CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current (I):

The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor.
q
I=
t
where, q - charge flowing through the conductor.
t- time for which the charge flows.
 It is a scalar quantity (because It does not obey vector laws).
 SI unit is ampere(A) or coulomb/Second .
 The direction of electric current is in the direction of flow of positive charges (It is the conventional
current direction).
 Mechanical analog of electric current is velocity.
Definition of Ampere:
Current through a conductor is said to be one ampere if 1coulomb of charge flows through the conductor
in 1second.
Current density (J):
It is the current flowing through unit area of cross section of a conductor.
I
J=
A
 SI unit is ampere/meter2.
 It is a vector quantity.
Drift velocity (v d ).
The average velocity acquired by an electron in the presence of an external electric field is called drift
velocity.
Relaxation time(τ).
Relaxation time is the average time interval between two successive collisions.
Expression for drift velocity in terms of relaxation time:
eEτ
vd=
m
Relation between drift velocity and current:
If ‘n’ is the number density of electrons in a conductor of length ‘l’ and area of cross-section ‘A’ , then
total charge, q = n(Al)e -------(1)
q
I=
t
Therefore, electric current,
nAle
I=
t
Substituting (1),
I
vd=
nAe
that is, I = nAevd or
Mobility(μ):
The ratio of the drift velocity to the electric field intensity is called as mobility.
v eτ
μ= d μ=
E or m
Ohm’s law:
Ohm’s law states that , “ the physical conditions remaining unchanged, the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across the conductor”.
ie., VαI
V = IR or

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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
V
R=
I
Where R is a constant and is called resistance of the conductor.
Graphical representation of Ohm’s law:
The graph between V and I through a conductor is a straight line as shown
below.
V
=R
I
 Slope of the graph , , Resistance of the conductor.
V-I Characteristics:
The variation of V and I through a conductor is shown in figure.

O
O

V
tan θ = =R
I
In figure (1) the slope of the graph is given by,
ie, higher the slope means higher the resistance. Thus the graph OA represents the higher resistance.
I 1
tan θ = =
V R
In figure (2) the slope of the graph is given by ,
ie, higher the slope means lower the resistance. Thus the graph OA represents the lower resistance.
Ohmic Materials / Ohmic circuit elements:
The materials or circuit elements, which obey Ohm’s law, are known as Ohmic materials.
Eg: Metals.
Non –Ohmic materials :
The matrials or circuit elements, which do not obey Ohm’s law, are known as Non-Ohmic materials.

Eg; Semiconducting diodes, transistors.,thyristor

ElectricalResistance(R):
The resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of potential difference applied across the conductor
to the current flowing through the conductor.
V
R=
I
 It is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit is Volt/ampere or ohm (Ω)
 Dimension is M1L2T-3 I-2.
Definition of 1ohm:
The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if a current of 1A flows through it under a potential
difference of 1 volt.
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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends:
 Length of the conductor.
 Area of cross section of the conductor.
 Nature of the material of the conductor.
 Temperature of the conductor.
Resistivity or Specific resistance of a conductor(ρ):
It is found that the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
l
R∝
A
ie.,
l
R= ρ
A
therefore
Where ρ is the proportionality constant and is called the resistivity or specific resistance of the
conductor.
A
ρ= R
l
ie; resistivity,
If l =1m, and A = 1m2, ρ =R,
Thus,
“The resistivity of the conductor is defined as the resistance of the conductor of unit length and
unit area of cross section”.
 It is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit is ohm metre (Ωm).
 Dimension is M1L3T-3 I-2.
Expression for resistivity in terms of relaxation time:
The resistivity of a material is related to the relaxation time as shown below.

Where, m mass of electron,

n number density of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume).
τ  relaxation time.
Factors on which the resistivity of a conductor depends:
1) It is inversely proportional to the number density of electrons in the conductor.
2) It is inversely proportional to the relaxation time.

Note:
Resistivity is independent of length and area of cross section of a conductor.

