ABSTRACT

Generally, landscape
architecture covers a
huge spectrum,
perhaps best
understood by the
profession’s mantra:
as achieving a balance
between the built and
natural environments.
It requires a
multidisciplinary
approach involving
environmental
science, art, ecology
and much more,

ARCHITECTURAL sometimes leading to

extraordinary results
such as restoring
endangered wetlands,

DESIGN AND
securing government
and other buildings
and removing toxins
from rainwater. s

LANDSCAPING
sheila

DIPLOMA IN

ARCHITECTURE
Contents
PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN ........................................................................................... 2
THE DESIGN PROCESS IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN ................................................................................................... 19
LANDSCAPE STYLES ............................................................................................................................................. 42
TYPES OF LANDSCAPE TOOLS ............................................................................................................................. 47
EARTHWORKS: .................................................................................................................................................... 52
LANDSCAPE GRADING..................................................................................................................................... 59
TYPES OF SOILS ............................................................................................................................................... 65
ROCK TYPES..................................................................................................................................................... 67
PLANTS AND SODDING ....................................................................................................................................... 69
TYPES OF PLANTS ............................................................................................................................................ 69
LAWN .............................................................................................................................................................. 76
PLANT MAINTENANCE .................................................................................................................................... 79
LANDSCAPE MATERIALS...................................................................................................................................... 67
LANDSCAPE STRUCTURES: .................................................................................................................................. 81
FOUNDATION TYPES ....................................................................................................................................... 81
WALLS & FENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 83
PARKING.......................................................................................................................................................... 90
........................................................................................................................................................................ 94
LANDSCAPE DRAINAGE ....................................................................................................................................... 98
LANDSCAPE LIGHTING ...................................................................................................................................... 109
PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF
LANDSCAPE DESIGN
Landscape designers work on a canvas that is distinctly different from other art forms. The "art" is always changing
as the plants grow, environmental conditions change, and people use the space. For this reason, landscape
designers use a design process that systematically considers all aspects of the land, the environment, the growing
plants, and the needs of the user to ensure a visually pleasing, functional, and ecologically healthy design.

Elements and Principles

The design process begins by determining the needs and desires of the user and the conditions of the site. With this
information, the designer then organizes the plants and hardscape materials, which are collectively referred to as the
features. The features can be physically described by the visual qualities of line, form, color, texture, and visual
weight—the elements of design. The principles are the fundamental concepts of composition—proportion, order,
repetition, and unity—that serve as guidelines to arrange or organize the features to create an aesthetically pleasing
or beautiful landscape. Knowledge of the elements and principles of design is essential to designing a landscape and
working through the design process.

 Elements of Design
The elements of composition are the visual qualities that people see and respond to when viewing a space. Visual
qualities can illicit many different emotions and feelings, and the more positive those feelings, the more likely people
are to enjoy and use a space. Perhaps the most common element in a composition is line. Line creates all forms and
patterns and can be used in a variety of ways in the landscape.

1. Line
Line in the landscape is created by the edge between two materials, the outline or silhouette of a form, or a long
linear feature. Lines are a powerful tool for the designer because they can be used to create an infinite variety of
shapes and forms, and they control movement of the eye and the body. Landscape designers use lines to create
patterns, develop spaces, create forms, control movement, establish dominance, and create a cohesive theme in a
landscape. Landscape lines are created several ways: when two different materials meet on the ground plane, such
as the edge of a brick patio meeting an expanse of green turf; or when the edge of an object is visible or contrasts
with a background, such as the outline of a tree against the sky; or by the placement of a material in a line, such as a
fence. Figure 1 shows common landscape lines, including bedlines, hardscape lines, path lines, sod lines, and fence
lines. Lines can have one or more characteristics, such as those described below, but they typically serve different
purposes.

Properties of Lines
The properties of lines determine how people respond to the landscape, both emotionally and physically.

a) Straight Lines
Straight lines are structural and forceful; they create a formal character, are usually associated with a symmetrical
design, and lead the eye directly to a focal point. Diagonal lines are straight lines with an intentional direction. Straight
lines are most often found in hardscape edges and material.

b) Curved Lines
Curved lines create an informal, natural, relaxed character that is associated more with nature and asymmetrical
balance. Curved lines move the eye at a slower pace and add mystery to the space by creating hidden views.
 c) Vertical Lines
Vertical lines move the eye up, making a space feel larger. An upward line can emphasize a feature and has a feeling
of activity or movement. Vertical lines in the landscape include tall, narrow plant material, such as trees, or tall
structures, such as an arbor or a bird house on a pole.

d) Horizontal Lines

Horizontal lines move the eye along the ground plane and can make a space feel larger. Low lines are more subdued
and create a feeling of rest or repose. Horizontal lines can spatially divide a space or tie a space together. Low lines
are created by low garden walls, walkways, and short hedges. Lines are used to draw forms on a plan. In plan view,
they define plant beds and hardscape areas. Lines are also created by the vertical forms of built features and plant
material. There are three primary line types that create form in the landscape: bedlines, hardscape lines, and plant
lines. Bedlines are created where the edge of the plant bed meets another surface material, such as turf,
groundcover, gravel, or patio pavers. Bedlines connect plant material to the house and hardscape because the eye
follows the line, moving the gaze through the landscape. Hardscape lines are created by the edge of the hardscape,
which delineates the built structure. Line can also be created by long and narrow materials, such as a fence or wall.

Figure 1. Lines in the landscape.

 2. Form
Shape is created by an outline that encloses a space, and form is the three-dimensional mass of that shape. Form is
found in both hardscape and plants, and it is typically the dominant visual element that spatially organizes the
landscape and often determines the style of the garden. The form of structures, plant beds, and garden ornaments
also determines the overall form theme of the garden. Formal, geometric forms include circles, squares, and
polygons. Informal, naturalistic forms include meandering lines, organic edges, and fragmented edges. Plants create
form in the garden through their outlines or silhouettes, but form can also be defined by a void or negative space
between plants.

A. Geometric Forms

a. Circular Form
Circles can be full circles, or they can be divided into half circles or circle segments and combined with lines to create
arcs and tangents. Figure 2 shows the use of circle segments for hardscape and lawn panels. Circles can also be
stretched into ovals and ellipses for more variety and interest. Circles are a strong design form because the eye is
always drawn to the center, which can be used to emphasize a focal point or connect other forms.

Figure 2. Circular forms in hardscape and lawn panels.

 b. Square Form

Squares are used for a variety of features, including stepping stones, bricks, tiles, and timber structures, because
they are an easy form to work with for construction. The square form can also be segmented and used repeatedly to
create a grid pattern. Unlike circles, squares are stronger on the edges, which can be lined up or overlapped to create
unique patterns and more complex forms.
c. Irregular Polygons

Polygons are many-sided forms with straight edges. Triangles, for example, are three-sided polygons. The angled
edges of polygons can
make interesting shapes, but they should be used cautiously because the forms can become complex; simplicity is
best.
B. Naturalistic Forms
a. Meandering Lines

Meandering lines often mimic the natural course of rivers or streams and can be described as smooth lines with
deeply curved undulations. Meandering lines (Figure 3) work well for pathways, plant bedlines, and dry stream beds.
Meandering lines can add interest and mystery to a garden by leading viewers around corners to discover new views
and spaces.

Figure 3. Meandering lines in the landscape

 b. Organic Edges

Organic edges mimic the edges of natural material, such as foliage, plant forms, and rocks, and can be described as
rough and irregular. Organic lines can be found in rock gardens and along dry creek beds or purposely created on
hardscape edges.

Figure 4. Organic edges: irregular edge of rock garden.

 c. Fragmented Edges
Fragmented edges resemble broken pieces scattered from the edge, such as stones or pavers, and are often used to
create a gradually disappearing edge on patios or walkways.

Figure 5. Fragmented edges: stepping stones in pathway

C. Plant Forms
Form is the most enduring quality of a plant. Common plant forms are well established and standardized, as form is
the most consistent and recognizable characteristic of plants. Form can also be created through the massing of
plants, where the overall mass creates a different form than an individual plant. A strong form that contrasts with the
rest of the composition will have greater emphasis within the composition. A highly contrasting form must be used
with care—one or two work well as a focal point, but too many create chaos. Natural plant forms, rather than over-
trimmed forms, should establish the bulk of the composition. The relevance of overall form is more or less dependent
on the viewing perspective—the form of a tree can appear quite different to a person standing under the canopy
versus viewing the tree from a distance in an open field. Vertical forms add height; horizontal forms add width. Plant
forms also create and define the void or open spaces between the plants, creating either convex or concave forms in
the voids. High-arching tree branches typically create a concave open space under the branches, and a round
canopy with low branches fills the space to create a convex form in the open space under the tree.
 1. Tree Forms
Common tree forms (Figure 6) include round, columnar, oval, pyramidal, vase shaped, and weeping. Different tree
forms are used for visual appeal, but the form is also important for function. Creating a shady area in the garden
requires a round or oval tree, while a screen usually requires a more columnar or pyramidal form, and a weeping tree
form makes a good focal point.

Figure 6. Tree forms.

2 Shrub Forms

Shrub forms (Figure 7) include upright, vase shaped, arching, mounding, rounded, spiky, cascading, and irregular.
Choosing shrub forms often depends on whether the shrub will be used in a mass or as a single specimen. Mounding
and spreading shrubs look best in a mass, and cascading and vase-shaped shrubs do well as specimen plants.

Figure 7. Shrub and groundcover forms

 2. Groundcover Forms

Groundcover forms (Figure 7) include matting, spreading, clumping, sprawling, and short spikes. Almost all
groundcovers look better in masses because they are typically small, ground-hugging plants that have very little
impact as individual plants.

PROPERTIES OF FORM
Form is very powerful because people can often recognize and identify a feature based on an outline or silhouette.
People can often perceive a form when only a portion of it is visible. Familiarity and the suggestion of a form is
enough for the eye to fill in the rest. Repetition of form is essential to the creation of pattern, which is the basic
organizational structure of the landscape.

Form is also the primary determinant of a formal or informal garden. Geometric forms with straight edges are typical
of formal gardens that are based on an established style, such as contemporary or Italian gardens. An informal
garden has more naturalistic, organic forms that are normally found in gardens that mimic nature. Form compatibility
is also a major component of unity in design—one or two strikingly different forms are good for contrast and
emphasis, but generally all other forms should have some similarities for a unified look.

3. Texture
Texture refers to how coarse or fine the surface of the plant or hardscape material feels and/or looks. Texture is used
to provide variety, interest, and contrast. The plant's foliage, flowers, bark, and overall branching pattern all have
texture. The size and shape of the leaves often determines the perceived texture of the plant. A plant can generally
be described as having a coarse, medium, or fine texture. Coarse texture is more dominant than fine and also tends
to dominate color and form, while fine texture is more subordinate to other qualities and tends to unify compositions.
Coarse-textured plants attract the eye and tend to hold it because the light and dark contrasts of the shadows provide
more interest. Fine texture exaggerates distance and gives the feeling of a larger, more open space. Rough texture
minimizes distance—plants appear closer and the space feels smaller, or enclosed. Texture is also found in the
hardscape, including on buildings, patios, walls, and walkways.

Coarse Texture
Plant characteristics that create coarse texture include large leaves; leaves with very irregular edges; bold, deep
veins; variegated colors; thick twigs and branches; leaves and twigs with spines or thorns; and bold, thick, and/or
irregular forms. Each leaf of a coarse-textured plant breaks up the outline, which gives the plant a looser form.
Examples of plants with coarse texture include philodendrons, agaves, bromeliads, hollies, palms, and hydrangeas.
Hardscape with coarse texture includes rough-cut stone, rough-finished brick, and unfinished wood with knots and a
raised grain. Aged or old construction material that maintains a weather-beaten surface is often coarse in texture.

Fine Texture
Characteristics that create fine texture include small foliage; thin, strappy leaves (grasses) or tall, thin stems; tiny,
dense twigs and small branches; long stems (vines); and small, delicate flowers. They are often described as wispy
and light or with a sprawling, vining form. Fine-textured plants sometimes have a stronger form because the small
individual leaves are densely packed (e.g., boxwoods) to create a solid edge. Plants with a fine texture include
grasses, ferns, Japanese maples, many vines, and junipers with fine needles. Hardscape with fine texture includes
smooth stone, wood or ceramic pots, and glass ornaments. Smooth water, such as that found in a reflecting pool, or
water with a very fine spray is considered fine textured.

Medium Texture
Most plants are medium texture, in that they cannot be described as having either coarse or fine texture. They are
characterized by medium-sized leaves with simple shapes and smooth edges. The average-sized branches are not
densely spaced nor widely spaced, and the overall form is typically rounded or mounding. Medium-textured plants act
as a background to link and unify the course- and fine textured plants. Plants with medium texture include
agapanthus, ardisia, camellia, euonymus, pittosporum, and viburnum. Hardscape with a medium texture includes
standard flagstone pavers, broom-brushed concrete, and finished woods.
 PROPERTIES OF TEXTURE
 Texture affects the perception of distance and scale.
 To make a space feel larger, locate plants so that the fine textures are along the outer perimeter, the
medium textures are in the middle, and the coarse textures are closest to the viewer. The small size of the
fine texture recedes in the landscape and is perceived as being farther away.
 To make a space feel smaller, place the coarse textures along the outer perimeter and the fine textures
closest to the viewer. The detail of the coarse texture makes the plants appear closer and makes the space
feel smaller.
 The perceived texture of plants can also change with the distance from the plant. Plants that are coarse
close-up can look fine textured from a distance. Bold colors increase the contrast and make the texture
appear coarser, while muted colors can flatten texture.
 Hardscape with a coarse texture—such as very rough rocks and bold, large timbers—tends to make all plant
material appear more medium textured. Designers often develop a texture study (Figure 8) on paper to help
decide the arrangement of plant materials. The drawing mimics texture by using different line weights and
spacing to represent fine, medium, and coarse textures.

Figure 8. Texture study.

4. Color
Color in plant material and hardscape adds interest and variety to the landscape. Color is the most conspicuous
element in the landscape and is usually the focus of most homeowners; however, it is also the most temporary
element, usually lasting only a few weeks a year for individual plants. The use of color is guided by color theory (use
of the color wheel) to create color schemes. A simple description of the color wheel includes the three primary colors
of red, blue, and yellow; the three secondary colors (a mix of two primaries) of green, orange, and violet; and six
tertiary colors (a mix of one adjacent primary and secondary color), such as red-orange. Color theory explains the
relationship of colors to each other and how they should be used in a composition. The basic color schemes are
monochromatic, analogous, and complementary.

 Monochromatic Scheme
A monochromatic color scheme uses only one color. In landscaping, this usually means one other color besides the
green color in the foliage. A garden that is all green depends more on form and texture for contrast and interest. One
color can have many light and dark variations, which can add interest. An example of a monochromatic scheme is a
white garden with white flowers, white variegated foliage, and white garden ornaments.

 Analogous Scheme
Analogous (sometimes called harmonious) color schemes are any three to five colors that are adjacent on the color
wheel, such as red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange, and yellow, or blue, blue-violet, and violet. The colors are
related to each other because they typically include two primary colors mixed to form a secondary and two tertiary
colors, which means they share common properties.

 Complementary Scheme
Complementary colors are those that are opposite each other on the color wheel. They tend to have high contrast
between them. The most common sets are violet and yellow, red and green, and blue and orange. Complementary
colors are often found naturally in flowers; a common pair is yellow and violet.

 Color in Plants and Hardscape

Color is found in the flowers, foliage, bark, and fruit of plants. Foliage typically provides the overall background color
for flower colors. Green foliage in all its various shades is the dominant color by quantity, but other colors capture
attention more readily because of their high contrast to the color green. Color is also found in buildings, rocks, pavers,
wood, and furniture. Most colors in natural materials, such as stone and wood, are typically muted and tend to be
variations of brown, tan, and pale yellow. Bright colors in the hardscape are usually found in man-made materials,
such as painted furniture, brightly colored ceramic containers or sculptures, and glass ornaments.

Properties of Color
Color is an important element for creating interest and variety in the landscape. Colors have properties that can affect
emotions, spatial perception, light quality, balance, and emphasis. One property of color is described relative to
temperature—colors appear to be cool or warm and can affect emotions or feelings. Cool colors tend to be calming
and should be used in areas for relaxation and serenity. Warm colors tend to be more exciting and should be used in
areas for entertaining and parties. The "temperature" of colors can also affect the perception of distance. Cool colors
tend to recede and are perceived as being farther away, making a space feel larger. Warm colors tend to advance
and are perceived as being closer, making a space feel smaller.

Figure 9. Color study.

