persons of Aboriginal
or mixed descent to eventually live like white Australians, disregarding the
value of First Nations cultures.

- The NSW Child Welfare Act 1939 allowed parents to contest their children's
removal, but logistical and legal obstacles made it nearly impossible. Removed
children often faced abuse, exploitation, and were cut off from their families,
culture, and language. Between 1910 and 1970, it is estimated that 10 to 30
percent of First Nations children were forcibly removed for 'protection and
assimilation,' affecting many families across Australia.

● 3.4.3 CASE STUDY: Life in the Holmes

- At Kinchela Boys Home on the mid-north coast of New South Wales, around
600 First Nations Australian boys were taken between 1924 and 1970. They
were taught to farm and operate heavy machinery, stripped of their names
and given numbers, forbidden from speaking their language, and severely
punished for disobedience. Cecil Bowden, a former resident, described the
most brutal punishment as being sent "down the line," where a boy would walk
 through a line of 60 to 70 boys who were required to punch him as hard as
they could.

- The Cootamundra Domestic Training Home for Aboriginal Girls, in the South
West Slopes region of New South Wales, housed generations of First Nations
Australian girls removed from their families between 1911 and 1969. The girls
stayed until age 14, then were sent to work as domestic servants in
middle-class homes and farms. Many of these girls became pregnant, and
their own children were often removed and placed with white families.

3.5 WHO WERE THE MAJOR FIGURES IN THE WORLD’S CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT?
● 3.5.1 International call for civil rights
- In the 1940s, many rights and freedoms enjoyed by white people in colonised
nations like the United States and Australia were not shared by all, leading to
widespread recognition of this inequity and mistreatment. The civil rights
movement emerged in the mid-1950s, growing throughout the 1960s and
generating a global demand for change.

- On 10 December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), outlining the rights and
freedoms for all people. Australia, a founding UN member, played a key role in
establishing the Declaration under Dr. Herbert Vere Evatt, who became the
president of the General Assembly in 1948. Dr. Evatt, a former High Court
judge and defender of civil liberties, helped shape the Declaration, which
recognized "the inherent dignity and the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family" as the foundation of global freedom, justice,
and peace. Though not a treaty, the Declaration was an international call for
civil rights.

● 3.5.2 Civil rights in America — desegregation

- On 1 December 1955, African-American seamstress Rosa Parks sat just behind
the section reserved for white passengers on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama.
When asked to give up her seat for a white man, she politely refused, later
stating she felt the strength of her ancestors.

- For this act of defiance, Parks was arrested and charged with breaking
segregation laws. The African-American community, comprising the majority
of Montgomery's bus passengers, initiated a boycott of the buses. The
 Montgomery bus boycott lasted 381 days, ultimately leading to the abolition of
bus segregation laws.

● Little Rock, Arkansas

- On 17 May 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public
schools was unconstitutional. The Little Rock, Arkansas, school board agreed
to gradually desegregate its schools starting in 1957.

- During her year at Little Rock Central High, Minnijean Brown-Trickey faced
verbal abuse, physical attacks, and hostility. Not all white students were
hostile, but those who showed kindness risked being beaten. She later
remarked, "There were 100 bad kids and 1900 silent witnesses." Her and the
other eight students' stories inspired a generation of African-Americans.

- Reflecting on her experience, Minnijean Brown-Trickey said, "History holds up

a mirror showing the good things about us and the bad things about us. We
have to choose. Do we want to be part of the mob attacking children or the
children walking with dignity?"

● 3.5.3 Protests in the United States gain momentum

- As the civil rights movement gained momentum in the United States,
particularly in the deeply segregated southern states, there was significant
potential for violence. While states like Alabama did experience outbreaks of
violence, there were also voices advocating for nonviolent resistance and
peaceful protest.

● Martin Luther King

- The Montgomery bus boycott was orchestrated by the Montgomery
Improvement Association, led by religious ministers and activists. Martin
Luther King Jr., a charismatic young civil rights leader, played a pivotal role.
His philosophy centred on nonviolent resistance, influenced by his Christian
beliefs and admiration for Mohandas Gandhi. King believed that through
nonviolent protest, supported by the power of collective action, significant
change could be achieved.

- King's approach was encapsulated in his view that "the Christian doctrine of
love operating through the Gandhian method of non-violence was one of the
most potent weapons" for oppressed people seeking freedom. His leadership
culminated in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963, where
 he delivered his famous "I have a dream" speech, advocating for equality and
justice.

● 3.5.4 Freedom rides in the United States

- The Freedom Rides in the United States began in May 1961 with 13 volunteers
from the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee (SNCC). They embarked on a journey from
Washington DC through southern states like Virginia, North and South
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, aiming to reach Louisiana for a
rally.

- Throughout their journey, the Freedom Riders faced violent and hateful
responses from white mobs wielding weapons like baseball bats and iron bars.
Near Anniston, Alabama, on 14 May 1961, a mob attacked and firebombed one
of the buses, injuring several riders. Despite ongoing violence and minimal
intervention from state authorities, the rides continued.