Conductance of a conductor (k ):
Conductance of a conductor is defined as the reciprocal of the resistance of the conductor.
1
k=
R
ie;
SI unit : ohm-1, or mho or seimen (S).
Conductivity(σ):
Conductivity of a conductor is defined as the reciprocal of the resistivity of the conductor.
1
σ=ρ
ie;
SI unit: ohm-1 m-1, or mho m-1, or seimen m-1
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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Note:
The product of resistivity and conductivity is equal to one.
σ × ρ= 1
Derivation of Vector form of Ohm’s law:
By Ohm’s law , V=IR --------(1)
l
R= ρ
A
But V= E l and
therefore equation (1) become,
I
El= ρl
A
E= J ρ
E
J= ρ
Therefore,
ie., ⃗J = σ E⃗
This is the vector form of Ohm’s law.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
 It obeys only at constant physical conditions. Thus it is not a Universal law.
 Ohm's law does not apply to unilateral electrical components such as diodes as well as transistors even
though they only permit current just to flow in one way.
 The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for the same current
I . A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.
 The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V.
Temperature dependence of the resistance of a conductor:
The resistance of a metallic conductor increases with increase of temperature.
For a given conductor, R α 1/ τ
When the temperature of a metal conductor is raised, due to increase in thermal energy the rate of
collision of free electrons increases. This reduces the relaxation time τ. Hence the value of resistance R
increases with rise of temperature.
The resistance R of a conductor at temperature at T0C is given by,
R = R0 [1 + α(T-T0)].
Where R0 is the resistance of conductor at T00C, and α is the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Temperature coefficient of resistance (α):
The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of the change in resistance per unit rise
of temperature , to the initial resistance .
R−R0
α=
R 0 (T −T 0)
where R0 --> resistance at 00C, R --> resistance at T0C.
* SI unit of α is 0C-1 or K-1
 α in terms of R1,R2,T1 and T2:
R 2−R 1
α=
Temperature coefficient ( R 1 T 2−R 2 T 1)
where R1 --> Resistance at T10C, R2 ---> Resistance at T20C.
Classification of materials in terms of conductivity:
1)Conductors/Metals: Temperature coefficient α is positive, that is their resistivity increases and
conductivity decreases with the increase of temperature.

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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
2)Semiconductors:
Temperature coefficient α is negative, that is their resistivity decreases and conductivity increases with
increase in temperature. Eg; Germanium, Silicon.
3)Insulator:
Temperature coefficient α is negative, that is their resistivity decreases and conductivity increases
exponentially with the increase of temperature.
Note:
 Temperature coefficient of resistance (α) is very very small (almost equal to zero)for higher
resistivity alloys like Manganin, Constantan , Eureka , Nichrome etc., that is their resistance does not
change appreciably with the change in temperature. It is for this reason that ‘Manganin(Cu,Mn,Ni)’ and
‘Constantan(Cu,Ni)’ etc are used in making standard resistance coil or wires.
 Resistivity (ρ) of copper as a function of temperature T:

 Resistivity (ρ) of nichrome as a function of absolute temperature T.

 Temperature dependence of resistivity for a typical semiconductor.

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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric energy (E):
The work done by a source to maintain a current in an electric circuit is called electric energy.
ie., electric energy = work done.
U = W = Vq
2
V
U= t
U = V I t or U = I2 R t or R
Where, V --> p.d applied, R --> resistance, I --> current flowing,
Unit;- Joule.
Electric power (P):
Electric power is defined as the rate at which the electrical energy is converted into other forms of
2
V
P=
energy. ie, P = VI or P = I2R or R
SI unit is Watt (W) or Joule/Second.
Bigger units:
1 Kilowatt (kW) = 103Watt.
1 Megawatt (MW) = 106 Watt.
Practical units: 1 Horse Power (HP) = 746 Watt.
Definition of watt:
The electric power is said to be one watt, if one ampere current flows through the circuit under a p.d of
one volt.
Commercial unit or Board Of Trade (BOT) unit of electrical energy:
Commercial unit of electrical energy is ‘Kilowatt Hour’ (KWh) or simply known as ‘unit’.
1 kilowatt hour is defined as the electric energy consumed in one hour at a rate of one kilowatt.
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 Joule.
A cell and Related terms:
A cell is a device which provides the required potential difference to an electric circuit to maintain a
continuous flow of electric current in it.
E.M.F of a cell(E):
The emf of a cell is defined as the potential difference between the terminals of the cell when it is in an
open circuit ( that is when no current is drawn from it).
Note: E.M.F is not a force but it is the work done per unit charge.

Terminal potential difference(V):

It is defined as the potential difference between the terminals of a cell when it is in a closed circuit.
ie., terminal p.d, V = IR.
Internal resistance of a cell ( r ):
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell when the electric current flows through it, is called the
internal resistance.
Factors on which the internal resistance depends:
1) Nature of the electrolyte.
2) Nature of the electrode.
3) Distance between the electrodes.
4) Surface area of the electrodes.
Note:The direction of current inside the cell is from - ive to + ive, and that outside the cell is from positive to
negative.
Lost volt of a cell :
The potential drop across the internal resistance of a cell is called lost volt of a cell.
ie., lost volt of a cell = Ir. Where r  internal resistance.
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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Difference between E.M.F and Terminal p.d (Potential difference):
E.M.F Potential difference
1. The difference of potentials between the two 1. The difference of potentials between the two
terminals of a cell when no current is drawn terminals of a cell when current is drawn
from the cell , is called e.m.f of the cell. from the cell is called terminal p.d of the cell.