Color can also be used to capture attention and direct views. Focal points can be created with bright colors. For
example, bright yellow, which has the highest intensity, also has a high contrast with all other colors (often described
as a "pop" of color) and should be used sparingly. A small amount of intense color has as much visual weight as a
large amount of a more subdued or weaker color. Color schemes in the garden can change with the seasons.
Summer colors are usually more varied and bright with more flowers, while winter colors tend to be monochromatic
and darker with more foliage. Color is also affected by light quality, which changes with the time of day and time of
year. Brighter, more intense summer sun makes colors appear more saturated and intense, while the filtered light of
winter makes colors appear more subdued. When choosing a color scheme, consideration should be given to the
time of day the yard will be used. Because color is temporary, it should be used to highlight more enduring elements,
such as texture and form. A color study (Figure 9) on a plan view is helpful for making color choices. Color schemes
are drawn on the plan to show the amount and proposed location of various colors.

5. Visual Weight
Visual weight is the concept that combinations of certain features have more importance in the composition based on
mass and contrast.
Some areas of a composition are more noticeable and memorable, while others fade into the background. This does
not mean that the background features are unimportant—they create a cohesive look by linking together features of
high visual weight, and they provide a resting place for the eye. A composition where all features have high visual
weight often looks chaotic because the eye tends to bounce between the features. High visual weight usually comes
from a group of plants with one or a few of the following characteristics: upright or unusual forms, large size, bright
colors, bold texture, and diagonal lines. Low visual weight is found in low horizontal lines, prostrate or low forms, fine
texture, and subdued or dull colors (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Visual weight by mass and contrast.

  Principles of Design
Design principles guide designers in organizing elements for a visually pleasing landscape. A harmonious
composition can be achieved through the principles of proportion, order, repetition, and unity. All of the principles are
related, and applying one principle helps achieve the others. Physical and psychological comfort are two important
concepts in design that are achieved through use of these principles.
People feel more psychologically comfortable in a landscape that has order and repetition. Organized landscapes
with predictable patterns (signs of human care) are easier to "read" and tend to make people feel at ease.
Psychological comfort is also affected by the sense of pleasure that a viewer perceives from a unified or harmonious
landscape. Users feel more physically comfortable, function better, and feel more secure in a landscape with
proportions compatible to human scale.

1. Proportion
Relative proportion is the size of an object in relation to other objects. Absolute proportion is the scale or size of an
object. An important absolute scale in design is the human scale (size of the human body) because the size of other
objects is considered relative to humans.
Plant material, garden structures, and ornaments should be considered relative to human scale. Other important
relative proportions include the size of the house, yard, and the area to be planted.
 Proportion in Plants
Proportion can be found in plant material relative to people (Figure 9), the surrounding plants, and the house. When
all three are in proportion, the composition feels balanced and harmonious. A feeling of balance can also be achieved
by having equal proportions of open space and planted space. Using markedly different plant sizes can help to
achieve dominance (emphasis) through contrast with a large plant. Using plants that are similar in size can help to
achieve rhythm through repetition of size.
 Proportion in Hardscape
Features are most functional for people when they fit the human body. Benches, tables, pathways, arbors, and
gazebos work best when people can use them easily and feel comfortable using them (Figure 11). The hardscape
should also be proportional to the house—a deck or patio should be large enough for entertaining but not so large
that it doesn't fit the scale of the house.

Figure 11. Proportion in plants and hardscape

  Proportions in Voids
Human scale is also important for psychological comfort in voids or open spaces. People feel more secure in smaller
open areas, such as patios and terraces. An important concept of spatial comfort is enclosure. Most people feel at
ease with some sort of overhead condition (Figure 11) that implies a ceiling. The enclosure does not have to be solid;
in fact, an implied enclosure, such as tree branches, serves as a good psychological enclosure that still allows light
and views of the sky.

2. Order
Order generally refers to the spatial layout or organization of the design and is most often achieved through balance.
Balance is the concept of equal visual attraction and weight, usually around a real or imaginary central axis. Form,
color, size, and texture all affect balance. Balance can be symmetrical, asymmetrical, or perspective. Order can also
be achieved by massing features or elements into distinct groups and arranging them around a central point.

3. Balance
 Symmetrical Balance
Symmetrical balance is achieved when the same objects (mirror images) are placed on either side of an axis. Figure
12 shows the same trees, plants, and structures on both sides of the axis. This type of balance is used in formal
designs and is one of the oldest and most desired spatial organization concepts. This is because the mind naturally
divides space by assuming a central axis and then seeks an even distribution of objects or mass (visual weight).
Many historic gardens are organized using this concept.

Figure 12. Symmetrical balance around an axis.

  Asymmetrical Balance
Asymmetrical balance is achieved by equal visual weight of nonequivalent forms, color, or texture on either side of an
axis. This type of balance is informal and is usually achieved by masses of plants that appear to be the same in visual
weight rather than total mass. Figure 13 shows groupings of trees and structures that are approximately equal in
visual weight on either side of the axis. The mass can be achieved by combinations of plants, structures, and garden
ornaments. To create balance, features with large sizes, dense forms, bright colors, and coarse textures appear
heavier and should be used sparingly, while small sizes, sparse forms, gray or subdued colors, and fine texture
appear lighter and should be used in greater amounts.

Figure 13. Asymmetrical balance around an axis.

 Perspective Balance
Perspective balance is concerned with the balance of the foreground, midground, and background. When looking at a
composition, the objects in front usually have greater visual weight because they are closer to the viewer. This can be
balanced, if desired, by using larger objects, brighter colors, or coarse texture in the background. In most cases,
either the foreground or background should be dominant.
4. Mass Collection
Mass collection is the grouping of features based on similarities and then arranging the groups around a central
space or feature. A good example is the organization of plant material in masses around an open circular lawn area
or an open gravel seating area.
5. Repetition
Repetition is created by the repeated use of elements or features to create patterns or a sequence in the landscape.
Repeating line, form, color, and texture creates rhythm in the landscape. Repetition must be used with care—too
much repetition can create monotony, and too little can create confusion. Simple repetition is the use of the same
object in a line or the grouping of a geometric form, such as a square, in an organized pattern.
Repetition can be made more interesting by using alternation, which is a minor change in the sequence on a regular
basis—for example, using a square form in a line with a circular form inserted every fifth square. Inversion is another
type of alternation where selected elements are changed so the characteristics are opposite the original elements. An
example might be a row of vase-shaped plants and pyramidal plants in an ordered sequence.

Gradation, which is the gradual change in certain characteristics of a feature, is another way to make repetition more
interesting. An example would be the use of a square form that gradually becomes smaller or larger.

Repetition does not always create a pattern; sometimes it is simply the repeated use of the same color, texture, or
form throughout the landscape. Figure 14 illustrates repetition of a square form in an entry courtyard, lawn panels, a
patio, and a water feature.

Figure 14. Repetition of square form

 Repetition in Plants and Hardscape

Using the same plant repeatedly in a landscape is simple repetition. A grass garden is a good example of subtle plant
repetition. Gradation can be achieved with a gradual change in height or size (e.g., using small grasses in front,
backed by medium grasses, and then large grasses). A more obvious gradation is plants that transition from fine to
coarse texture, or from light green to dark green.
Material can be used repeatedly throughout the yard for unity, but interest can be created by slightly varying the size,
texture, or color of hardscape material. Repetition and pattern can be made most obvious in the hardscape because
duplication is easiest with built materials that are manufactured to exact dimensions.

6. Unity
Unity is achieved by linking elements and features to create a consistent character in the composition. Unity is
sometimes referred to as harmony—the concept of everything fitting together. By comparison, scattered groupings of
plants and unrelated garden ornaments are the opposite of unity. Unity is achieved by using dominance,
interconnection, unity of three (described below), and simplicity to arrange colors, textures, and form. Although
hardscapes and plants can be unified by the blending of similar characteristics, some variety is also important to
create interest. The simplest way to create unity is through the use of a design theme or a design style. Design
themes and styles have a well-defined set of features that have maintained their popularity over time because they
are visually pleasing to many.
 Unity by Dominance
Dominance or emphasis is the property of a plant or object that attracts and holds attention, making the object an
important feature. The ability of an object to capture attention usually depends on contrast with adjacent objects. A
typical example for a garden would be a very brightly colored ceramic pot among green foliage.
Dominant features that capture attention are called focal points. Focal points are used to draw attention to a particular
location, move the eye around the space, or guide circulation. Emphasis is created through contrast in size, color,
form, or texture.
Plants that draw attention are often called specimen plants. These are plants with a unique form, size, or texture that
stand out from the surrounding plants. Ordinary plants can also be used for emphasis by isolating the plant in a
container (Figure 15) or an open space.

Purposefully placing plants in this way draws attention to the plant. Specimen plants are usually used to draw
attention to entrances, pathways, or statuary. Garden ornaments also work well to attract attention because they are
often dramatically different from plant material. Form and color are usually the characteristics that contrast the most
with plants. Sculptures, planters, and furniture have forms that are easily recognizable and distinguishable from
plants.

Figure 15. Emphasis by isolation of plant material in a container.

  Unity by Interconnection
Interconnection, the concept of physical linkage (touching) of various features, is present in all designs. Although all
features are linked to other features, the key is to make the linkage seamless so that the features blend or fit
together. Hardscape is important to interconnection because it typically serves to organize and link spaces in the
garden. Continuation of a line, such as a path, the edge of a built object, or a defined edge of a plant bed, can create
unity through interconnection.
 Unity of Three
Features that are grouped in threes, or in other groups of odd numbers, such as in groups of five or seven, feel more
balanced to the eye and give a stronger sense of unity. Odd numbers allow for staggered variations in height, such as
small, medium, and large, that provide more interest. Odd numbers are often seen or perceived as a group and are
not as easily split or visually divided as even numbers.
 Unity by Simplicity
Simplicity is the concept of reducing or eliminating nonessentials to avoid a chaotic look. This brings clarity and
purpose to the design.
Many designers achieve simplicity by thoughtfully removing features from a design while still preserving its integrity.

Applying the Principles and Elements of Design

While it is useful to know the elements and principles of design, it is sometimes difficult to understand how to apply
them to your ideas for your yard. Each site presents challenges and opportunities for individual design and
expression and requires unique application of the elements and principles. Studying how the elements and principles
have been applied in an existing design that appeals to you is a good place to start. The best way to create a good
design is to borrow ideas from designs that you find attractive and adapt them to your particular site conditions.

 Personal Style and Sense of Place

To discover and identify your personal style, think about other yards or landscapes you enjoy. Observe the
landscapes in your neighborhood and other neighborhoods in your community. Study those that appeal to you and
note the features and types of plant material. Also try to identify the elements of design, such as color, texture, and
form, and determine how line is used in the landscape.
Study the view and try to determine how balance and rhythm are created. Also, look for dominance and try to figure
out how unity is produced. Studying landscapes in your neighborhood and community is important because most
people feel more comfortable when they "fit in" with their neighbors. There is often a strong social desire to feel like
part of the community and contribute to the neighborhood fabric.

The concept of fitting in is referred to as "genus loci," or having a sense of place. Sense of place also refers to the
regional context—the surrounding landscapes, both natural and planned, that have an influence on the design and
plant materials to be used.
Other sources of inspiration include demonstration gardens or landscapes, local botanical gardens, and displays at
local nurseries. Avoid the large national chain store nurseries, as their plants are not often grown locally, and their
plant selection may not be as suitable to your area. They can be good, however, for buying temporary annuals for
small areas. Visit demonstration gardens and botanical gardens to look for interesting and appealing plant groupings.
Note the type of microclimate for each group to determine if it will work in your yard. Because these gardens are
designed for your area, you can use the exact combination of plant material, as long as it fits the sun and shade
requirements. Ask about growing and maintenance requirements to determine if the plants will fit your needs. At local
nurseries, you can gather and arrange several potted plants to see how they look together. Although they are small,
you can still get a good idea about texture and color composition.

Another way to identify your personal style is to look through magazines and books for ideas. Study the images and
note the details. What do you like about the design? Will it work in your space? You will not be able to duplicate the
exact design because your site will be different in location, size, and shape, but there are often many features you
can adapt to your site. Appropriate hardscape materials and plants for your region can be substituted for those in the
sample design by choosing materials and plants with the same characteristics. Try to picture how the features will
look in your yard and where they might be placed. Several different ideas may be knitted together to create a final
design. It is important to keep in mind that the gardens and yards you see in magazines and books are chosen
because they are outstanding examples, and they are typically gardens that are cared for by people with extensive
gardening knowledge. Keep in mind your (or your contractor's) maintenance abilities and knowledge and adjust the
design appropriately.
  Site Conditions
How do you know if a design you like will work in your yard?
I. First, compare the architectural style of the houses and try to find similarities between your house and the
sample house. Study the hardscape materials in the sample design. Do the same colors and materials work
with your house? If necessary, what substitutions could you use and still retain the desired look? Imagine
your house with the same or similar plant materials—remember that the plants can be arranged differently to
fit the dimensions of your yard. For more information on plant selection, see Right Plant, Right Place: The
Art and Science of Landscape Design – Plant Selection and Siting
(http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/EP416).
II. Second, look at the shape and size of the footprint (outline) of your house in relation to your lot size and
shape. For this you will need an official boundary survey that shows the exact footprint, with dimensions,
and it's location within the property boundaries. This will tell you if you have room for the features you desire
and where those features can be located. Pay particular attention to the shape of the spaces or voids
between your house and the property lines. These are the areas where your features will be located and will
help determine the potential form or shape for those features. For example, a rectangular yard may look
best with rectangular shapes in the hardscape. The shape of the house will also provide clues as to the type
of shape you should use in the yard. If the house has diagonal walls or hexagon shapes, this could inspire a
diagonal or hexagon shape in the landscape. Designers will often draw lines on the plan that extend from
the house edges or corners to the property lines. Figure 16 illustrates lines used to delineate the shape of
spaces and locate the patio and focal features. These are called regulating lines because they help regulate
space and define forms that extend from the house or between the house and the property lines.

Figure 16. Regulating lines from house walls and doors.

 III. Third, thoroughly understand your site and how you want to use the space. Begin with a site inventory and
analysis. Note all the conditions of the space and analyze how the conditions might affect your design. Each
condition can be seen as an opportunity—a positive condition that will help achieve your design—or a
constraint—a negative condition that might impact your design, but could possibly be turned into an
opportunity. Examples of opportunities and/or constraints include land forms, such as slopes and flat areas,
and natural features, such as trees and rocks, or built features, such as swimming pools and fences.
Depending on the desired design, each could present an opportunity or a constraint.

 Locating Features and Defining Outdoor Rooms

Once you have determined the architectural style, the shape of the yard spaces, and the opportunities of your site,
you can begin to locate the features and give them form. Most features will have a logical location based on the use
or type of feature and the site opportunities.
The yard is typically considered an extension of the house, and it makes sense to locate the most heavily used
features of the yard close to backdoor entrance. For example, the outdoor dining/seating area (patio or deck) is
typically located adjacent to the house for convenience and physical comfort. Other features, such as dog runs and
vegetable gardens, are often located on the side of the house to hide them from view, and play or recreation areas
are often located in full view of the kitchen or family rooms so that parents can watch children at play.

Spatially dividing a yard into separate uses is often referred to as creating outdoor rooms (Figure 17) and is a
fundamental concept of outdoor design. Logical arrangement of the "rooms" creates a functional and aesthetically
pleasing landscape. Spaces can be delineated through the use of different materials, such as the edge of a stone
patio against a lawn panel; through a change in elevation (steps); through the use of a form, such as a square lawn
panel; through the use of a feature, such as a low garden wall or small trees; or through the use of plants to create
implied walls and ceilings. The elements and principles of design are particularly useful when creating rooms
because they help to define spaces, add interest, and create a unified, functional, and aesthetically pleasing
landscape.

Figure 17. Outdoor rooms for separate uses

Color and texture can also be used to differentiate spaces by making each area visually unique or distinct. The
hierarchy of spaces or rooms can also be delineated through the use of visual weight. Areas of high importance can
include features and elements that give them high visual weight and attract attention. Scale and proportion are also
useful principles for spatial organization and hierarchy. A space with a distinctly different size relative to the other
spaces tends to assume more importance because of the contrast. Scale is also very important in determining the
type of features that can be used in the landscape; different uses require different square footage to be functional.
For example, features such as swimming pools, dog runs, and vegetable gardens have a minimum required size, and
a patio has a minimum size depending on the number of people expected to use the patio at one time.
Spaces can be connected through the use of lines, such as pathways, or they can be visually connected through the
use of emphasis (focal points) that captures attention and leads the eye, or through repetition of elements that
connects spaces through similar objects. Another important concept of outdoor design is direction or physical
movement within a space. Movement or circulation can be controlled through the use of different materials, spatial
organization, focal points, and intentional marking of pathways. Using all of the elements and principles will tie the
entire landscape together in a unified, functional manner.
THE DESIGN PROCESS IN
LANDSCAPE DESIGN
Landscape architecture design projects differ in scale and complexity, however they are separated
into various stages to allow for ease of management. Due to the variation in project types the staging
of landscape architecture projects requires a flexible approach to project management. The project
stages often follow a similar pattern however, they may be shortened or not undertaken due to
various factors including scale, complexity, client requirements, budget and so on.

