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1. What is behavior genetic and explain its scope in explaining psychological problems.
Behaviour genetics, the study of the influence of an organism’s
genetic composition on its behaviour and the interaction
of heredity and environment insofar as they affect behaviour. The question of the
determinants of behavioral abilities and disabilities has commonly been referred
to as the “nature-nurture” controversy.

Behavioral genetics is a field of study that explores the role of genetics in influencing
behavior. It involves investigating the genetic and environmental factors that contribute
to individual differences in behavior, personality, and mental health. The scope of
behavioral genetics in explaining psychological problems is broad and involves
understanding the interplay between genetic and environmental influences on various
aspects of human behavior.

1. Heritability of Psychological Traits: Behavioral genetics aims to quantify the extent to

which genetic factors contribute to individual differences in psychological traits such as
intelligence, personality, and mental disorders. Heritability estimates provide insights
into the proportion of variability in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors.
2. Twin and Adoption Studies: Researchers use twin and adoption studies to assess the
relative contributions of genetics and environment. By comparing identical twins (who
share 100% of their genes) with fraternal twins (who share about 50% of their genes) or
adopted individuals with their biological and adoptive families, scientists can
disentangle genetic and environmental influences.
3. Genetic Markers for Mental Disorders: Behavioral genetics investigates the genetic
markers associated with various psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar
disorder, and depression. Identifying specific genes or genetic variations linked to these
disorders can enhance our understanding of their biological basis and potential
treatment targets.
4. Gene-Environment Interactions: Behavioral genetics also explores how genes and
environment interact to shape behavior. Certain genetic predispositions may become
more or less influential depending on the individual's environment, highlighting the
complex interplay between nature and nurture.
5. Polygenic Inheritance: Many psychological traits are polygenic, meaning they result
from the combined effects of multiple genes. Behavioral genetics seeks to identify and
understand the complex network of genes contributing to traits and disorders, shedding
light on the intricate genetic architecture of psychological phenomena
6. Epigenetics: Epigenetics involves the study of changes in gene expression that do not
involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence. Behavioral genetics examines how
 epigenetic mechanisms may contribute to the development and persistence of
psychological problems.
7. Implications for Treatment and Intervention: Understanding the genetic basis of
psychological problems can have implications for treatment and intervention strategies.
It may lead to the development of targeted therapies or personalized treatment
approaches based on an individual's genetic profile.

It's important to note that while behavioral genetics provides valuable insights into the
genetic underpinnings of psychological problems, these conditions are typically
influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Ethical
considerations, ongoing research, and advances in technology continue to shape the
field, deepening our understanding of the complexities of human behavior and mental
health.

2.What is Behavioural Genetics?

Behavioural genetics is the study of genetic and environmental influences on animal or

human behaviour. The inheritance of behavioural traits has been studied by the
geneticists.

Methods of Study of Behavioural Genetics

The effect of genetic and environmental factors on human behaviour has been studied
using quantitative genetic methods. The genes responsible for a particular genetic
influence are observed by molecular genetic methods. The research has been carried
out on both humans and animals but the researches on animals have given more
accurate results. This is because the environment and genes both can be controlled in
the laboratory. The following experiments were performed to study the genetic and
environmental influences on behaviour in humans and animals:

Behavioural Genetics In Animals

 The siblings were mated for several generations. The offsprings obtained were
highly similar genetically. The genetic influence on behaviour can also be
observed by comparing the behaviour of different inbred strains brought up in the
same laboratory environment.
  Selective breeding is another method for selecting genetic influences. In this,
organisms with high and low extremes of a trait are bred for several generations.
These methods have been applied to a number of animal behaviours and have
provided proves for the influence of genes on behaviour, especially in learning
and behavioural responses to drugs.

Also read: Acquired and Inherited Traits

Behavioural Genetics In Humans

Twin method

It is used to study the genetic influence on behavioural differences. The environment

and the genes cannot be controlled or manipulated in humans. Monozygotic twins or
identical twins are genetically the same because they come from the single fertilized
egg. They are clones of each other. The dizygotic twins that come from different
fertilized eggs are half genetically similar like any other sibling born at different times.

With reference to the fact that the behaviour is influenced by the environmental factors,
the dizygotic twins should be exactly similar because they are brought up in the same
environment by the same parents at the same time. If the behaviour is influenced by
genes, then the dizygotic twins should be less similar than the monozygotic twins.