- Although Martin Luther King Jr. did not participate directly in the Freedom
Rides, he became a prominent advocate for their cause. When a large mob
blockaded the church in Montgomery, Alabama, where King was supporting
the campaign, the situation escalated until US Attorney-General Robert
Kennedy dispatched the National Guard to disperse the mob using tear gas.

● Results of the Freedom Rides

- The Freedom Rides in the United States garnered international media
attention due to the violent reactions they provoked. Despite existing federal
laws that deemed segregation illegal, southern state administrations often
disregarded them. The rides persisted until the Interstate Commerce
Commission (ICC) mandated bus companies to desegregate.

- The campaign's objectives, which included generating international headlines

and promoting the civil rights movement, were largely successful. The
Freedom Rides demonstrated the power of civil disobedience as a potent
method to protest against racist policies and achieve meaningful change.

3.6 WHAT IMPACT DID THE FREEDOM RIDE HAVE IN AUSTRALIA?

● 3.6.1 Charles Perkin — activist
 - First Nations Australians won the right to vote in federal elections in 1962, but
were not counted in the census and remained under state management.
Growing awareness of racial discrimination was starting to bring change.

- Inspired by the US civil rights movement, Charles Perkins organised the 1965
Freedom Ride, with 30 university students from Student Action for Aborigines
(SAFA) touring outback New South Wales to study race relations. On 12
February 1965, Reverend Ted Noffs blessed the journey. Over two weeks, the
group observed the severe poverty, unsanitary living conditions, and racial
discrimination faced by First Nations Australians. They encountered bans on
First Nations children at Moree's public pool, segregation in Bowraville's
cinema, and limited access for First Nations veterans at the Returned Soldiers’
League in Walgett.

● A Hostile Reception
- The Freedom Riders travelled 2300 kilometres around New South Wales,
facing numerous attacks. In Moree, white women jeered, spat at female
students, and Jim Spiegelman was hit. Charles Perkins was threatened,
punched, and had an egg thrown down his shirt. Their bus was rammed by a
farmer on a country road.

- Despite the physical toll, the trip was a significant success, drawing national
and international media attention and compelling Australians to address
persistent racial tensions and inequity. Perkins later wrote that they provided
hope and ignited a desire for human rights among the Aboriginal people in the
towns they visited.

● 3.6.2 The Legacy of the Freedom Rides

- Newspaper and television coverage of the Freedom Ride raised awareness
and spurred discussion about the racist injustices faced by First Nations
Peoples in Australia. This media attention supported the campaign to remove
discrimination from the Australian Constitution, leading to the successful 1967
Referendum. Charles Perkins became a national leader for First Nations
Australians and a role model for advocating non-violently.

- The Freedom Ride was a pivotal event in the civil rights movement, inspiring
further "freedom rides." In 2005, on the fortieth anniversary, a new group of
about 30 students, supported by reconciliATION, retraced the original route to
assess progress in race relations since 1965.
3.7 WHAT WAS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1967 REFERENDUM?
● 3.7.1 The Right to Vote
- In the early 1960s, influenced by international challenges to racial segregation,
many Australians began to feel increasingly uneasy about the unfair
treatment of First Nations Australians. Additionally, the Australian
government faced international pressure to adopt more inclusive policies.

● 3.7.2 The 1967 Referendum

- In 1967, First Nations Australians were still treated differently from the rest of
the population, notably by not being counted in the national census. The
census, which collects vital demographic information, is essential for planning
community services like education, healthcare, and housing. The Australian
Constitution explicitly excluded "aboriginal natives" from being counted,
effectively denying their existence in governmental records.

- Activist Chicka Dixon highlighted that this exclusion signified the government's
refusal to recognize Aboriginal people. Changing the Constitution required a
referendum, and before 1967, only four out of 26 referenda had passed. The
proposed referendum on 27 May 1967 aimed to:

1. Include Aboriginal people in the census.

2. Place Aboriginal people under the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth
for consistent and fair law implementation.

- A comprehensive publicity campaign preceded the vote, ensuring voters were

informed. The referendum received overwhelming support, with 90.7% of
votes in favour, the highest 'yes' vote in Australian referendum history.

● 3.7.3 From Assimilation to Integration

- After First Nations Australians gained the right to vote in federal elections and
be counted in the census, institutional discrimination began to decrease. The
policy focus shifted from 'assimilation' to 'integration,' largely influenced by
the influx of new migrants post-World War II. These migrants sought to
balance their traditional cultures with the Australian way of life. Unlike
assimilation, integration allowed individuals to retain their cultural
backgrounds and languages while contributing to society.
- However, integration still fell short of fully recognizing the value of diverse
cultures. It continued to prioritise adaptation to the dominant culture, rather
than encouraging mutual cultural exchange and appreciation.