1. Project Inception & Initiation

 1A Initial Consultation
During the initial consultation (phone call or meeting), the landscape architect will have their
first conversations with the client about their project including location, size, initial ideas,
uses, budget, timeline. For large or government projects this stage may be in the form of a
brief. A brief is a document that is provided by the client that includes the important
information about the project and those who are involved
 1B Return Brief/Proposal
After the client has provided the information the landscape architect then provides a return
brief or proposal. This can be one-two pages or it can be 100 pages depending on the type
of project and the budget involved.

The return brief/proposal sets out what the landscape architect understands what the project entails
(ideas, use requirements, etc.), what the landscape architect will provide (scope and deliverables),
who will assist in the design of the project (team/people), who else maybe involve consultant
services (architecture, surveying, arborist, horticulturalist, engineers, water feature consultant,
lighting designer, etc.), the fee (how much the services will cost) and the possible program (the time
it will take).

 1C Project Understanding and Research

After the client has accepted the proposal and there is a signed contract or understanding
made (such as M.O.U. ) and prior to going to the site, the landscape architect will review the
project. This includes the initial consultation notes, return brief/proposal and also have
conversations with allied professionals including architects, engineers to gain an
understanding of their ideas and scope. The landscape architect will also undertake some
research including government requirements, local flora, adjacent area (uses, streets, etc).
 1D Site Inventory and Analysis
The landscape architect will undertake a site inventory and analysis usually using a survey
plan (provided by the client or surveyor).This stage involves locating site and the vegetation,
reviewing the terrain, building/s, evaluating the current uses, environmental factors (site
orientation, sun, shade, noise, wind, water, soil, etc). The landscape architect will also walk
around the surrounding area to get some understanding of the local area (uses, architecture,
vegetation, culture, etc).
2 .Concept Design
The concept design stage is the when the landscape architect puts pen to paper (or stylus to screen)
to develop the initial ideas for the project.

There are varying scale projects from residential to large parks to urban master plans. A small
residential project may have the client (owner) and the landscape architect involved in the project.
The project has concept stage with some reiterations and then a final concept stage. Whereas, a
large scale regional park may include several concept phases including urban planning plan,
landscape concept masterplan, government approval, schematic concept design, concept design.
Each of these stages may span months or years depending on the resources (time, people, and
money), objectives of the client, approval timelines and community involvement

The main objective of this stage is to develop documents (plan or report) that provide the client with
an understanding of the proposed spatial arrangement, programs, functions, constraints,
opportunities and overall aesthetic. These documents often including plans, analysis studies
(topographic, climatic, land use, vegetation, access, etc.), precedent project images, renders
(perspective, aerial, etc.), typical material palettes, depending on the client’s requirements.

During Concept development the landscape architect could also have to provide documents required
by government for planning approval (sometimes called town planning, developmental approval,
planning approval, or government approval)

3 Design Development (Detailed Design)

A stage where the initial concept is developed to provide the client with greater understanding of the
design. This is the stage when landscape architects start to develop their ideas in more detail to
ensure that the concept design is achievable and will meet the client needs. At this stage the
designer also determines if there are any major issues (topographic, access, services, drainage, and
budget) as the design evolves and allied disciplines start to investigate and design their own design
with greater detail.

Often clients see the initial concept but don’t fully understand that it is a concept and there needs to
be further design undertaken to resolve the concept and ensure it is viable (financially,
constructability, etc.).

The documents and level of detail provided in this stage differ from country to country. In some
countries Design Development entails providing color plans, sections, material palettes with notation
about materials, colors, heights and more.

Other countries require Design Development to be highly detailed documents (plans, sections,
details, material schedules) ready for landscape construction companies (and/or quantity surveyors)
to provide an initial pricing (tender) on the project. This is usually determined by local practice and
client expectations during the initial discussions.
4 Construction Documentation
During this stage the landscape architect develops documents including plans, sections, schedules,
construction details, quantities and a specification for landscape construction companies to be price
and build the project.

This stage often requires coordination with other consultants to reduce the possibility for construction
issues and also to allow for resolution of overlapping design elements (architecture, landscape,
lighting, engineering, etc.)

5 Tendering (Procurement)
For the tendering stage the Construction Documentation package(drawings, schedules,
specification) is issued to often three or more contractors(dependent on local regulations and client
policies on procurement) to price the project and provide a construction program based on the
documents available. Often these stages include various contractor questions to clarify the project
design and requirements (materials, engineering, scope, etc) and may also be to suggest alternative
material or construction methods that may offer savings for the client.

This stage can occur at different points of the project this is often determined by the client. The
Tendering stage can occur at the end of Design Development or during or end of Construction
Documentation. There are pros and cons on the timing of releasing drawings for tender and pricing.

6 Construction
The stage when the contractor is on site building the landscape design. Construction often includes
the following stages:

 Demolition and Site Clearing

 Excavation and Trenching
 Services Installation (drainage, irrigation, electrical, etc.)
 Fine Grading
 Hardscape Structure Construction (backfilling, compaction, base, footings, walls, buildings,
edges, etc.)
 Hardscape Finishes Construction(paving, cladding, inorganic mulches)
 Planting (trees, plants, organic mulch)
 Final Fixtures (furniture, pavilions, lighting, etc.)
 Defects (identity and fix problems)
 Completion (Initial and Final)

The order in which these sub stages occurs is dependent on the size and type of project. A
residential project may complete the construction in the order as listed. However, a park project may
complete Demolition, Excavation, Services and Fine grading and then plant trees as the remainder
of the project may take 6 to 18 months to build the Hardscape and Fixtures.
7 Construction Management (Construction Administration)
The client may request that the landscape architect manage the project which can include full site
supervision or can be several inspections and approval of construction, approvals of payments,
approvals of variations.

Depending on the level of service the landscape architect may be fully involved in the project
construction stage or maybe ask to only approval samples and the remainder of the project is
completed by a project manager and construction company.

8 Maintenance
once the project is complete the contractor is often required to maintain the project for a period of
time. This can be months or years depending on the client requirements. The landscape architect is
often required to attend and submit reports during or at the end of the maintenance periods to
ensure that project is being maintained and also that any defects (dead trees, item failures, etc) are
made good or replaced.

9 Post Occupancy Evaluation

often design firms and clients will undertake Post Occupancy Evaluation. This can happen at various
intervals during the initial opening and then the following months or years. These can be formalize or
anecdotal and allow for learning and to evaluate various elements including planting, furniture,
materials, maintenance, uses, event management, and more. This is phase that as landscape
architects we are often not paid to undertake but often offers the best insight to the resilience and
success of our designs.
Landscape Design: site analysis

An inventory and analysis of the site (your yard) is important for making design decisions and developing the
best design for the site and the user. Any condition on the site that affects plants, water, and people should
be noted on the inventory and analyzed to make the best design decisions about storm water management,
family activities, and the type and location of plants.

To understand the difference between an inventory and an analysis, remember that the inventory is simply a
list of all existing conditions, and the analysis is a judgment about the condition plus the action items
(activities) to take place to achieve the desired design. Table 1 gives some examples of decision making and
proposed activities based on information from the inventory and analysis. The desired design result is listed
with the action item.

Table 1.

Inventory and analysis process

inventory item analysis action item

1. Oak tree – 30' height, 40' canopy Provides shade, aesthetically Keep tree, thin canopy, and add more
spread, good health, no plant pleasing, difficult to grow plants in plants underneath. Result: more sun
growth under tree deep shade of canopy allows more plants under tree

2. Tall vegetation on edge of Remove tall plants and install a wider

Good view to preserve, plants are
retention pond, view of pond from buffer strip with low-growing plants.
too tall and poorly maintained
kitchen window Result: clear view of water

Remove the old walk, reshape, and

3. Concrete walkway to front door Walkway is a trip hazard and not choose plants that won't sprawl into
in poor condition, only 2' wide and wide enough for two people to walk.
plants grow onto walk walk comfortably Result: wider, safer, more aesthetically
appealing walk

 Site Inventory

Although it may sound technical, developing an inventory is the simple process of walking around the yard
and recording everything you see (and feel) on paper. As you view the yard, think about what's good, what's
bad, what to save, and what to change? Figure 18 shows a typical site inventory with notes about site
conditions. Areas of concern include the soil and topography, plants, sun/shade conditions, built features,
views, and activity areas.
 Figure 18. Inventory of site conditions (Credit: Gail Hansen)

 Soil, Drainage, Plants, and Water

Knowing the type of soil is important because this determines the nutrients and moisture available to the plants. For
example, sandy soils are easy to work with and drain quickly, but they have poor nutrient retention. Clay soils have
poor drainage but excellent nutrient retention. For more information on soil testing, see http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss494.
The condition of existing vegetation can provide clues to soil problems, such as drainage or compaction. It is always
best to use plants that will thrive in the existing soil to reduce the need for soil amendments. Where plants are
growing well, note the soil conditions and use plants with similar growing requirements. Look for more suitable plants
in areas where plants are not doing well. Slopes and low, wet areas should also be noted so that drainage problems
can be corrected in the proposed design. A good design moves water away from the house and reroutes it to other
areas of the yard. Water bodies require special design consideration. Plant conditions on the water's edge, water
quality, erosion problems on the bank, and maintenance problems with algae or trash are issues that can be
improved with appropriate design strategies. For more information, see http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fa007.
  Sun/Shade Patterns

Climate conditions to note begin with temperature. Plants must be able to survive the average high and, more
importantly, the average low temperatures for the region. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zones
(see http://floridagardener.com/misc/zones.htm) are a good starting point for choosing appropriate plants, but
remember that microclimates within your yard can offer alternatives. Sun/shade patterns (the amount and length of
exposure to sun or shade) determine appropriate locations for plants and can create microclimates (sometimes called
microhabitats). It's not difficult to locate microclimate areas—they are usually the areas of most sun and deepest
shade in the yard. A sunny area is one that receives six hours or more of full sun each day, and a shady area is one
that receives six hours or more of full shade each day. When noting the location of sun and shade, it is important to
remember that sun/shade patterns change with the seasons and over time as trees grow larger. For more information
on shade patterns, see http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/EH218, and EH216 and EH217. Wind is also a factor to consider
because it tends to dry out plants (evapotranspiration) and, in coastal areas, it can carry salt from the ocean spray.

 Built Features

It is important to note all the existing built features on an accurate base map when doing the site inventory. Utilities
such as power lines, septic tanks, underground utilities, and roof overhangs determine plant and hardscape location.
Use a surveyor's plat of your property for the boundaries and location of your home. The height and style of your
home, as well as the materials used, will help you make design decisions for new hardscape features. Measure and
note on the survey other structures and hardscapes, such as patios, driveways, or sidewalks. It is very important to
hire a surveyor if you do not have a plat; guessing the location of boundaries can be a costly mistake.

 Users, Spaces, Views, and Senses

Users are typically you, your family, the family pets, and visitors, and each have their own needs. There are five
things to consider:

 How do you currently use the yard?

 How do you want to use the yard?
 Aesthetically, how do you want it to look?
 What is your maintenance style? Hands off or hands on?
 What is your budget?

It is very important to consider how you currently use the yard. For example, where do you entertain and prepare
food, where do the kids play, and where does the dog usually run? Thinking about how you currently use the yard
and how you want to use it in the future determines the need for new spaces and features and the reorganization of
old spaces. Sometimes the most important aspect about creating spaces is the feelings that are generated and the
emotional qualities of the space. Does it feel closed in and dark or cheerful and pleasant? Use all your senses. Think
about scent, touch, and sound. Views are important because you need to make a decision about including the view
as part of your landscape or blocking an undesirable view. Don't forget safety and security. For most people, feeling
secure in their homes is a very high emotional priority, and security is often about blocking views into the yard from
the neighbors as well. Views from the street should also be considered. An open view to the front of the house is
more desirable for both security (no hiding places) and curb appeal. Don't forget to think about the time and money
you are willing to put into maintaining the plants and hardscape. Be realistic about your intentions and ability.
  Neighborhood and Development Codes

Most people have a strong social desire to fit in with their neighbors and contribute positively to the value and
attractive appearance of the neighborhood. Our yards are open for public view and scrutiny. We—and the value of
our homes—are often judged by their appearance. When considering appropriate fit in the neighborhood, think about
the style of architecture, the type of vegetation that is commonly grown in the neighbors' yards, and the feeling and
style, or general character, of the yards. Many neighborhoods now have design codes that regulate aesthetics and
govern design decisions. Most codes include restrictions on fencing, ornaments, and furniture, and provide
recommendations on acceptable plant materials. Codes also mandate certain setback and easement requirements
that will have an impact on design decisions.

Table 2 includes all of the inventory items that should be noted and described. Use the table as a checklist and make
notes on the information listed for each item. Write the information on the plan so that you can show the physical
location of each feature or condition.

Analysis of Site Conditions

The primary goal of the site analysis is to determine actions to be taken to resolve problems and identify design
opportunities for locating new features. There are typical issues for all sites that should be addressed in the analysis.
All sites have rainwater concerns and some require redirecting or capturing and storing water. Most sites require
some plantings to block or screen views. Most people need to create more shade or allow more sun, and almost
everyone has vegetation that they no longer want in their yard and new plants they would like to install. New activity
areas and circulation routes often have to be planned, which requires new hardscape features, and most yards have
at least one problem area that requires special consideration. Notes on the analysis should include where you need
more trees and shade or more open areas and sun, areas to keep open for views, areas for storm water drainage,
possible locations for activities, proposed changes to plant beds and built features (such as patios or walkways),
areas that need to be protected, and areas that need the addition of a focal point or color. Figure 19 shows a site
analysis based on the notes from the inventory in Figure 18. Analysis comments are usually written as desired
actions or instructions for actions to take as part of the design process. The analysis can also show the location for
proposed features. The location may change as more thought is put into the conceptual design during the planning
process.
Figure 19. Analysis of site conditions (Credit: Gail Hansen)
Table 2. Inventory and analysis items
Inventory and analysis checklist

Check off each item on the list as you note it on your plan

Soil – Type, percolation, Utilities – Type, size, location,

compaction, amendments, and aesthetics, irrigation, and setbacks
building limitations for plant and hardscape material

Topography and water – Drainage, Sun/shade patterns – Wind

slopes, water bodies, erosion, and direction, microclimates, and freeze
low, wet areas protection
Plants – Type, health, size, Activities – Current activities,
Features maintenance issues, and pest Features proposed activities, and size of
problems spaces
Features and
and and
conditions Circulation routes – Walkways,
Views – Good and bad views from
pathways, driveways, adequate size,
conditions site, off site, and from house conditions
and appropriate location

Spaces and senses – Spatial

Neighborhood and codes –
layout, activity areas, feeling,
Character, styles, vegetation, and
character, security, sound, smell,
development restrictions
and touch
Building – Condition, color,
Maintenance – Problem areas,
materials, height, and architectural
skills, and tools
style
Landscape Design: Important Things to Consider
 Understand Your Site

A thorough inventory and analysis of the site is important to determine the environmental conditions for plant growth
and the best use of the site. Issues of concern include the soil type, topography, and regional climate. The type of soil
determines the nutrients and moisture available to the plants. It is always best to use plants that will thrive in the
existing soil. Although soil can be amended, amendment is often costly and most times ineffective. Existing
vegetation can provide clues to the soil type. Where plants grow well, note the soil conditions and use plants with
similar growing requirements. Pay particular attention to areas where plants are not doing well and adjust when
choosing new plants. Topography and drainage should also be noted and all drainage problems corrected in the
proposed design. A good design will move water away from the house and re-route it to other areas of the yard.

Climate concerns begin with temperature: plants must be able to survive the average high and, most importantly, the
average low temperatures for the region. Use the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map (www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/)
as a starting point to choose plants appropriate for your zone, but remember microclimates within your yard can offer
alternatives. Sun/shade patterns, the amount and length of exposure to sun or shade (Figure 20), create
microclimates (sometimes called microhabitats). Recording site conditions and existing vegetation on a base map will
reveal the location of microclimates in the yard. Plants usually fall into one or two of four microclimate categories-full
sun, partial shade, shade, and deep shade. It is important to remember that sun/shade patterns change with the
seasons and over time as trees get larger.