For eg., the risk of one twin being schizophrenic if the other one is already suffering
from the condition is 45% in monozygotic twins and 15% in dizygotic twins. Also, the
intelligence assessed by the IQ tests is 0.85 in monozygotic twins and 0.60 in dizygotic
twins. However, the twin method was strictly defended.

Adoption method

This method was also adopted in which the child is owned and brought up by someone
who is not the biological parent of the child. A study proved that children with
schizophrenic biological mothers when adopted far away from their biological parents
had a 10% chance of becoming schizophrenic compared to the children brought up by
the schizophrenic mothers.

Researches are being carried out to know the influence of genes and environment on
the behaviour of animals and human beings.
 Criticisms of Behavioural Genetics

The researches on behavioural genetics have been controversial at times. The

researches can challenge beliefs about the nature of human behaviour and abilities.
Genetic research on topics such as racial differences, intelligence, violence, etc. are
major areas of controversies in behavioural genetics.

There are very little findings on how genetic differences can lead to differences in IQ,
aggression, etc. The environment affects the expression of genes. It has also been
claimed that many mathematical techniques applied in behavioural genetics cannot be
applied to data obtained from humans.

Selective breeding, also known as artificial selection, involves choosing individuals with
specific traits to mate and produce offspring with desired characteristics. In the context
of psychogenetics, researchers use selective breeding in animal studies to investigate
the heritability of behavioral traits and gain insights into the genetic basis of certain
behaviors. While this approach has its advantages, there are also notable drawbacks:

Advantages of Selective Breeding in Psychogenetics:

1. Isolation of Specific Traits: Selective breeding allows researchers to focus on specific

behavioral traits of interest, isolating them for study. This targeted approach can help
uncover the genetic basis of particular behaviors.
2. Controlled Genetic Variation: By controlling the mating pairs, researchers can create
populations with varying degrees of genetic relatedness. This controlled genetic
variation is valuable for assessing the heritability of traits.
3. Reproducibility: Selective breeding studies can be replicated with relative ease,
enhancing the reproducibility of results. This is important for scientific validation and the
establishment of reliable findings.

Drawbacks of Selective Breeding in Psychogenetics:

1. Limited Applicability to Humans: Findings from selective breeding studies in animals

may not necessarily generalize to humans. While these studies can provide insights into
general principles of genetics, the translation of results to humans is often challenging
due to species differences.
2. Complex Genetic Basis: Behavioral traits are often influenced by multiple genes, each
with a small effect. Selective breeding may oversimplify the complex genetic architecture
of behaviors, as it tends to focus on a limited number of genes or gene combinations.
3. Environmental Influence: Even in controlled breeding environments, environmental
factors can play a significant role in shaping behavior. Selective breeding studies may
not fully account for the complexity of gene-environment interactions, leading to an
incomplete understanding of the factors influencing behavior.
4. Ethical Concerns: Selective breeding raises ethical issues, especially when it involves
manipulating animals for specific traits. Questions arise regarding the well-being of the
animals and the ethical implications of artificially selecting traits that may have negative
consequences on the animals' health or behavior.
5. Long Gestation Periods: In many species, particularly mammals, the gestation periods
are relatively long. This makes the process of conducting selective breeding studies
time-consuming and resource-intensive.
6. Inbreeding Effects: Continuous selective breeding can lead to inbreeding, resulting in
reduced genetic diversity and increased risk of genetic abnormalities. Inbreeding effects
can confound the interpretation of results and limit the generalizability of findings.
7. Unintended Consequences: Selective breeding for specific traits may lead to
unintended consequences. For example, selecting for one desirable trait may
inadvertently result in the expression of undesirable traits or health issues.

In summary, while selective breeding is a valuable tool for studying the heritability of
behavioral traits in controlled environments, researchers must be cautious about its
limitations and potential ethical concerns. Integrating findings from selective breeding
studies with other research methods, such as twin and adoption studies in humans, can
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between
genetics and behavior.
The structure of a gene consists of specific sequences of DNA nucleotides. Each
nucleotide is composed of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and one of four
nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The sequence
of these bases along the DNA molecule forms the genetic code.

