Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

In this chapter, we will delve deeper into the fundamental concepts of limits and continuity, which are the building
blocks of calculus. Understanding these concepts is crucial for mastering the more advanced topics in calculus.

2.1 Limits
A limit is a value that a function approaches as the input approaches a particular point. Limits are used to define both
derivatives and integrals and are essential for understanding the behavior of functions at points where they may not be
explicitly defined.

2.1.1 Formal Definition of a Limit

The formal definition of a limit involves the concept of approaching a value arbitrarily closely. The limit of ( f(x) ) as ( x )
approaches ( a ) is ( L ), denoted as ( \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = L ), if for every number ( \epsilon > 0 ), there exists a number
( \delta > 0 ) such that ( 0 < |x - a| < \delta ) implies ( |f(x) - L| < \epsilon ).

2.1.2 One-Sided Limits

Sometimes, it is useful to consider the behavior of a function as it approaches a point from only one side. These are
called one-sided limits:

Right-hand limit: ( \lim_{x \to a^+} f(x) = L )

Left-hand limit: ( \lim_{x \to a^-} f(x) = L )

A function ( f(x) ) has a limit ( L ) as ( x ) approaches ( a ) if and only if both the right-hand and left-hand limits exist and
are equal to ( L ).

2.1.3 Infinite Limits

Infinite limits describe the behavior of a function as it increases or decreases without bound as the input approaches a
certain value. For example, ( \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = \infty ) means that as ( x ) gets closer to ( a ), ( f(x) ) increases without
bound.

2.2 Continuity
A function is continuous if it does not have any abrupt changes in value, which means it can be drawn without lifting the
pen from the paper. Continuity is crucial for ensuring that the behavior of a function is predictable and smooth.

2.2.1 Definition of Continuity

A function ( f ) is continuous at a point ( a ) if the following three conditions are met:

1. ( f(a) ) is defined.
2. ( \lim_{x \to a} f(x) ) exists.
3. ( \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = f(a) ).

If a function is continuous at every point in an interval, it is said to be continuous on that interval.

2.2.2 Types of Discontinuities

There are several types of discontinuities:

Removable discontinuity: A point at which a function is not defined, but the limit exists. For example, if ( f(x) =
\frac{\sin(x)}{x} ) at ( x = 0 ), we can remove the discontinuity by defining ( f(0) = 1 ).
Jump discontinuity: A point at which the left-hand and right-hand limits exist but are not equal. For example, a
step function has a jump discontinuity.
Infinite discontinuity: A point at which the function approaches infinity. For example, ( f(x) = \frac{1}{x} ) at ( x
= 0 ) has an infinite discontinuity.

2.3 Techniques for Evaluating Limits

Several techniques can be used to evaluate limits:

2.3.1 Direct Substitution

If a function is continuous at a point ( a ), then the limit as ( x ) approaches ( a ) is simply the value of the function at
that point:

[ \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = f(a) ]

2.3.2 Factoring
If direct substitution results in an indeterminate form like ( \frac{0}{0} ), factoring the numerator and denominator can
sometimes simplify the expression:

[ \lim_{x \to a} \frac{f(x)}{g(x)} ]

For example, to find ( \lim_{x \to 2} \frac{x^2 - 4}{x - 2} ), we can factor the numerator:

[ \frac{x^2 - 4}{x - 2} = \frac{(x - 2)(x + 2)}{x - 2} = x + 2 ]

Then,

[ \lim_{x \to 2} \frac{x^2 - 4}{x - 2} = \lim_{x \to 2} (x + 2) = 4 ]

2.3.3 Rationalizing

Rationalizing the numerator or denominator can also help resolve indeterminate forms. For example, to find ( \lim_{x
\to 0} \frac{\sqrt{x + 1} - 1}{x} ), we can multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate:

[ \frac{\sqrt{x + 1} - 1}{x} \cdot \frac{\sqrt{x + 1} + 1}{\sqrt{x + 1} + 1} = \frac{(x + 1) - 1}{x(\sqrt{x + 1} + 1)} =

\frac{x}{x(\sqrt{x + 1} + 1)} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{x + 1} + 1} ]

Then,

[ \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{\sqrt{x + 1} - 1}{x} = \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{1}{\sqrt{x + 1} + 1} = \frac{1}{2} ]

2.3.4 L'Hôpital's Rule

If a limit results in an indeterminate form ( \frac{0}{0} ) or ( \frac{\infty}{\infty} ), L'Hôpital's Rule can be used to
evaluate it. This rule states that:

[ \lim_{x \to a} \frac{f(x)}{g(x)} = \lim_{x \to a} \frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)} ]

provided the limit on the right-hand side exists.

2.4 Squeeze Theorem

The Squeeze Theorem is a useful tool for evaluating limits when a function is "squeezed" between two other functions
whose limits are known. The theorem states that if ( f(x) \leq g(x) \leq h(x) ) for all ( x ) in some interval around ( a ),
except possibly at ( a ), and:

[ \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = \lim_{x \to a} h(x) = L ]

then:

[ \lim_{x \to a} g(x) = L ]

2.5 Continuity and the Intermediate Value Theorem

The Intermediate Value Theorem is a fundamental result that applies to continuous functions. It states that if ( f ) is
continuous on the closed interval ([a, b]) and ( N ) is any number between ( f(a) ) and ( f(b) ), then there exists a number
( c ) in ([a, b]) such that ( f(c) = N ).

This theorem is particularly useful for proving the existence of roots of equations. For example, if ( f ) is continuous and
( f(a) < 0 ) and ( f(b) > 0 ), then there exists a ( c ) in ([a, b]) such that ( f(c) = 0 ).

2.6 Conclusion
Limits and continuity form the backbone of calculus, providing the necessary framework for understanding more
advanced topics like differentiation and integration. Mastering these concepts allows us to analyze and interpret the
behavior of functions, ensuring a solid foundation for further study in mathematics and its applications. By grasping the
principles of limits and continuity, we can better understand the dynamic nature of the world around us and solve
complex problems in various fields.