Figure 20. Sun and shade patterns.

It is essential to note all the existing conditions on an accurate base map when doing the site inventory (Figure 21).
Utilities such as power lines, septic tanks, underground utilities and roof overhangs determine plant location. Use a
surveyor's plat of your property for the boundaries and location of your home. Measure and note on the survey other
structures and hardscape such as patios, driveways, or sidewalks. It is very important to hire a surveyor if you do not
have a plat; guessing the location of boundaries can be a costly mistake.

Figure 21. Site inventory.

  Remember the User

The users are typically you, your family, the family pets, and visitors, and each have their own needs. There are five
things to consider:

1) How do you currently use the yard?

2) How do you want to use the yard?

3) Aesthetically, how do you want it to look?

4) What is your maintenance style, hands-off or hands-on?

5) What is your budget?

It is very important to consider how you currently use the yard. For example-which entry is used by whom, where do
the kids play and where does the dog usually run? (Figure 22) Thinking about how you currently use the yard, and
how you want to use the yard in the future (Figure 23), determines the need to re-organize old spaces into new
spaces and amenities. It is also important to remember the vehicles used by your family; driveways and parking are
space intensive. Budget concerns include the materials, initial installation costs and the on-going maintenance costs.
Determine the time and money you are willing to put into maintaining the plants and hardscape-be realistic about your
intentions and ability.

Figure 22. Current use areas

 Figure 23. Proposed use areas.

 Use a Form and/or Style Theme

There are many different landscape design themes- from simple to complex, but it is helpful to choose one to guide
your plant and material selection. Think of a theme as the inspiration for your garden. Many people find it helpful to
look in gardening magazines and books for ideas. This is a good start, but be aware that the gardens in the photos
were picked because they are outstanding examples. Look at the photos with a critical eye to gather ideas that you
can adapt to your passion level, your budget and your site. Before choosing a theme it is important to look at the
surrounding views of your property. Decide if you want to open your yard, close your yard, or a little of both, to these
views. In other words, do you want the garden to enclose the space around you and relate mostly to the house, or do
you want the garden to open views and look outward, relating to the surroundings? This will give you a starting point
to think about a theme. Care should be taken to choose appropriate themes for your yard based on the architecture,
the type of neighborhood, the topography, and the regional landscapes. This is called "sense of place", which means
it fits with the surroundings.

There are both form themes and style themes. Every garden should have a form theme, but not all gardens have a
style theme. In fact, many residential gardens have no particular style except to blend with the house by repeating
details from the architecture such as materials, color, and form. All gardens, however, should use a form theme to
create spaces for activities. In a form theme the organization and shape of the spaces in the yard is based either on
the shape of the house, the shape of the areas between the house and the property boundaries, or a favorite shape
of the homeowner. The form theme determines the shape and organization (the layout) of the spaces and the links
between them.

Common themes include geometric, such as a circle, square, and rectangle; or naturalistic such as irregular (organic
edge) or curvilinear (meandering lines) (Figure 24). Form themes are sometimes combined; geometric shapes are
used for the hardscape and naturalistic shapes for the plantings. For example, plant bedlinens are often curvilinear
while the hardscape is square in form.

Figure 24. Naturalistic form theme.

Style themes are most often related to the architecture and they often simplify the design of a residential yard
because materials and form are to some extent pre-determined. Many style themes today are a contemporary
version of traditional garden designs. Architecture is usually the primary source of a theme, but themes can also
represent a time, a culture, a place, or a feeling, such as serenity or calmness. The advantage to using a traditional
style theme is the established set of forms and elements have historically worked well together and endured the test
of time.
Because architectural styles typically fall into a formal or informal category, the landscape theme tends to be either
formal or informal (Figure 25). Formal architectural and garden styles that can be used for inspiration include French,
Spanish, Italian, and Middle Eastern. Less formal designs include Oriental, English, and American. Style themes can
also apply to the planting plan and may include tropical, desert, meadow, woodland, marsh, or coastal plantings.
Themes can be as simple as a color mix or plants with a distinct character- such as grasses-used repeatedly in the
composition.

Figure 25. Formal style theme.

  Create and Link Spaces

The yard is an extension of the home where a variety of activities take place. A yard can generally be divided into
three areas: public (the front yard), private (the back yard), and service (typically the side yard). The location of
activity areas depends primarily on the type of area, the size of space needed, the type of activity, and the desired
proximity to other activities and structures. A few examples of spaces include the front entry area that brings you and
your visitors to your home, a cooking/eating/entertaining area (patio or deck), a play area, a dog run, a secret
garden/relaxation area, a vegetable garden or hobby area, and a trash/compost/work area.

Perhaps the most important spatial concept for successful garden design is the creation of outdoor rooms in the yard.
These spaces are often separated through the use of plant beds, sod areas, trees, planters, garden walls, arbors,
level changes, and paved surfaces (Figure 26). The features are used to enclose or define the spaces and give them
a room-like feel. For psychological comfort, creating spaces that are of human scale is important because most
people prefer to be in places that feel protected and sheltering, rather than open and exposed. The outside wall of the
house often serves as the first wall or starting point of an outdoor room. Incompatible uses should be separated, and
related activities, such as cooking and dining, should be put together to make the yard more efficient and enjoyable.
When using hardscape to create spaces, use construction material similar to that used in the house for continuity
from the house into the garden.

Figure 26. Outdoor rooms

Pedestrian circulation in the landscape should move people through the yard and provide organizational structure.
Outdoor rooms are typically linked by pathways, steps, and walkways, or openings with gates or arbors that
encourage exploration and use of the entire yard (Figure 27). These spaces can also be linked by visual features
such as a creek bed (wet or dry) that meanders through or beside several spaces, or a garden wall that begins at a
patio, moves along a turf area and ends along a planted area.

Figure 27. Linked spaces.

Using similar hardscape features and repeating plants pulls the eye around the garden. Important points along the
way can be emphasized with plantings or features that draw attention and encourage movement in a particular
direction. Moving along the path takes a person from one area to the next and allows the user to have a variety of
experiences. In an informal garden the curves and bends of the path should partially conceal what lies ahead. This
provides a sense of mystery that promotes exploration and discovery of the landscape.

 Consider the Function of Plants

From a design perspective, plant materials have three major functions in the landscape: aesthetic, structural and
utilitarian. Aesthetically, plants create a visually pleasant environment and structurally plants organize and define
spaces. Plants are utilitarian because they can transform the environment for the comfort of the user by modifying
light, temperature and humidity. Plants can also be used to control noise and odor, and provide food for homeowners
and wildlife.
For psychological comfort plants are used as physical or implied barriers for privacy and safety. Physical barriers
block both the view and access to a space and include fences, walls and plant hedges. Implied barriers, typically low
growing plants, block access but not the view (Figure 28). Other functions of plants include cleaning the air,
preventing erosion and soil loss, retaining moisture in the soil, and returning organic matter to the soil.

Figure 28. Physical and implied barriers

For these reasons, the types of plants to be used (such as trees, shrubs, or groundcovers) should be chosen in the
early stages of planning. Plant types are chosen for their functional capabilities so that their future purpose and
required space can be considered at the same time.

For structure and utility, trees and large to medium shrubs are the most important plants in the landscape, they
contribute the most to microclimates (Figure 29), spatial organization, and security concerns. The size, form and
texture (density) are the three dominant characteristics that determine how the plant can be used to make more
pleasant microclimates and create a more functional, organized, energy efficient yard.

Figure 29. Microclimates.

  Structure the Plantings

Plants provide structure in the garden in the same way as do the walls of a building. Shrubs can act as walls in a
space and the branches of trees form a ceiling canopy overhead. The overhead plane, the vertical plane and the
ground plane should all be considered to create enclosure. Once the shape of a plant bed has been established, the
plants should be massed (grouped) and layered to achieve visual unity and the desired amount of enclosure. The
size of a plant mass will depend on the total size of the yard, the size of the individual plants in the mass, and the
emphasis or impact desired from the plant material. Overlapping the masses of plants so that they are layered, both
horizontally (Figure 30) and vertically (Figure 31) links the plants with an interconnecting pattern. Each plant mass is
in front of, behind, or next to, another mass.

Figure 30. Horizontal plant layers.

Figure 31. Vertical plant layers.

Repeating plants within a mass and repeating masses with similar plants ties the garden together.

The individual plant characteristics must be considered to successfully layer and mass plants. Each plant should
complement or contrast a neighboring plant.

All plant compositions begin with the main structure plants, the large, mostly evergreen background plants-such as
the trees and large shrubs. These plants separate or enframe spaces, control the size of the space, and provide the
starting point for choosing the appropriate characteristics of the second layer, midground plants, for massing and
infill. The final layer of plants, the foreground plants, includes the low growing plants that often provide emphasis or
focal points.

 Highlight Important Points

Important points in the garden should be highlighted by the use of unique plants, distinct structures, or garden
ornaments. Marking thresholds or entrances to spaces can be done with gates, arbors, and steps, or through the use
of unique and colorful plants. The form and/or style theme of the garden will often help determine the important points
and how they should be highlighted. Some styles have signature elements, such as a type of statuary or water
feature, that are the hallmark of the style. Other important places in the yard are focal points, which is used to visually
organize a landscaped area. The type of focal point often depends on the viewing perspective. Different perspectives
or viewpoints can reveal different compositions in the landscape that may require a variety of focal points. Contrasting
texture, shape, size and color will capture and hold the eye.

 Pay Attention to Detail

Detail in the landscape is derived from the visual quality of plants, hardscape, and garden ornaments. Sensual
qualities such as scent, sound, and touch also add detail to the landscape. Various combinations of form, color,
texture, and size create aesthetic qualities. Plants come in various forms-such as round, columnar, weeping, and
spreading, that compliment or contrast with each other depending on how similar or different they are (Figure 32).
Form is the most enduring quality of a plant and thus the most important characteristic

Figure 32. Plant forms.

After form, texture is the next dominant feature of a plant; coarse, medium and fine textures can be used for contrast
and emphasis in the landscape. Form and texture both trump color in the garden for most of the year. However,
during certain seasons, color will be the most noticeable characteristic of the garden. To extend color displays
throughout the year, use plants that have color in numerous plant parts, such as the foliage, bark, and fruit.

Various color schemes, based on color theory, are used for contrast or unity in a garden. Typically one color, two
contrasting colors, or several analogous (similar) colors are repeated throughout the garden. Both color and texture
affect distance and can change the perceived size of a space-warm colors and/or coarse texture make a space feel
smaller; cool colors and/or fine texture make a space feel larger. The characteristics of individual plants affect
balance, unity and emphasis in the composition. Dark colors and coarse textures make a plant look heavier and
larger (more visual weight) and must be balanced with the same or with a larger mass of bright or light colors with fine
or medium texture. Massing plants with similar colors and textures provides unity, but contrasting plants should be
included to provide emphasis at important points.

To fully appreciate and experience a garden, all of the senses must be considered. The pleasant scent of plants, the
sound of wind in the trees, the sound and texture of water, and the colors and textures of sculptures, pots and garden
furniture all add to the experience of the garden. One detail that is often overlooked is the effect of light on the
aesthetics of the plants. Light shining through a plant, such as a feathery grass, can change its appearance. The
entire garden changes in function and appearance over the course of the day, and the course of a year, as the light
and temperature change from morning to night and season to season.

 Take Time into Account

Plant selection must consider a plant's growth rate, its mature size and form, and the maintenance it will require. Fast
growing plants may or may not be desirable depending on the size of the site, the design intent, and the expected
level of maintenance. It is important to know the eventual mature size of plants so they can be placed in the right
location and spaced properly when they are installed.

Giving plants room to grow is a challenge because the common mature size is typically based on optimal growing
conditions and the environmental conditions of a site may cause a plant to grow larger or stay smaller. If plants are
spaced too closely (to simulate a fully grown landscape) the overcrowded plants will present a maintenance issue.
Provide enough space so that, when fully mature, the plants are barely touching their neighbors and a somewhat
solid growing mass is formed (Figure 33). It is important, however, to leave space so the plant does not touch the
side of the house-this space allows for air circulation and home maintenance. Another common mistake is to plant too
close to utilities such as AC units and meters.
 Figure 33. Plant spacing.

 Protect Your Resources

Be a good steward of the land through the wise use of plants, water, and building materials. The three areas of
greatest impact are the use of resource-efficient plants, the management of water, and the use of environmentally
sound hardscape materials. Before you remove any plant material, consider how you might be able to enrich your
existing ecological capital. That is, look at what you have and decide if it is worth saving. Some plant material may
simply be in the wrong place and can be transplanted for more favorable conditions. Look for resource-efficient plants
when choosing new plants. Florida-friendly plants are long lived, insect and disease resistant, and don't demand
frequent trimming, fertilizing, and watering.

The design phase is the time to consider incorporating the development of a rainwater catchment system. The
availability of water will no doubt be limited in the future so you must decide the role of water in your design: where
will you get irrigation water, how will you manage it, and how will you use it? The most obvious source will be
rainwater and the use of a harvesting system to capture, move, and store it. The system can be an aesthetic design
element if planned for early in the process. It is typically the first element to be installed because it sometimes
requires earthmoving and underground piping.

Protecting resources also includes the use of environmentally friendly hardscape materials and non-toxic
preservatives, stains, paints, and cleaners. Reusing construction materials will reduce the environmental impact of
using new materials and keep old materials out of the waste stream. Before any demolition starts on your old patio,
pool deck, arbors, or structures, consider how you might reuse the material in your new design. In addition to helping
the environment it will also help your budget. If you will not be doing any demolition work in your yard, look for other
sources of used material in your community
LANDSCAPE STYLES
The beginning concept of new landscape design projects most always take their styles based on the
style of a home, personal and family needs, and the personality of the owner when possible. Beginning
with a theme in mind and a complete finished plan will help keep the project on track as well as create
and maintain unity between the home, landscaping, and garden.

While there are several different landscape design styles that are quite popular and used a lot in most
landscaping and garden designs, they are not limited to a strict and selected list of types and themes.
Still, most folks try to at least start with a theme that will match their home style and geographic area. And

1) Mediterranean Style
As with most design styles, this theme gets a lot of its atmosphere from the plants used to create
it. And as new varieties of Palm trees and different Mediterranean plant varieties are propagated
to conform to different climates, the Mediterranean design style is becoming one of the most
popular themes used in many parts of the world.
2) Japanese Garden Style
While there aren’t a lot of Eastern and Japanese type homes in the U.S., the Eastern way and
philosophy of designing gardens has become very popular in the Western world. So in order to
enjoy the order and elegance of this garden theme, most folks either devote all or part of their
backyards to it. In most instances, it clashes with the look of most modern home designs.
3) Cottage Gardens
Cottage gardens were originally created for raising crops to sustain families. However, over time,
they have taken on a whole new appearance and use. Originally, flowers were few or established
only by blown in seed. Still, even though a lot of the time this style still makes room for kitchen,
herb, and vegetable gardens, it has become a more popular type of flower garden.
4) Southwest Landscape Design
A very popular theme and atmosphere that can be created through the type of garden decor as
well as type of plants. While mostly used in arid regions like Arizona and New Mexico, it is
becoming quite popular in many parts of the world. Again, since a lot of the atmosphere for this
theme can be created with decor and hardscapes, it is becoming more popular in many areas
that can’t sustain the type of arid plants used in this design style.
5) Formal Gardens
Formal landscape design depends a lot on straight lines and geometrical shapes. Many times this
style is very symmetrical. Plants are in order and continually pruned to maintain their formal
effect.
6) Tropical Landscape Design Style
Depending on geographic location and type of plants, this landscaping theme is often grouped in
the same area as Mediterranean gardens. However, the plants generally have much larger
leaves and flowering plants with intense bright color. Thick foliage placed toward the back of
planting beds creates a dense tropical atmosphere planting area.
7) Tuscan Garden Design
8) Xeriscaping
While Xeriscaping isn’t actually a design style but is a water wise method of landscaping, it is still
usually referred to as a theme or style. Most often associated with Southwest, Santa Fe, Arizona,
or Desert landscape designs, it is usually a part of all of these design types. However, what most
folks don’t understand is that xeriscape principles can be applied to almost all landscape design
styles to help preserve natural resources as well as save money. Well worth looking into.
9) Japanese Garden Design
10) Chinese gardens e.t.c
Final Considerations For Selecting Landscape Design Styles
 Consider the design of your home. Is there a strong popular theme that is commonly used and
associated with the type of home you have?
 Take local natural resources and conditions into account. Is there a need for Xeriscaping, native
plants, or a style of landscape design that is more hardscape elements rather than lawn and a lot of
plants?
 Future maintenance. Are you the type that likes to spend a lot of time working in the yard or do you
simply enjoy seeing and relaxing in it? While some landscaping styles and themes will work with
almost any type of home, some require a lot of work and some require very little at all.
 TYPES OF LANDSCAPE TOOLS
LANDSCAPING HAND TOOLS
General rules for choosing hand tools
 Go for tools with wood or coated-metal handles, as they’ll be strong but not too heavy.