The information within genes is used to produce proteins, which are essential for the
structure and function of cells. The process by which the information in a gene is used
to build a protein is called gene expression. It involves transcription, where a copy of the
gene's DNA sequence is made into a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA), and
translation, where the mRNA is used as a template to assemble a specific sequence of
amino acids into a protein.

Genes can vary in size and complexity. Some genes are relatively short and code for a
single protein, while others are longer and may code for multiple proteins or have
regulatory functions that control the activity of other genes. The entire set of genes in
an organism is called its genome.
 Genes can influence human psychology through their role in shaping the development
and functioning of the brain, which, in turn, affects behavior, cognition, and emotions.
It's important to note that while genes play a significant role, they interact with
environmental factors in complex ways, and both nature and nurture contribute to the
complexities of human psychology. Here are several ways in which genes can influence
human psychology:

1. Neurotransmitter Regulation: Genes influence the production and regulation of

neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that transmit signals between nerve cells in the
brain. Variations in genes associated with neurotransmitter function can impact mood,
cognition, and behavior. For example, genes related to serotonin may influence
susceptibility to mood disorders.
2. Brain Structure and Function: Genes contribute to the development and organization
of the brain's structure. Individual differences in brain anatomy and function can be
influenced by genetic factors, affecting cognitive processes, memory, and emotional
responses.
3. Personality Traits: Some personality traits are heritable, meaning they have a genetic
basis. For instance, research suggests that traits such as extraversion, neuroticism, and
conscientiousness have a genetic component. However, environmental factors also play
a crucial role in shaping personality.
4. Cognitive Abilities: Genetic factors contribute to individual differences in cognitive
abilities such as intelligence. While intelligence is influenced by both genetic and
environmental factors, studies on twins and families suggest a heritable component to
cognitive functioning.
5. Susceptibility to Mental Disorders: Genes play a role in the susceptibility to mental
health disorders. Certain gene variations may increase the risk of conditions like
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. However, environmental factors also
contribute significantly to the development of these disorders.
6. Response to Stress: Genetic variations can influence an individual's response to stress.
Some people may be more resilient in the face of stress, while others may be more
susceptible to stress-related disorders. Genes associated with the stress response, such
as those involved in the regulation of cortisol, play a role in this.
7. Behavioral Traits: Certain behaviors and tendencies, such as risk-taking or impulsivity,
can have a genetic basis. Twin and adoption studies have been used to identify genetic
contributions to various behaviors, although the interaction with environmental factors
is crucial.
8. Social Behavior: Genes can influence social behaviors, including aspects of
interpersonal relationships and social interaction. Genetic factors may contribute to
individual differences in empathy, social anxiety, and other social behaviors.
 RNA-seq (RNA-sequencing) is a technique that can examine the
quantity and sequences of RNA in a sample using next-generation
sequencing (NGS). It analyzes the transcriptome, indicating which of
the genes encoded in our DNA are turned on or off and to what extent.
Quantitative PCR (qPCR):
 Principle: Quantitative PCR is a widely used technique for measuring the amount
of a specific RNA molecule in a sample, providing quantitative information about
gene expression levels.

In a hypothetical quasi-experimental setup using twin studies, let's consider an

investigation into the potential genetic influences on a specific psychological trait, such
as intelligence, among adolescents. The study design involves both identical
(monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

Hypothetical Quasi-Experimental Setup:

Research Question: To what extent do genetic factors contribute to individual

differences in adolescent intelligence?

Participants:

1. Identical Twins (Monozygotic, MZ):

 Twins who share 100% of their genetic material.
 Recruited from various schools in a specific region.
 Sample size: 50 pairs.
2. Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic, DZ):
 Twins who share approximately 50% of their genetic material (like any siblings).
 Recruited from the same schools as the identical twins.
 Sample size: 50 pairs.
Procedure:
1. Assessment of Intelligence:
2. Data Collection:
3. Analysis of Genetic Contribution:
4. Control for Shared Environment:
5. Longitudinal Data:
6. Expected Outcomes:
 If identical twins consistently show greater similarity in intelligence compared to
fraternal twins, it suggests a strong genetic component.
 The analysis might reveal a heritability estimate, indicating the proportion of individual
differences in intelligence attributed to genetic factors.Limitations:
 Quasi-experimental designs cannot establish causation, so the study can show
associations but not necessarily the direct impact of genetics on intelligence.
 Environmental factors, although controlled to some extent, may still influence the
results.