2. The emf of a cell is independent of the 2. Terminal p.d between any two point is
resistance of the external circuit. It depends proportional to the resistance between
upon the type of the cell. the points.
3. The emf of a cell is greater than the 3. Terminal p.d of a cell is less than emf of the cell
terminal potential difference . when current is drawn from the cell.
4. The word emf is reserved for the potential 4. The word terminal p.d is used for
difference of an electric source. measurement made between any two
points of the electric circuit.
5. It is a cause. 5. It is an effect.
Relation between emf (E),electric current (I), terminal potential difference(V), External resistance (R),
and internal resistance(r):
The emf of a cell is given by, E = IR+Ir
E = I(R+r)
E
I=
R+r
But, terminal potential difference, V = IR.
ER
V=
R +r

E
r=( −1) R
V
Therefore
Series combination of cells:
Consider two cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal
resistance r1 and r2 are connected in series as shown in figure. Let E s be the effective emf and rs be the
effective internal resistance.
From the diagram, VAB = VA-VB
=E1-Ir1
VBC = VB-VC
=E2-Ir2
VAC = VA-VC = (VA-VB)+ (VB-VC)
=(E1-Ir1)+( E2-Ir2)
= (E1+E2)-I (r1+r2)---------------------(1)
For the equivalent diagram,
VAC =Es-Irs ----------------------(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2) ,
Effective emf, Es = E1+E2 and,
Effective internal resistance, rs= r1+r2
Parallel combination of cells:
Consider two cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are
connected in parallel as shown in figure. Let Epbe the effective emf and rp be the effective internal resistance.
From the diagram, I = I1 + I2 ---------------------------(1)
Also, V = E1- I1r1
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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
E −V E −V
I1 = 1 I1 = 2
r1 and r2

E 1−V E2 −V
I= +
r1 r2
E 1 E2 1 1
I= + −V ( + )
r1 r2 r1 r2

 r r  E1r2  E2 r1
V  1 2    I
 r1r2  r1r2

 E r  E2 r1   r1r2   rr 
V  1 2     I  1 2 
 r1r2   r1  r2   r1  r2 
E r +E r r r
V= 1 2 2 1 −I 1 2
r 1 +r 2 ( )
r 1 +r 2
-----------------------(1)

For the equivalent circuit

V E p  Irp ---------------------------------------(2)
Comparing (1) and (2),
E1r2  E2 r1 r1r2
Effective emf, E p  and internal resistance rp 
r1  r2 r1  r2

Kirchhoff’s First rule (Current rule or Junction rule or Point rule ):

Kirchhoff’s first rule states that “at any junction, the sum of the currents entering
the junction is equal to the sum of currentsleaving the junction”.
ie., ΣI=0
for the above circuit, I1 + I2 –I3- I4 –I5 = 0
I1 + I2 = I3+ I4 +I5
That is at a junction the total incoming current is equal to the out going current.
Note:
1) The current coming to the junction is taken as positive, while that leaving the junction is taken as
negative.
2) Kirchhoff’s first rule is based on the law of conservation of charge. ( because charge never
accumulate at any junction).
Kirchhoff’s second rule (Voltage rule or mesh rule or loop rule):
Kirchhoff’s second rule states that “the algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero”
Note:
1)Kirchhoff’s second rule is based on the law of conservation of energy.
2)The emf of a cell is taken as positive if we cross from – ve to the + ve terminal and is taken as
negative if we cross from + ve to the – ve terminal of the cell.
3) A current carrying wire is not charged.

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 CHAPTER 3- CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Wheatstone Bridge:
Wheatstone bridge is a network of four resistors and is based on Kirchhoff’s second rule. It is used for
measuring one unknown resistance in terms of other three known resistances.

Principle:
According to wheatstone principle “when the bridge is balanced, the ratio of the resistances in the
adjacent arms are equal”.
If P, Q, R and S are the resistances in the arms then,
P R Q
= S= R
Q S P
Wheatstone principle can be expressed as Or

Proof:
Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors P, Q, R and S connected to form a closed network as shown
in figure.
A galvanometer having a resistance ‘G’ is connected between B and D through a key ‘K’.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second rule to the loops ABDA and BCDB,
we get,
I1P + IgG – I2R = 0 ----------(1) and
I3Q – I4S –IgG = 0 --------(2)
Here the value of R is so adjusted that the galvanometer current
Ig = 0. then the network is balanced.
Thus if Ig = 0, then I3 = I1 and I4 = I2,

Therefore equation (1) and (2) becomes;

I1P – I2R = 0 and I1Q – I2S = 0
ie., I1P = I2R-------(2) I1Q = I2S----------(3)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (3),
P R Q
= S= R
Q S P
or
This is the principle of wheatstone’s bridge.

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