 Make sure to choose tools with handles made from wood with a close grain, as the tighter the grain,
the stronger the wood.

 Avoid tools with painted handles, as paint is often used to disguise inferior wood.

 If you have the money, get tools with tubular-steel or fibre-glass handles, as they’ll last a lifetime.

 Choose long-handled tools with “D” shaped handles, as they’re easier on your hands and wrists.

 Go for models with seamless construction, as the head will never come loose.

 Before purchasing any tool, act out the motions you’ll go through when using it. Get a feel for the
weight and length of it, and if it doesn’t feel comfortable to you, don’t buy it.

1) Long-handled hand tools

Long-handled hand tools will be the tools you’ll spend the most time using while
landscaping, so it’s important to buy comfortable and high-quality models to ensure
they’re a pleasure rather than a chore to use. Here are our buying tips on the must-have
long-handled hand tools.

Shovel

It’s the go-to tool for digging up earth, spreading mulch, compost, or gravel, and
replanting, and you’ll find yourself using it for almost everything.

Transplant spade

A transplant spade is specifically designed for moving plants around the garden. It’s
similar to a shovel, but its thinner blade causes less damage to the root system of the
plant, as well as making it easier to use in tight spaces such as crowded borders.
 Rake

The first should be a level-headed steel rake for spreading and levelling soil, mulch,
compost, and gravel,
the second should be a leaf rake — its tines are much longer and more flexible, making
it ideal for gathering up leaves, twigs, and other garden debris.

Dutch hoe
A Dutch hoe will allow you to quickly and easily weed flower beds. Simply use the blade
of the hoe to cut each weed from its roots a few centimeters below the surface. There is
no more efficient way of weeding a garden, so this is an essential tool for any
landscaper.

Garden fork

A garden fork will allow you to break up soil before planting, as well as letting you
remove plants from the soil without damaging their roots. You can also use your garden
fork to work in fertilizer, manure, and compost around the roots of plants.
 Lawn shears
are essential for maintaining the grass that you’re unable to reach with your mower.
Make sure to get a pair with long handles so you can use them standing up and in
comfort. Your lawn shears will also allow you to trim grass around tree trunks and
shrubs, edge beds and paths, and cut back ornamental grasses and clumps of
perennials.

Pruners

A pair of long-handled pruners will allow you to quickly and easily remove branches up to
an inch thick. The perfect tool for pruning trees and large bushes, a set with extendable
handles will allow you perform basic pruning with the minimum of fuss.

2) Short-handled hand tools

in more compact spaces, such as when you’re working in tightly-packed borders, you’ll
need to swap your long-handled tools for their short-handled counterparts. Here are
some tips on choosing the essential short-handled hand tools for landscapers

Trowel

Use it for light digging and planting saplings, as well as uprooting weeds and old stalks.
You should also turn to your trowel when working in borders full of small plants so you
don’t damage the roots of the plants that are set to remain.
Get a trowel with a stainless steel blade, as it won’t rust and dirt can be easily wiped from
the polished surface.

Secateurs

Bypass anvil
You should have two pairs of secateurs: bypass and anvil. Bypass secateurs work by
having two blades come together to make a smooth cut, making them perfect for use on
living plants. However, they can be damaged when used on dead growth, which will
bend and snap between the two blades. When dealing with dead and dried-out growth,
it’s much better to use anvil secateurs, which create a crushing motion that is much more
effective when cutting twigs and stalks.

Hand rake

A hand rake is perfect for removing leaves and garden

debris from between plants without damaging their roots
or crowns. Make sure to purchase this essential item,
rather than attempting to fit your leaf rake into a space it’s
too large for.
Japanese gardening knife (or hori-hori)
It can be used in place of trowel for digging, but it
comes in to its own when you’re planting bulbs and
weeding. Use the saw blade to cut roots and divide
small perennials, and the pointed end as a crevice tool.

A hori hori is perfect for planting bulbs — simply stab it

into the ground using the ruler to set the exact depth
you want your bulb, wiggle the blade, and drop your
bulb in to the hole you’ve made.

Hand cultivator

These handheld garden forks have bent prongs, making them perfect for turning soil, mixing in
fertilizer, and unearthing big weeds without hassle in closely planted garden beds.
 LANDSCAPING POWER TOOLS
General rules for choosing power tools
 Buy the best you can afford, but don’t get a tool with add-ons and accessories that you don’t need.
These tools will only be heavier and more difficult to use.

 Buy your power tools from an established nationwide or international brand, so spare parts will always
be easy to source.

 If you’re buying electric, get tools that all use the same battery so you don’t need to lug around several
different spare batteries and chargers.

 If you have the option to wait it out, try to get the best deal on your power tools in a sale.

 When buying your power tools, make sure you know exactly what is and isn’t included in the price, and
that you buy any essentials that don’t come as part of the initial price. Be aware of this when writing up
your budget as well.

Lawn mower

As you’ll be maintaining several large lawns, you should invest in a petrol-powered ride-on mower
with a cutting width of at least 30” — anything less will be inefficient, and smaller units will need to be
replaced much faster due to overuse.
 Grass trimmer
A grass trimmer will make short work of an area too overgrown with weeds or grass to tackle directly
with your mower. It will also allow you to get a neat cut on grass right up to the edge of steps and
trees.

Leaf blower
 Tiller
A tiller is another must-have power tool for any landscaper. A high-quality model will allow you to
create new flower beds with ease, as well as dig over existing beds in minutes.

Lawn aerator

By aerating a lawn, the soil below the grass will become less compacted, allowing water, oxygen,
and nutrients to flow through it more easily. This will help the grass grow to its full potential, making
the lawn as attractive as possible.
Lawn edger
A lawn edger will allow you to keep the boundaries of your clients’ lawns neat and tidy. While you
can achieve these results with manual tools, a lawn edger will save you hours of labor

Chainsaw

A chainsaw is an essential power tool for cutting the

branches of bushes and trees that your hand tools can’t
manage. It’s important to get a light model that is easy
to use, as you’ll regret buying a heavy and unwieldy
model when you’re using it up a ladder.

Pole pruner

This specialist power tool will allow you to cut the upper limbs
of a tree without having to balance on ladders, as the saw blade is at the end of a long pole.
Hedge trimmer
A hedge trimmer will help you make short work of your topiary duties. You’ll be using your hedge
trimmer for long stretches at a time, and you’ll need to retain close control of it even when you
become fatigued, so it’s important to get a light and maneuverable model.

Garden shredder
Turn garden waste in to usable material with a garden shredder. This power tool will allow you to
shred up your cuttings to make mulch, and the branches from trees to make wood chips for garden
use. This will cut down on waste and also save you money.
Snow thrower

MORE LANDSCAPING ESSENTIALS

 Gardening gloves
 Buckets
 Ladders
 Wheelbarrow
 Safety gear
 Gardening hose
 Retractable safety knife

 A watering can

 Extension leads (if you have electric power tools)

 Foam knee pads for planting in comfort

 Twine for tying up plants

 Push broom
EARTHWORKS:
Earthworks

The Process of earthworks is to excavate the existing land to a suitable level so that road construction
may begin. The earthworks can take the form of either excavation in the form of cuts or the construction
of embankments to carry an elevated highway. Normally in a road design project, both will be necessary
and movement of earth from one part of the site to the next will be necessary. This should be done with
as little waste created or as little extra material required as disposal or collection is expensive.

Also included under the topic of earthworks is the compaction of the road materials to the appropriate
level. This however is not covered as it is more concerned with the actual construction of the road than
the design of it.

This page is concerned solely with the design of the earthworks and not with the actual design of the
embankments or cuts. If you wish to learn more about this then links to relevant pages are contained in
the geotechnical section of the links page. A link to this can be found opposite.

Of the topics covered in this page, they can be split up into the design of the earthworks and the plant
used in the construction.

Excavation

The most important feature of the excavation is the material you are working with. This will be known from
the Site Investigation. Poor information can lead to technical problems and to cost overruns.

There are many ways of classifying the soil in terms of it's ease of excavation including seismic
techniques. The most common in the United Kingdom at present however is the Ease of Digging scale or
diggability.

LANDSCAPE GRADING
Grading in civil engineering and landscape architectural construction is the work of ensuring a level base, or
one with a specified slope, for a construction work such as a foundation, the base course for a road or a
railway, or landscape and garden improvements, or surface drainage.

Grading is the process of modification of existing landform to accommodate new structures, parking and
circulation and to ensure positive drainage. Consideration must be given to utilities such as: water, gas,
power, communication services, and sewerage for disposal of wastewater, and storm water.

• Grading process requires a careful change of contours so that they support the integration of building with
the site.

The land may be graded or adjusted to suit the architectural or engineering requirements, or the architecture
may be adopted to meet variations in the ground level so that the original surface is disturbed the least.

• Extensive alterations in the landform may lead to unstable conditions resulting in erosion, landslides,
floods, and a complete destruction of ecosystem.
Finish grading is the addition or removal of soil within two inches of existing grade to allow for
proper drainage. This process is normally completed prior to the sowing of grass seed or the
installation of sod. Finish grading is done around newly finished construction projects that are
ready to have turf installed.

Grading plans
A grading plan is an important element in preventing property damage, flooding, standing water,
and erosion of embankment areas. The design engineer must consider the existing topography of
the development and its relationship with adjacent properties.

A grading plan is an important element in preventing property damage, flooding, and standing
Water, and erosion of embankment areas. The design engineer must consider the existing
topography of the development and its relationship with adjacent properties. Proper
Grading eliminates costly corrective work such as retaining walls, re-grading operations, and
Unnecessary drainage systems, such as storm sewers, French drains, or swales.
In all cases, grading plans must ensure positive drainage and conform to the following
Standards.

 Minimum and Maximum Slopes

a. Yard drainage shall be 2% minimum to public drainage facilities.

b. All public drainage rear yard swales and roadside ditches shall have a minimum
of a 1% swale gradient.

c. All rear and side yard swales shall be centered on property lines.

d. The maximum side slope of detention areas is 5:1.

e. The first 20' back from a residential house shall be graded to a maximum of 5%.
The remaining rear yard shall have a maximum of 8%, except when the lot
includes 5:1 approaches to detention/retention facilities. Only in extreme cases,
with approval by the City Engineer, the last 10’ may be graded to a 3:1 slope.

f. All side yard slopes shall be between 2% and 25% (4:1.)

g. The slope between the front edge of sidewalk and back of curb (terrace area)
shall be a minimum 2%, maximum 4% (i.e., 1/4" to 1/2" per foot).

 Maximum Allowed Ponding

When the storm sewer system has reached its capacity and a 24-hour, 100-
Year storm event occurs, the maximum allowable ponding shall be:

a. 18" in a rear yards.

b. 9" in parking lots.
c. 9" in the gutter line of any street.
  Grading operations must be coordinated with all private and public utility Locations. The
responsibility for coordination rests with the developer

 Other design requirements may be applicable, such as retaining walls or terracing of the
property, depending on the land plan and site topography.
The City Engineer must approve each special design feature before its incorporation into
the plans.

 All grading plans shall match existing grades at the property lines with a slope not to
Exceed 5:1, unless an approved grading plan or a proposed established street grade
exists for the future development of adjacent properties that indicates different
elevations. The grading plan shall be consistent with all proposed established street
grade plans on file with the City Engineer.

 All grading plans shall accommodate offsite drainage.

IMPORTANCE OF GRADING
The ground surface must be suitable for the intended purpose or use.

2. The visual result should be pleasing.

3. The result of any grading must have positive drainage.

4. The grading plans should attempt to keep new levels as close as possible to the original state of the
land.

5. When ground is reshaped it should be done positively and at the scale of the machinery.
6. Top soil must be conserved wherever possible.

7. The quantity of cut should be approximately equal to the quantity of the fill.

PRINCIPLES OF GRADING TECHNOLOGY

Three principal goals in development
Of a grading plan are:
– Keep unwanted water from entering a building.

– Keep surface run off from creating damage to property or people during periods of heavy rainfall and
subsequent runoff.

– To accommodate the structure on site with disturbing the site to minimum

GRADIENT

• Gradient refers to the changing elevation along the Earth's surface or the rate of the slope.

• It is expressed in % or ratio or degrees.

– 1% slope = 100:1

– 10% slope = 10:1 =

• Percentage of slope is expressed as the number of meters (feet) rise in 100 m

(100 ft) of horizontal distance, typically referred to as rise/run.

• If the slope rises2 m (2 ft) in 100 m (100 ft), it is considered a 2 percent slope. The percentage of slope
can be calculated by the following formula:

• Where

D=vertical rise, mm (ft)

L=horizontal distance, mm (ft)

G = gradient, %

Elevation of point B=48 347 mm

Elevation of point A =47 463 mm
Vertical difference D=884 mm
Horizontal difference L= 35 357 mm
SPOT ELEVATIONS

• Spot elevations provide additional information beyond that given by the contour lines. They indicate
Micro grading.

• Spot elevations are used to establish limits of slope, to locate contour lines, and to provide detail for
establishing control points that cannot be obtained via contour lines.

• Typical locations for taking spot elevations are:

• Top and bottom of steps.

• Tops of retaining wall.

• Outside entrances to buildings.

• Inside floor levels of buildings.

• Corners of all structures.

CUT AND FILL

• The process of removal of earth from one part of site to achieve required grading and the
place and using the dug up earth to achieve required grading by filling it at another place on the
same site.
• The amount of material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby
embankments, so minimizing the amount of construction labor.

Standards for grading around a typical building.

Surface drainage can be achieved by pitching surfaces to natural drainage feature and systems.

Examples of grading

TYPES OF SOILS

There are three basic types of soil:

 Sandy soil is made of large particles and holds water too long to allow plant roots to properly
absorb moisture. You will need to water sandy soil more often to make sure enough water is
available to your plants.

 Clay soil is composed of small particles which release water too quickly, creating an environment
too damp for most plants. Be sure not to overwater plants in clay soil.

 Loam, a combination of sand, silt, clay and organic matter, has a "medium build" and holds water
for just the right amount of time to ensure that plants have a steady supply of moisture without
drowning.
Adding organic matter, such as yard clippings, straw and composted manure, will improve the quality of
sand and clay soil
The best watering methods for sandy soil are automatic sprinklers and drip-line systems. For clay soil you
can use a drip-line or a hose. For loam, use whatever watering method feels right to you, but remember
to consider the irrigation needs of your specific plants.

Compost will help retain moisture in sandy soil. Plants that do well in sandy soil include:

 Evergreens, such as Adam's needle and bearberry; both need full sun.

 Sumac

 Trumpet vine

 Virginia creeper

 Grevilleas

 Daisies

Clay soil provides a suitable foundation for most trees, including:

 Elm

 Maple

 Cypress

 Birch

 Oak

Hardy perennials, like black-eyed Susan, daylily and aster, will also thrive in clay if you add some extra
compost. In addition to adding visual interest, these plants help prevent soil erosion.

One type of grass, called vetiver grass, grows well in any soil (and pretty much any climate)

Vetiver grass is used all over the world to help prevent soil erosion.

Soil Types and Landscape Irrigation

If you have sandy soil, which drains quickly, you may need to water it more often to ensure that roots
have been reached. Automatic sprinklers, which can run often for short periods, are a good option for this
soil, as are drip-line systems, which deliver a steady amount of water and eliminate run-off. Adding
organic material also helps soil retain moisture.

For clay soil, which holds water well but doesn't drain easily, you may need to space out your watering
sessions. Hose watering allows you to control times and visually measure your soil's saturation, and the
easy drip-line method makes timely watering a breeze. Be careful, however, not to overwater, as too
much water keeps air from reaching the roots, ultimately drowning them. Working with clay soils can be
tricky in this regard, so make sure to monitor your soil until you've established the best watering cycle and
amount for your yard.
Symptoms of overwatering include:

 Yellow or mottled leaves

 Pale or light green leaves that may fall off

 Plants that look floppy and spindly

 Plants that grow poorly

Symptoms of under watering include:

 Dull, flat leaves that don't recover when watered

 Lawn that loses its shine and may not bounce back after you walk on it

 Leaves begin to fall, as the plant attempts to "protect" itself against a drought

LANDSCAPE MATERIALS
 HARDSCAPES

ROCK TYPES
When designing a landscape, stone should be an important part of your plan. There are many different
types of stone to use in many different ways for landscaping. Stone is a versatile, long lasting and
beautiful material to use for walkways, planting bed borders, decorative accents, and patio surfaces.
Depending on the area and use, some types of landscaping stone are better suited for your project.
How do you determine what type of landscaping stone to select with so many different types available?

Each type has its differences. There are many factors to consider such as size, shape, weight, color, etc.
Understanding the differences can help you decide which landscaping stone to use in your design. The
two most common types are aggregates and flagstone

Aggregates
This group of landscaping stone includes rounded aggregates, sand, crushed granite and boulders. They are
great for solving drainage issues and adding texture to a garden. They are also generally inexpensive and easy
to install. The rounded aggregates can range in sizes from pea gravel to beach pebbles and to river rocks. And
if you want to add some size, opt for larger boulders.
Pea Gravel
These small, rounded rocks are about the size of a pea with 1/4 inch, 1/2 inch and 5/8 inch being common
sizes. Their color can range from white to tan and to brown. Lay down pea gravel for pathways, in place of
mulch for garden beds and in the crevices between flagstone for your walkway or patio.
Beach Pebbles
Another small, rounded rock that is slightly larger than pea gravel, beach pebbles are usually more uniform in
color for a sophisticated option in a decorative garden. Line them along garden beds or patios. They are ideal
for contemporary or Zen-like gardens.
Crushed Granite
Also good for covering and filling in spaces, crushed granite is small but not as smooth as pea gravel. Use it
along pathways or in place of mulch for garden beds. It works well if you want a more refined and
contemporary.

River Rocks
River rocks are larger aggregates, typically 1 inch on up in size. Use them for edging or pile them to create a
structure such a retaining wall, fountain or dry creek bed. Depending on the look you want to achieve, you
can use similar or different sized river rocks for your structure.
Boulders
Large rocks that are found in fields or quarried, boulders come in any number of sizes. Use smaller boulders
as an accent or border to a garden bed or water feature. Place large boulders near a property edge for a
visual division or use a few for a statement piece to add natural variety to your garden.
Flagstone
A familiar landscaping stone, flagstone is widely used in a variety of landscaping projects. It is versatile for
decorative and functional purposes. It is cut �at and available in a number of diameters to suit your intended
use. Frequently, it is used for stepping stones, walkways and patios. It is available in a variety of colors, sizes
and shapes depending on the rock. Flagstone encompasses a wide range of rocks that include limestone and
sandstone.

Limestone
Known for its earthy appearance, limestone gives softness to an area where you want to add subtleness in
your design. It is a sedimentary rock that includes shells and corals, giving it a unique and rustic appearance.
The color range is limited but the stone can be sanded smooth to provide a very soothing look. Limestone
works well for patios and walkways.
Sandstone
Sandstone is noted for its loose grains and rough texture. It has an amazing range of colors, including
multicolored stone. Bluestone is a specific type that is well known for outdoor hardscaping. Use if for patios
or add bluestone steppers for an elegant entrance.
PLANTS AND SODDING
TYPES OF PLANTS
The options for landscaping plants are so vast that it can be challenging simply to come up with a color
scheme that will satisfy your individual taste. Before you delve into the exciting world of garden design,
understanding the basics is essential. Become familiar with the types of landscape plants so you can more
easily identify what you do and do not like while making appropriate choices for your yard and different areas
of your gardens.

Trees

Trees are the tallest of the landscape plants, aside from vines that can grow to great heights with the
assistance of a supportive structure. These plants typically surpass a height of 15 feet. Trees draw the eye up
and may provide the landscape with shade and ornamental value. Evergreen trees keep their foliage all year,
with only mild natural shedding. Deciduous trees drop their leaves during the colder months and regrow
them when the dormant season ends. Trees take on a variety of habits, such as round, pyramidal, columnar,
oval, vase-shaped and weeping, explains the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
Extension. Types of trees function as fruit crop producers, flower producers, accents, privacy fences or
natural windbreaks.

Shrubs

Shrubs are often referred to as small trees, and are known to display multiple stems and a height below 15
feet. Shrubs take on particular habits, including upright, spreading, rounded, mounding, arching and
cascading, explains the University of Florida IFAS Extension. Gardeners often use dense, mounding shrubs in
mass plantings in the garden. Shrubs with dense foliage are well-suited for use as sculptural accents or formal
hedges that are pruned into tidy shapes. Shrubs with open habits or less rigid effects, such as a cascading
appearance, are used en masse or as individual accents.

Annuals

Gardeners prize colorful annual plants for their ornamental beauty. They grow and die to the ground without
re-blooming the following season. As the name suggests, these plants must be replanted each year. Annuals
include flowering plants such as marigolds, sunflowers, petunias and poppies. Some annuals, such as hostas,
are used for their visually interesting foliage with limited or no flower development. Annuals represent nearly
every color and grow in hundreds of species, providing gardeners with a wide array of choices. Annuals work
well in containers and as bedding plants. Depending on the particular plant, versatile annuals may be used as
specimen plants, for a large area of color, mixed with foliage or as border plants.

Perennials

Homeowners plant perennials based on their ability to re-bloom for many seasons. Perennials are considered
lower maintenance when compared with annuals. These plants include varieties with colorful blossoms such
as California fuchsias, lavender and salvia. Because gardeners know these plants will remain in the garden for
many years, perennials are often used in low-maintenance gardens. In addition, different perennial species
tolerate a wide variety of conditions. Gardeners may choose easily among those for hot weather, wet sites or
shaded conditions as needed.

Grasses

When someone says "grass," most people think of green turf grass. This is the grass homeowners mow
regularly on their lawns and backyards. Turf grass calls for a great amount of care, including proper irrigation,
fertilization, mowing and dethatching. Ornamental grasses, however, provide a graceful, delicate appearance
in the garden. This type of grass typically adapts to even poor conditions, grows in a variety of colors and may
reach several feet in height. Ornamental grasses often grow in clumps and are used to add height and texture
behind shorter plants, such as annual flowers, or to provide extended, soft interest when grown in mass
plantings.

Ground Covers

Ground covers provide dense, low-profile, carpet-like coverage in the landscape. Gardeners place ground
cover plants beneath trees and in beds to create a widespread, low-maintenance blanket over large
landscape spaces. However, most ground cover is less resilient than grass and often suffers as a result of foot
traffic. These plants also serve well in borders and for added texture with their variety of foliage shapes, sizes
and colors. Ground cover such as lamb's ears provide a soft, silver-green appearance, while juniper species
ground covers offer needled foliage.

Vines

Vines twine and climb, growing in long strands along the ground or gripping onto supporting structures
where they can reach great heights. Easily recognized vines include grapevines and clematis. Gardeners often
utilize vines in the landscape to add interest to the sides of homes, on trellises or archways for a softening,
natural effect.

USES OF PLANTS
Factors To Consider When Choosing Landscape Plants
1. Environment

The environment is one of the most important elements to consider when planning your garden. Before
heading to the nearest nursery it would be a good idea to do some research on what plants are most
suitable for your environment. Soil type, along with climate, are factors to consider when ascertaining
which plants would grow best in your garden.

2. Plant size

All plants grow into varying shapes and sizes. Before choosing your plants, and more particularly if those
plants you choose happen to be trees, you need to find out how big these will grow when fully
mature. You have to be mindful of them outgrowing the area you have planted them in. Additionally
roots can spread extensively and therefore potentially damage your home's foundations.

In addition, plants grow at different rates depending on irrigation and root structure. Some grow fast while
others take long to reach maturity. With this in mind, make sure you space the plants accordingly. Plants
that reach a height of about five feet require spacing of between 3 and 5 inches. Those that grow to a
height of 10 feet require spacing of between 8 and 12 inches. For plants that grow to about 25 feet, the
spacing should be between 12 and 20 inches, according to a study carried out by the Mississippi State
University’s Extension Service.

3. Amount of shade

Living in warm climates makes it important to consider shade in your garden so your plants are not
subject to heat stress. Trees when fully grown are very helpful in these situations, as they provide shelter,
shade and filtered light to shade-loving plants planted directly underneath them or planted close by.
During the warmer months shade from a large tree is an enjoyable place to sit, relax and cool down to
escape the heat of the sun. Consider these factors when choosing the plants you wish to have in your
garden and capitalize on the benefits shade provides.

4. Flowering time

There is nothing more aesthetically pleasing than flowers in full bloom showing off their bright colours,
adding a delightful picture to your garden. To have beautiful flowers throughout the year it is a good idea
to create a plant calendar. This will help you plan which plants will flower at their best in which season.
Flowers that bloom in summer for example, won’t do very well in other seasons. If you prefer plants that
thrive all year round and like green foliage then evergreens are ideal.

5. Maintenance

Established plants need maintenance. How much water or sun will they need? Some have specific
growing requirements and some may need to be pruned occasionally to keep them in shape and stop
them from overtaking your garden. With these things in mind, you need to decide whether you are
prepared to spend the time required to keep your garden in order, or whether to choose low maintenance
plants which give you less work.

6. Resistance to disease and parasites

Plants are lovely to have, but the reality is they can be prone to diseases that can severely damage their
health and require treatment. Insects can also be a problem. However, some plant species are more
resistant to such threats. To avoid dealing with these problems in the future, take some time to check
which plants may have a higher resistance to parasites and diseases.

7. Seasonal Interest and Color

Besides the height, you should also consider the color carefully. Choose plants that will accentuate the
exterior façade of your house. Some popular plants that you can use to make your landscape more
colorful include crape myrtles, azaleas, forsythia, roses, camellias, and beautyberry. If you would like to
have beautiful outdoors scenery, you should consider Knoxville landscaping service. This will ensure that
a professional can visit your home and determine the site and soil conditions.

8. Personal Taste

While at it, remember that landscaping is all about making the client’s home more suitable to their
lifestyle. As. For that reason, go for a landscape design that the client would love to see every day

LAWN
A lawn is an area of soil-covered land planted with grasses and other durable plants such as clover
which are maintained at a short height with a lawnmower and used for aesthetic and recreational
purposes.

Lawn installation methods

 Seeding
This is a great choice if you are looking to save some money and are willing to give the seeds the
extra attention and care that they will need. You only have to wait about 2 weeks to start seeing
growth
Great grass can only come from great seeds so it’s important to find top notch seeds. Pay
attention to things like amount by weight, percent of weed seed, and germination rate. It’s also
key to make sure that you’re getting the right type of grass for the season and area you live in.
 Prepare the Soil- the soil will need to meet the same standards as if you were laying sod. Then
use a rake or lawn roller to go over the area to make sure the soil is smooth and free of clumps
and rocks.
 You can spread by hand for smaller areas but for larger areas and a more even coverage we
recommend using a seed spreader.
 Cover Up .Those seeds are exposed to wind and you don’t want them flying away. Cover them
with a small amount of dirt or mulch -- about a quarter inch. Gently use a rake to drag soil over
seeds or use yours hands to spread mulch. A mulch consisting of straw works great.
  Make sure to water your lawn 2-3 times until the seeds have germinated. From there a couple
times a week should be all you need. In just a couple of short weeks your beautiful new grass will
start to sprout!
Advantages
 Larger selection of species available. Different mixes of species and blends of different cultivars
are available for specific management practices, sun or shade, disease resistance, and soil type.
 Turf develops in the environment in which it will live.
 Lower initial cost than sodding.
Disadvantages
 Timing of establishment critical. Best time is September. April is also a good time, but weed
seeds germinate in greater numbers in spring.
 Longer time period to get a dense lawn.
 May require reseeding due to poor germination in some areas or wash outs from heavy rain or
irrigation.
 Weeds can be a problem until lawn is fully established.
 Initial watering is critical.

Tips for successful lawn seeding

 Purchase quality seed.

 Rake, roll lightly, then mulch lightly.

 Top ½ inch of soil should be kept moist until seeds germinate. First watering will be lightly and
frequently. Keep in mind germination rates: Kentucky bluegrass 10-30 days and perennial
ryegrass 3-10 days. Once the seedlings have emerged, watering should be deeply and less
frequently.

Once the seedlings are growing:

 At 2-inch height, fertilize at ½ rate.

 Mow when 3-4.5 inch height down to 2-3 inch height.

 Limit heavy traffic for first year.

 Wait until after 3 mowings for postemergent herbicide application if needed.

 sodding

 Lay sod immediately upon delivery in order to prevent the sod from drying out. Just find the
longest straight edge and start there.
 Unroll the first roll of sod along this line and smooth out as you go by patting down the sod so that
there are no air pockets. Make sure to avoid stepping on the sod as you go. You’ll take smaller
pieces of sod and stagger them as you go. Make sure edges are pushed snugly against each
other and don’t overlap.
 Once all the sod is laid out it’s time to water, water, water. It’s recommended to water within a half
hour of installation and then daily from there until the sod is firmly rooted. This typically will take
about two weeks. In the beginning you should give your new lawn about 1 inch of water but once
rooted, watering can become less frequent and will all depend on the environment where you live

Advantages
 "Instant lawn".

 May be walked on soon after planting.

 Dust, mud and erosion are quickly reduced.

 May be planted anytime during the growing season as long as adequate water is available.

 Basically weed-free.

Disadvantages

 Higher initial cost.

 Choice of species is very limited.

  Not produced in shaded environment.

 Large volume of water needed initially.

 Sod may shrink and weeds may invade especially if the sod is not properly installed. Do

not stretch sod. Stagger seams similar to brick-laying.

 Speed of rooting varies with season. Spring and fall are optimal.

Tips for successful sodding

 Choose fresh, healthy sod with a thin soil layer.

 Choose sod grown on soils similar to that of planting site if possible.

 Lightly roll after installation.

 Water thoroughly.

Post-Planting Care of Sod

 Sod should root in about 14 days.

 Fertilize using the regular recommended fertilization schedule.

 Mow using the "1/3 rule". Do not remove more than 1/3 of the leaf blade at one time. Gradually
mow down to 2-2.5 inch height.

 After proper rooting, core aeration can encourage deeper rooting.

Whether seeding or sodding, initial soil preparation is crucial. If possible get a soil test first so any
amendments can be added. Add compost especially to clay soils. Large quantities of compost are
available at the Landscape Recycling Center on east University in Urbana. Rough grading and fine
grading is crucial for both seeding and sodding. Control perennial weeds first. Don't assume tilling or
covering with sod will kill perennial weeds such as creeping Charlie, bindweed or quackgrass. An initial
application of a non-selective herbicide of glyphosate sold as Round up™ may be helpful. Wait until
weeds are brown before seeding or sodding. Be sure to read and follow all label directions.

PLANT MAINTENANCE
 WATERING

Successful planting or transplanting is hinged on many factors. Time of year, species, existing health, and
soil type are all key contributors to a successful planting. However, adequate moisture to the roots during
initial establishment is likely the most important ingredient.
It takes between 1-2 years before newly planted trees and shrubs become established—they are most
vulnerable during this period and need adequate water to maintain health and vigor. To ensure proper
growth and health, our team of professionals will closely monitor your plants until established. Whether
we install permanent or temporary irrigation, or simply use gator bags, we’ll oversee your plantings for
those critical establishment years.

 FERTILIZING

Many incorrectly think fertilizer is “plant food”. Plants, make their own food in the leaves with the aid of the
sun, called photosynthesis. Fertilizer is more similar to vitamins for plants; it is necessary for replenishing
nutrients in trees and shrubs. By performing soil tests and closely monitoring your plants, you can
determine which fertilizer is needed to keep them healthy.

 MULCHING

Depending on your location, using shredded hardwood bark or pine straw for mulch is another important
element for plant health care. Mulching helps retain moisture, provides insulation for the roots, and is a
good barrier against weeds. In addition, we top dress beds with mulch to make them look fresh and
attractive. Prior to mulching, create a neat, clean edge to clearly define beds from turf.

 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

Certified IPM specialists monitor trees and shrubs for any signs of insect or disease invasions. Most often,
no treatment is required, as most pests have natural predators like lady bugs helping our cause.

If however an insecticide or matricide is warranted, apply the least toxic possible, so not to interfere with
the beneficial pest community.

 PRUNING

For safety and structural purposes, it is important to continually prune your trees and shrubs. It takes a
real professional to know what, when, and where to prune. Improper pruning may lead to reduced
flowering and overall performance. Our staff horticulturist routinely trains crews on proper tree and shrub
pruning.

 DIVIDING

Most perennials benefit from periodic dividing in Spring of Fall. Plants such as Iris are just a few that
should be divided to maintain vigor and prolong their usefulness. Many are prone to spread and
separating these from other shrubs or perennials is an important practice if you are to keep an upper
hand on potentially unruly perennials.
LANDSCAPE STRUCTURES:
FOUNDATION TYPES
 Foundations provide support for structures transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics. Very broadly, foundations can be
categorized as ;
 Shallow foundations. Shallow foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure
are low relative to the bearing capacity of the surface soils.
 Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is not adequate to
support the loads imposed by a structure and so they need to be transferred to deeper layers with
higher bearing capacity
 Larger or more complex buildings may involve the use of a number of different types of
foundation

 Strip foundation

Strip foundations are a type of shallow foundation that are used to provide a continuous, level or sometimes
stepped strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall or closely-spaced rows of columns built centrally
above them.

 Strip foundations can be used for most subsoils ,but are most suitable for soil which is of relatively
good bearing capacity .They are particularly suited to light structural loadings such as those found in
many low-to-medium rise domestic buildings - where mass concrete strip foundations can be used.
In other situations, reinforced concrete may be required.
 Older buildings may have brick strip foundations.
 Very broadly, the size and position of strip foundations is typically related to the wall’s overall width.
The depth a traditional strip foundation is generally equal to or greater than the overall wall width,
and the foundation width is generally three times the width of the supported wall. This results in the
load being transmitted at 45º from the wall base to the soil
 An approved document of Building Regulations defines minimum widths for strip footings based on
the type of ground and load-bearing wall, although it is generally advisable to consult a structural
engineer when designing foundations.
 The underside of strip foundations should be deep enough to avoid frost action; for example, at least
450 mm unless they are bearing on rock and at least 1 m on high shrinkage clays (/wiki/Clay).
 Deep strip foundations may be necessary where soil with a suitable bearing capacity is deeper.
 Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil (/wiki/Soil) is soft or of a low bearing
capacity, so as to spread the load over a larger area. Wide strip foundations will typically require
reinforcement
Where there are higher localized loads such as columns pad foundations may be used.

 Pad foundations
Where ground conditions are poor, settlement is likely, or where it may be impractical to create individual
strip or pad foundations for a large number of individual loads, raft foundations may be used.

Where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is not adequate to support the loads imposed by the structure
deep foundations such as pile foundations may be used.

 Pile foundations

Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar elements
typically made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation is described
as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its breadth (ref. Atkinson, 2007).

Pile foundations are principally used to transfer the loads from superstructures, through weak,
compressible strata or water onto stronger, more compact, less compressible and
stiffer soil or rock at depth, increasing the effective size of a foundation and resisting horizontal
loads. They are typically used for large structures, and in situations where soil is not suitable to
prevent excessive settlement.
WALLS & FENCES
The conventional differentiation is that a fence is of minimal thickness and often open in nature, while a
wall is usually more than a nominal thickness and is completely closed, or opaque. A fence is a structure
that encloses an area, typically outdoors, usually consisting of posts that are connected by boards, wire,
rails or netting. A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length

Fence Types

Before we jump into all yard fencing options, you have to know your options. The most popular types of
fences are:

1. Aluminum

2. Wood

3. PVC

4. Wrought Iron

5. Vinyl

6. Chain Link

7. Electric

8. Bamboo

9. Farm

1. Boundary wall
Boundary walls include privacy walls, boundary-marking walls on property, and town walls.
Boundary walls are used for privacy and aesthetics. Any material can be used rangig from masonry
stone, bick, metal,reinforced concrete etc.

2. Retaining wall
Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting the soil mass laterally so that the soil can be
retained at different levels on the two sides. Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to a
slope that it would not naturally keep to (typically a steep, near-vertical or vertical slope). They are used to
bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain possessing undesirable slopes or in
areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely and engineered for more specific purposes like
hillside farming or roadway overpasses

A retaining wall must have greater strength than a normal wall in order to support the weight of the land
retained on the higher side of the wall. The requirement for this extra strength makes them more
expensive to build and more expensive to repair.

Problems can arise when a retaining wall is located on a boundary. There are two circumstances to
consider:

 a landowner who owns a retaining wall that supports his neighbour's higher land is subject to an
implied (unless it is expressly stated in a deed) easement and owes a duty of support to his
neighbour's land;
  a landowner who owns a retaining wall that supports his own land is under a general duty of
care to maintain the wall in such a condition that his land is prevented from collapsing onto his
neighbour's lower land.

There are many types of materials that can be used to create retaining walls like concrete blocks, poured
concrete, treated timbers, rocks or boulders. Some are easy to use, others have a shorter life span, but
all can retain soil.

Types of Retaining Walls

 While wood is often an inexpensive and simple choice for a retaining wall, its short lifespan
makes it a relatively poor choice. As the wood decomposes, so does your retaining wall and the
integrity of your usable space. Stones, rocks or boulders can create beautiful retaining walls, but
the installation of these materials can be expensive and labor intensive. Furthermore,
maintenance of stone walls can be difficult, because over time or they may erode or become
home to rodents and weeds.
 Cast-in place or mortared retaining walls are another option. These walls can be installed with
a variety of veneers, bricks, flagstones, etc. which add texture and style. However, these
structures are rigid and do not move and flex with climate changes, earthquakes and other
natural forces, and can be very expensive to build.
 SRW’s (Segmental Retaining Walls) like the Allan Block products, offer concrete masonry
blocks that are modular and interlocking for ease of use. Simply stack the mortarless blocks
together using our installation information, and create a maintenance-free retaining wall that will
add usable land, fix a grading or slope issue, and solve many other site problems. These SRW’s
use similar construction techniques as found in the mortarless construction of the Great Wall of
China and the Pyramids of Egypt and will stand the test of time. SRW’s come in a variety of sizes,
shapes and colors as well as different facing textures. Some of the more common textures offer a
hard-split or soft-split look, a tumbled look, or more recently a stamped face. Concrete blocks
made out of recycled materials are also available. Once you build a wall with an SRW – you can
be sure it is built to last.
 Short retaining walls
Vertical walls up to about 3m in height are usually built as shown in Figure 1(b). these consists of a
concrete or masonry wall of uniform thickness, vertical wall reinforcing, and transverse footing reinforcing
are all designed for the lateral shear and cantilever bending movement plus the vertical weights of the
wall, footing, and earth fills.

When the bottom of the footing is a show distance below grade on the low side of the wall and/or the
lateral passive resistance of the soil is low, it may be necessary to use an extension below the footing –
called a shear key – to increase the resistance to sliding. The form of such a key is shown in Figure 1(c)

Figure 1:- Retaining Structure

Tall retaining walls

As the wall height increase it become less feasible to use the simple construction shown in Figure 1(b) or
(c). The overturning moment increases sharply with the increase in height of the wall.

For very tall walls one modification used is to taper the wall thickness. This permits the development of a
reasonable cross section for the high bending stress at the base without an excessive amount of
concrete.
However, as the wall becomes really tall, it is often necessary to consider the use of various bracing
technique, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2:- Tall Retaining Walls

Retaining Wall Design Considerations

In the design of free-standing retaining walls, the following aspects need to be investigated:

(a) the stability of soil around the wall;

(b) the stability of retaining wall itself;

(c) the structural strength of the wall;

(d) damage to adjacent structures due to wall construction.

The magnitude of the earth pressure which will be exerted on a wall is dependent on the amount of
movement that the wall undergoes.

It is usual to assume for free-standing retaining walls that sufficient outward movement occurs to allow
active (minimum) earth pressures to develop. The designer must ensure that sufficient movement can
take place without affecting the serviceability or appearance of the wall.

Where it is not possible for the required outward movement to occur, for instance due to wall or
foundation rigidity, higher pressures will develop and the wall must be designed for these.
 3. Haha wall
A ha-ha is a recessed landscape design element that creates a vertical barrier while preserving an
uninterrupted view of the landscape beyond. The design includes a turfed incline which slopes downward
to a sharply vertical face, typically a masonry retaining wall.

4. Rubble wall
One wall kind, where the stones are loosely thrown together in a wall between boards
and grouted with mortar almost like concrete.
 5. Live fence
It is a fence made of living trees and shrubs. Made from thorny or non-thorny plants, it can also be called
a green fence, or hedge. There are many ways of using a barrier to prevent harmful pests from coming
onto the land. Everyone knows that stone and mud, bricks, barbed wire, bamboo, or even cut branches
can be used to make a fence. But the most productive form of barrier is the living fence, because as well
as being a barrier, it can also produce many other benefits for the home

6. Picket fence
Picket fences are a type of fence often used decoratively for domestic boundaries, distinguished by their
evenly spaced vertical boards, the pickets, attached to horizontal rails. Picket fences are particularly
popular in the United States, with the white picket fence coming to symbolize the ideal middle-
class suburban life.

Picket fences can be made of several types of materials. Historically, wood has been the most popular
material used for picket fences. This wood can be untreated, treated, or naturally insect and rot resistant.
Other non-wood options are available; including vinyl, aluminum, and PVC
PARKING

The parking lot design objective is to maximize the total number of parking spaces in the space available with
the following considerations:

the parking layout should provide continuous flow of traffic through the lot.

the design should allow safe movement of pedestrians from parking to buildings.

the design should allow for appropriate landscaping of the parking areas without conflicting with site
lighting

Pedestrian and Vehicular Circulation

 Circulation patterns shall be as obvious and simple as possible.
 All likely pedestrian routes should be considered in the design phase to eliminate “short cuts”
which will eventually damage landscaped areas.
 All site facilities and amenities shall be accessible to people with disabilities in accordance with the
provisions of the law
 Circulation systems shall be designed to avoid conflicts between vehicular, bicycle, and
pedestrian traffic. Pedestrian circulation shall take precedence over vehicular circulation.
 Where pedestrian circulation crosses vehicular routes, a crosswalk with yellow striping in plastic
paint, speed bumps, or signage shall be provided to emphasize the conflict point and improve its
visibility and safety.
 Circulation routes shall focus upon main entries and exits and also identify secondary access
points.

 All elements of the site design shall accommodate access requirements of emergency
service vehicles.

Access to Parking Areas

 All off-street parking spaces shall be accessible without backing into or otherwise re-
entering a public right-of-way, unless it is physically impossible to provide for such
access.
 When an off-street parking area does not a abut a public street, there shall be provided an
access drive not less than 24 feet in width for two-way traffic, connecting the off-street
parking area with a public street.

Driveway Design
 The location of driveways is based upon many factors, including the location of
individual property lines and available street frontage, requirements of internal site
design, number of vehicles expected to use the driveways, and traffic safety. Generally,
the farther from an intersection a driveway can be located, the less it will affect the
through traffic and the less delay it will cause to vehicles using the driveway.
 Driveway approaches shall be constructed so as not to interfere with pedestrian
crosswalks
 Driveways shall be constructed a minimum of three (3) feet from any obstruction such as
a street light or utility pole, fire hydrant, traffic signal controller, telephone junction box,
etc.
 Driveway entrances shall be designed to accommodate all vehicle types having occasion
to enter the lot, including delivery and service vehicles.

Curbs
 All new parking lots should be constructed with perimeter curbs wherever feasible. These
curbs should be constructed of reinforced concrete and should be either monolithic or lay
down depending upon the location and function of the curb.

 Grading
Abrupt or unnatural appearing grading design is not acceptable. Grading on new project
sites shall blend with the contours of adjacent properties. Proposed cut and fill slopes
shall be rounded off both horizontally and vertically.
When designing a grading plan, balancing the cut and fill is highly encouraged when it
does not result in further damage to the natural topography. Where the site plan results in
substantial off haul or infill, a mitigation plan may be required to address the impacts and
clean-up of off-site construction activities.

 Dimensions
All parking spaces, exclusive of access drives or aisles, shall consist of a rectangular area
not less than eight and one-half (8½) feet wide by eighteen (18) feet in length except that
parallel parking stalls shall be ten (10) feet by twenty (20) feet
 DRAINAGE
All parking lots shall be designed to develop proper site drainage, directed at the disposal
of all storm water accumulated on the site, The parking lot should be graded and surfaced
such that storm water runoff from the site is collected on the site by a parking lot
drainage system and carried to the existing storm sewer system or other drainage way,
including an open channel or creek., and not allowed to discharge through the driveway
entrances and exits onto the public way.
  LIGHTING
Parking lot lighting is vital for traffic safety; for protection against assault, theft and
vandalism; for convenience; and for comfort to the user

Parking Lot Layout

PERPENDICULAR 90 degrees
The most efficient parking type. Cars are parked side by side (perpendicular to a wall, curb etc.)
Therefore it can park many cars. It however requires more space compared to other types of
parking.
The following exceptions to the minimum standards apply:
 Spaces near Obstructions. When the side of a parking space adjoins a wall, column, or other
obstruction that is taller than 0.5 feet, the width of the parking space shall be increased by 2 feet
on the obstructed side, provided that the increase may be reduced by 3 inches for each 12 inches
of unobstructed distance from the edge of a required aisle, measured parallel to the depth of the
parking space.

 Planter Overhangs. When a parking space abuts a landscape island or planter, the front 2 feet of
the required parking space length may overhang the planter, provided that wheel stops or curbing
is provided

ANGULAR (30/ 45 degrees)

This type of parking requires more space as compared to the rest.it can have either a two way or a
one way driveway

PARALLEL PARKING
Requires less space. Cars are parked in line with other cars parallel to the curb (bumper to bumper). It is
done especially along streets where there are no parking spaces
PAVING TYPES
1. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
 Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous material surface course and underlying base and
subbase courses. The bituminous material is more often asphalt whose viscous nature allows
significant plastic deformation. Most asphalt surfaces are built on a gravel base, although some ‘full
depth’ asphalt surfaces are built directly on the subgrade. Depending on the temperature at which it
is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix asphalt (HMA), warm mix asphalt, or cold mix asphalt. ,
 Flexible Pavement is so named as the pavement surface reflects the total deflection of all
subsequent layers due to the traffic load acting upon it. The flexible pavement design is based on the
load distributing characteristics of a layered system. It transmits load to the subgrade through a
combination of layers. Flexible pavement distributes load over a relatively smaller area of the
subgrade beneath. The initial installation cost of a flexible pavement is quite low which is why this
type of pavement is more commonly seen universally. However, the flexible pavement requires
maintenance and routine repairs every few years. In addition flexible pavement deteriorates rapidly;
cracks and potholes are likely to appear due to poor drainage and heavy vehicular traffic.

A valuable advantage of flexible pavement is that it can be opened for traffic within 24 hrs. after completion.
Also the repair and maintenance of flexible pavement is easy and cost effective.
 2. RIGID PAVEMENT

PAVING PATTERNS
Patterns are mainly used in landscaping for aesthetics. The following are some of the patterns
commonly used;

 Herringbone
 Circular
 Pinwheel
 Basketweave
 The grid brick pattern
 Half-Basketweave
 Boxed Basketweave
 jack-On-Jack
 Running Bond
 Whorled
LANDSCAPE DRAINAGE
Storm water drainage
a. SWALES/BIOSWALES
These are shallow through like depressions created to carry water during the rainy
seasons.
Uses
 Redirecting water away from sensitive areas such as basements or water
sensitive plants
 Act as water filter with soil as the medium
 Store water from rainstorms
 Slow runoff until water filters through the soil
Types of swales
Dry swales- are above the groundwater such that they only hold water
above the soil surface temporarily
Wet swales- intersect the groundwater and behave almost like linear
constructed wetlands. Plant choices differ compared to dry swales
Advantages of swales
 A means of ground water recharge
 Aesthetically pleasing
 Treatment of water occurs
 Trapping oils and thus breaks them over time
 Sediments are trapped and filtered out
Disadvantages
 Impractical on very steep slopes
 Requires thick vegetation

b. CONSTRUCTED
WETLANDS
Is an artificial wetland used to treat municipal or industrial wastewater, greywater or
storm water runoff.
They may also be designed for land reclamation after mining as a mitigation
measure.
 They use natural vegetation, soil and organisms to treat water
It acts as a bio-filter (removing pollutants)
Types
 Subsurface flow- are designed to have either horizontal flow or vertical flow
of water through sand and gravel bed.
Vertical flow systems have smaller space requirements than horizontal flow
systems.
 Surface flow- The filter bed consists of sand and gravel and some may serve
as a natural habitat for native flora and fauna

c. RETENTION POND
Provide storm water storage and treatment. They are designed to support emergent
and submerged aquatic vegetation along the shoreline. They promote pollutant
removal through sedimentation and biological uptake mechanism
Runoff from each rain event is detained.

Advantages
 Can cater for storms
 Good removal capability of urban pollutants
 Can be used where groundwater is vulnerable (if lined)
 Good community acceptability
 High ecological potential (aesthetics and amenity benefits)
 May add value to local properties

They are designed to control flow rates by storing floodwater and releasing it slowly once the risk of
flowing has passed. They should be designed to suit both dry and wet weather
 Maintenance

 debris removal
 Inlet and outlet cleaning
 Vegetation management
 Sediment monitoring and removal when required

d. Detention pond
A detention basin or retarding basin is an excavated area installed on, or adjacent to, tributaries
of rivers, streams, lakes or bays to protect against flooding and, in some cases,
downstream erosion by storing water for a limited period of time. Are also called "dry ponds
They are designed to permanently retain some volume of water at all times. A basin functions by
allowing large flows of water to enter but limits the outflow by having a small opening at the lowest
point of the structure. The size of this opening is determined by the capacity of underground and
downstream culverts and washes to handle the release of the contained water

They are best used in areas where there is ten or more acres of land. On smaller sites,
it is difficult to control water quality and other options may be more appropriate.
Dry detention ponds generally use a very small slope to divert water. The inlet needs to
be not more than 15% higher than the outlet to ensure the correct amount of water flow
through the system. The system works by allowing a large collection area, or basin, for
the water. The water then slowly drains out through the outlet at the bottom of the
structure. Sometimes concrete blocks and other structures act as a deterrent to slow the
water flow and collect extra debris.
Advantages
 Surrounding areas have vegetative buffer that can withstand dry or wet
conditions.
  May cost less to implement than a wet retention pond because the size is
generally smaller.

Disadvantages
 Requires a large amount of space.
 Does not improve water quality.
 Can become a mosquito breeding ground.
 Can detract from property value, whereas retention ponds may add value.

Maintenance Considerations for retention and

detention ponds
One of the most important maintenance needed for either of these basins is to
ensure that the orifice does not become blocked or clogged. Keeping the pipes clear
of debris will ensure the ponds and basins are functioning properly. Keeping up with
maintenance can reduce costly repairs in the future. Other maintenance includes:
 Identifying and repairing areas of erosion - A few times a year and after major storms, check for
gullies and other disturbances on the bank.

 Removing sediment and debris - Keeping pipes clear of debris and removing sediment ensures
proper function. Remove debris around and in ponds before it reaches the outlets to prevent
problems.

 Maintaining vegetation - The amount of maintenance depends on the type of vegetation

surrounding the basin. Some grasses need weekly mowing, and others can be maintained a
couple of times a year.

e. Rain garden
A rain garden also called a storm water garden is a garden of native shrubs,
perennials, and flowers planted in a small depression, which is generally formed on a
natural slope. It is designed to temporarily hold and soak in rain water runoff that
flows from roofs, driveways, patios or lawns. Rain gardens are effective in removing
up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the rainwater
runoff. Compared to a conventional lawn, rain gardens allow for 30% more water to
soak into the ground.
Rain gardens are often located near a building's roof drainpipe (with or
without rainwater tanks). Most rain gardens are designed to be an endpoint of
drainage with a capacity to percolate all incoming water through a series of soil or
gravel layers beneath the surface plantings. A French drain may be used to direct a
portion of the rainwater to an overflow location for heavier rain events. By reducing
peak storm water discharge, rain gardens extend hydraulic lag time and somewhat
mimic the natural water cycle displaced by urban development and allow
 for groundwater recharge. While rain gardens always allow for restored groundwater
recharge, and reduced storm water volumes, they may also
increase pollution unless remediation materials are included in the design of the
filtration layers
The primary challenge of rain garden design centers on calculating the types of
pollutants and the acceptable loads of pollutants the rain garden's filtration system
can handle during storm-water events.

Advantages

 Filter runoff pollution

 Recharge local groundwater
 Conserve water
 Improve water quality
 Protect rivers and streams
 Remove standing water in your yard
 Reduce mosquito breeding
 Increase beneficial insects that eliminate pest insects
 Reduce potential of home flooding
 Create habitat for birds & butterflies
 Survive drought seasons
 Reduce garden maintenance
 Enhance sidewalk appeal

f. Bio-retention cell
Bioretention cells are landscaped depressions that capture and infiltrate stormwater runoff
from impervious surfaces to reduce water pollution and stabilize stream flows. Bioretention
 cells have an engineered and constructed sub-grade to ensure adequate percolation
of captured runoff.
Bioretention cells can be used in most settings, including parking lots and residential areas,
where soils don’t adequately drain. They use plants that can tolerate a wide range of
moisture conditions. Native plants are encouraged because they have deep roots
and maintain soil quality and pore spaces.
A limiting factor for placement of a bioretention cell may be the lack of an outlet for the
subsurface drain. An outlet is necessary to ensure proper drainage and often drains into the
storm sewer or down gradient of the bioretention cell.
They have engineered and constructed sub grade to ensure adequate percolation of
captured runoff.

g. Lawn drainage
Grade your lawn so water flows away from the foundation of your house
Also, grade to prevent water puddling within the lawn
Types of drainage systems
 Grassy swale.
A swale is an area of the lawn which is carefully graded to direct water. “A swale need not be
 obvious,” says Mark Paine of Sposato Landscape in Milton, DE. “As little as a 1 inch drop every
10 feet will provide enough flow for it to be effective.” A swale helps dissipate water over a larger
area, or directs the water to a bog planting or a drain.
 Bog area in landscape.
Landscaping plants can be a great drainage solution for areas with a small amount of excess
water. Red-twig dogwoods, willows, and many native plants in each region are well-adapted to
periodic bog conditions.
 French drain.
A French drain is the most well-known type of outdoor drainage system. While the specifics vary,
a French drain is usually comprised of a perforated pipe which is surrounded by gravel then
wrapped in filter fabric to keep mud and particles out. A French drain directs water to a drain
rather than dispersing it within the landscape.

 Dry well system.

Paine recommends a newer type of drainage system called a dry well. A dry well is an
environmentally-friendly alternative to a French drain, because it discharges the storm water on-
site. Downspouts or drains are directed to an underground storage well. The water slowly filters
out of the well and eventually ends up back in the groundwater tables. Paine has used the NDF
Flow-Well Dry Well system to great success, and recommends it as a more cost-effective solution
than a French drain (compare the cost of various drainage systems).
 Corrugated plastic tubes.
This is an inexpensive solution for directing water from downspouts. It’s simply a corrugated tube
made of plastic which sits over the end of the downspout and can be buried underground to direct
water within the landscape to disburse, or to a drain.

Drainage problems and solutions

 Downspouts
One of the most common issues in the landscape is when downspouts don’t
have any place to drain. When the water from downspouts isn’t directed
anywhere, you get dying plants in the landscape. Most plants dislike having
soupy feet.
Now, many people elect to direct drainage over a grassy swale in the lawn to
an overflow area planted with water-loving natives.” Plastic corrugated tubes
are another option for directing downspout drainage.

 Grade changes
Many people are oblivious to what is happening just outside their garden
fence. Even the best neighbors can inadvertently direct water onto your
property and cause a drainage issue.to solve this; Some neighbors opt to
share the cost of an underground drainage system such as a French drain or
a dry well to divert water to a more appropriate location, such as the city
sewer service or an area of the landscape where the water won’t do any
harm.

 Moisture in basement
if your lawn or landscape has a slope, or has been improperly graded so that
water flows towards your foundation, you may end up with excess moisture
in your basement.
The best solution is prevention. “Always grade so that water flows away from houses,
landscaped beds, and your neighbor, too,” says Paine. If a large slope is the
problem, an underground drainage system such as a French drain or a dry well
 system will be your best bet. These drainage systems are often combined with a
sump pump for extra effectiveness.
 Surface Water

Solution: Surface Drainage

Home sites with clay soils suffer problems with lingering surface water. In theory every lot was graded to

drain so that water in the backyard flows through a swale down the side yard to the curb or storm drain.

The reality is that builders don't always get their grades right and water becomes trapped, causing

muddy zones in lawns and planting areas. When your designer creates the new drainage plan, it may

utilize surface grading to ensure there is enough fall to drain. If there is not, another option must be

found.

The French drain is an age old drainage solution that gathers water and provides a place underground

where it may take its time percolating down through dense soils. It is essentially a trench that is dug to

any depth and filled with gravel and possibly a perforated drain line. Roofing felt or geotextiles are laid

over the top of the gravel and the soil replaced. The surrounding area is graded to drain to this trench so

water no longer gathers on the surface to create problems.

 Hardpan

Solution: Underground drainage

Where hardpan layers exist, the entire site may suffer poor drainage and standing water. This is too

great a challenge for spot solutions. Insist on a site-wide grading and drainage plan with an underground

system of pipes fed by drop inlets or trench drains. The advent of easy to install plastic piping makes it

easier to move water off site and directly into the storm drain.

The drainage plan may prove to be the most important part of your project in areas of high rainfall such

as Florida or Seattle where heavy flows are common. Such drainage costs more to install, but it pays for

itself time and again. Where there is no storm drain or it is inaccessible, this kind of system may flow

into an underground sump. This is a large hole dug and packed with gravel where water stands until it

drains away. With luck, digging of a sump punches through hardpan into more porous soils deeper

down.
  High Water table

Solution: Raise it or use water loving plants

Low lying areas with a high water table can make landscaping a real challenge. Plant roots in saturated

soil during the growing season are denied oxygen, and quickly rot just like an overwatered house plant.

Certain plants that originate in river bottoms and wetlands do quite well in high water landscapes. The

best choices will be riparian species from local bogs, fens and swamps naturally adapted to your climate

and soils. Trees from similar wetlands elsewhere in the world also make good candidates. These

provide more diversity than what is native to local plant communities.

The other solution for high water table landscapes is to raise the planting areas, an expensive but

effective option. Raised planter heights can vary according to what the designer wants to grow there.

For trees and large shrubs, the size of such planters must be greater to keep the root crown high and

dry. The root crown is a woody structure at the base of the trunk from which roots diverge out into the

soil. Where planting is limited to smaller shrubs and perennials, the depth of the planter may be shallow

and thus less expensive. The challenge to your designer is to balance the cost of raised beds with the

benefits of her proposed planting.

h. Driveway drainage solutions

Driveway Drainage Solutions:

 Driveway Placement & Slope

The two most effective weapons in combating driveway drainage problems are placement and
slope. When installing a new driveway it should be placed in an area of your property that has
excellent drainage. If possible, avoid placing your driveway in a low-lying area, or a spot where
water typically flows during storms. It is best for a driveway to gently slope away from your home,
so that when it rains the water will wash out into the street, or to on-site storm water
management. Depending on your property, grading may be necessary to achieve the right slope.
If your property has a steep slope you'll find these hillside landscaping essentials helpful

 Driveway Drains
For some properties, especially those that sit below street level, it's difficult to solve the drainage
problem with correct placement and slope alone. In this situation driveway drains will need to be
 installed. A trench drain, sometimes called a French drain, can be installed where the driveway
meets the garage. This type of drain is long and narrow and should run the entire width of the
driveway. A trench drain must be covered by a metal grate to keep it free of debris that could clog
the pipe. If you live in a very rainy climate, like the Pacific Northwest, consider installing multiple
trench drains at different points along your driveway. Decorative grates are available for trench
drains that can be used as a unique design element. Smaller site drains can also be used in
specific areas of the driveway where water collect

 Landscaping Swales
If the land on one or both sides of your driveway slopes down toward the driveway landscaping
swales may by the right drainage solution. A swale is a shallow depression that is wider than it is
deep. Creating a swale along one or both sides of your driveway will provide a place for storm-
water to collect and re-enter the groundwater. They will also keep any water draining off the
hillside from flowing down your driveway and flooding your garage or home. Swales can be
landscaped to look like a creek bed with river rock and water loving plants

 Permeable Pavements
Driveway paving material choices are often based solely off of aesthetic appeal. However, if you
are concerned about drainage, you may want to look into permeable pavements. Permeable
pavements allow water to pass through openings or voids and return into the soil beneath.
Sometimes referred to as porous pavements, permeable surfaces considerably reduce run-off
making the likelihood of flooding much lower. There are many permeable paving options that can
handle driveway traffic, including permeable pavers, pervious concrete, grass pavers, and gravel

i. Parking lot drainage

Parking Lot Drainage Placement & Slop Best Practices:

 The slope of your parking lot should be designed to force water to run to
intended places.
 The water direction should be running in a path that is moving away from
exterior walls.
 Asphalt curbing can and should contribute to directing the flow of water
to grassy areas and/or designated drainage areas.

7. Catch Basins – A Catch basin is a subsurface drainage structure

with a grate on top to collect and channel surface runoff into a
storm sewer system. Catch basins are usually built at the curb
 line. Adequate number of basins and proper placement is very
important in effectiveness.

8. Drain & Inlets – These are receptors for surface water collected
in ditches and gutters that direct water to enter storm drainage
systems. Openings of these drainage inlets are usually covered
by a grate.

LANDSCAPE LIGHTING
Types of Lighting Systems
While installing landscape lighting used to require lawn excavation to route wires, two major types of outdoor
lighting have emerged due to their convenient installation methods. Both of these popular systems have
advantages and drawbacks depending on your needs and preferences.

Solar lighting requires no electricity at all; its energy source is direct sunlight that charges batteries in the light
fixtures. It is the least costly option because it does not impact electric bills, but it is less reliable due to its
dependence on sunlight. Solar lighting cannot be installed in shaded areas and will be consistently
undercharged in particularly cloudy regions. Its light also dims over the course of the night as the energy stored
during daylight is depleted.
Low-voltage lighting requires only minor, shallow wiring that connects to an existing outdoor outlet with a
transformer to lower its voltage. It will contribute to your home’s energy consumption, but depending on the
type of light bulbs chosen and the number of fixtures installed, it will not necessarily cause a drastic spike in
electricity costs. Low-voltage systems can be set to turn on and off according to a timer, which gives the
homeowner a degree of control over their power usage. Choosing longer-lasting, energy-efficient bulbs will
also help control costs associated with the system. Additionally, the different bulb options allow the
homeowner greater creativity as far as brightness and color.
Styles of Lighting

1. Path Lighting
Some lighting fixtures are meant to be somewhat discreet, with the light showing but not
the fixture. That’s not the case with path lighting. Lighting fixtures used to highlight
pathways can offer stand-out style and an aesthetically appealing display.
Path lighting is the most common type of landscape lighting. Hey, you can’t get around
any property without pathways! Path lights can be used for more than just lighting up a
walkway; they can also be used to frame certain features or spaces. Picture this: a
collection of scattered lighting fixtures that pour light over a brightly-colored fish pond,
water fountain, seating area, or other feature.

2. Up Lighting
Next up on the list is up lighting; another important type of landscape lighting. As its
name suggests, up lights are pointed up at a tree or taller structure to create a dramatic
effect. Play around with fixtures to get just the right angle of light.

3. Silhouette Lighting
This type of landscape lighting involves placing a light behind an object to create a
glowing outline. With silhouetted lighting, the goal is for the lighting fixture to go unseen;
the light itself does all the talking.

4. Shadow Lighting
The opposite of silhouetting is shadowing, which brings us to yet another common type
of landscape lighting. Shadow lighting involves placing a light in between the ideal
vantage point and the feature a light is focused on. To create a shadow effect, the light
needs to be focused on a wall or other object that will catch light and cast a shadow.

5. Natural Moon Lighting

If you have large trees with sprawling canopies or other tall elements dotting
landscaping, you have an opportunity to create an awesome effect with natural moon
lighting. Simply place our Tree Ring Lights in the tip-tops of trees, and aim the lights to
face downwards. This creates an effect in which the tree, its branches, and the ground
below become flooded in a bath of lights.
6. Wall Wash Lighting
There are two ways to illuminate a wall or other solid object—wash lighting
(wallwashing) or wall grazing. The main distinction between these two methods is the
distance between the lighting fixture and the object being illuminated. Wash lighting
fixtures are typically located at least 12 inches from the wall. This offers a flat and even
layer of light with some texturing as well.
Wash lighting provides additional ambient lighting. It is often used to add extra pizazz to
entertainment spaces, it looks great on living walls and hedges.
Tip: Employ a wide-beamed light situated in between the ideal vantage point and the
surface you’re lighting up. This creates a nice gentle light with a more natural look.

7. Wall Grazing Lighting

The other option to illuminate a wall is to use grazing lights, which are placed in closer
proximity to the wall, typically around 12-inches or less from the wall. Lights virtually sit
right up against a flat surface. As opposed to smooth lighting, this creates a more
dramatic shadow, while also highlighting texture, color, and design after dark. Wall
grazing lights create an upscale look, hence why this tactic is often employed at nice
restaurants, office buildings, and so forth.
When lighting up a wall, keep in mind;

 The human eye can naturally process vertical surfaces easier than it can
horizontal surfaces.
 Illuminated walls are considered “indirect” light sources, and work best when the
surface illuminated has a light-color and/or matte finish.
 It’s more difficult to successfully illuminate darker walls or surfaces.
 Beware that without proper execution, wall lighting can lead to glare.