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CHEMICAL
COORDINATION
Professoracademy.com 7070701005
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine glands release their secretions directly into the bloodstream.

They include
● Hypothalamus,
● Pituitary (anterior and posterior lobes),
● Thyroid,
● Parathyroid,
● Adrenals (cortex and medulla),
● Pineal body,
● Reproductive organs (ovaries and testes)
● Pancreas
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HYPOTHALAMUS
● Regulate temperature of the body, metabolism, and secretes vital

hormones for stimulation or inhibition of the pituitary gland.
● Somatostatin - prevents release of growth hormone from the pituitary
gland.
● It supervises many constitutional body conditions such as blood
pressure nutrient, and water content to name few.
● Under specific changes and development, the hypothalamus excites
cellular activity in multiple sectors of the body by governing the
hormonal release from the anterior and posterior pituitary glands.
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PITUITARY GLAND
● Also called, hypophysis, is positioned in the lower part of the

brain, joined at the bottom of the hypothalamus by the
infundibulum (a slender stalk).
● Often regarded as the chief gland
● Controls functions of other endocrine glands.
● Hypopituitarism is a condition when the pituitary gland fails to
produce adequate hormones.
● Classified into the posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
and the anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis). 5
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
● Neurosecretory cells are responsible for the communication

between the hypothalamus and adenohypophysis.
● Secrete hormones that are packed in vesicles, carried through the
axon and stored within axon terminals.
● Upon stimulation, the stored hormones release out from the axon
terminals and move to a capillary network.
● Uncontrolled by the hypothalamus
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HORMONES SECRETED
● Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Controls kidney’s water

loss
● Oxytocin: Milk production, uterus contraction during birth
● Melanocyte stimulating hormone
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ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
● Begins from oral ectoderm and is comprised of glandular
epithelium.
● It gets releasing hormones from the hypothalamus via
hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system (a network of
capillaries).
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HORMONES SECRETED
● Growth hormone (GH): Cartilage and tissue growth
● Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Produces thyroid
hormones
● Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Excites the adrenal
gland to generate steroid hormones
● Prolactin: milk production in females
● Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): The anterior pituitary
consists of the particular endocrine cells known as thyrotropes
that release TSH under the influence of thyrotropin-releasing 1
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HORMONES SECRETED
● Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): Include fever,
hypoglycemia, and stressors of all types
● Prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF): Also known as dopamine
(DA) prevents prolactin secretion
● Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): It consists the
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) that controls the sexual function and production of the sex
steroids in male (testosterone) and female (oestrogen and
progesterone).
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THYROID GLAND
● Butterfly-shaped two-lobed structure,
● Largest endocrine gland.
● Positioned anteriorly slightly underneath the larynx.
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HORMONES SECRETED
● T3 (triiodothyronine) and T3 (reverse T3)- possess three

Iodine atoms.
● T4 (thyroxine)- possesses four Iodine atoms.
● T3 and T4 increases the metabolism of the cells.
● Plays a vital role in maintaining blood pressure.
● Serves in development and maturation of skeletal and nervous
system, as well as tissue growth and development.
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PARATHYROID GLANDS
● Yellowish-brown
● Tiny to be visible from posterior angle of thyroid gland.
● Four to eight in number
● Located at the neck or thorax
● Contain dispersed oxyphil cells (function unclear) and vast
amounts of chief cells
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HORMONES SECRETED
● Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone – protein
hormone - controls calcium balance of the blood.
● A drop in blood Ca2+ levels stimulates PTH and vice versa.
● In bones, stimulates osteoclasts to digest bony matrices and give
out ionic calcium and phosphates.
● Enhances the retake of Ca2+ by the kidneys.
● Release helps in vitamin D activation, enhancing absorption of
Ca2+ by the intestine (mucosal cells).
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ADRENAL GLAND
● Pyramid-shaped organs
● Above the kidneys (suprarenal)
● Exterior covering (cortex) and an inner covering
(adrenal medulla)
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ADRENAL CORTEX
● Produces a steroid hormone called corticosteroid, and its rate
of release relies on their percentage of synthesis.
● Corticosteroids are produced in three zones.
● The superficial zona glomerulosa produce
mineralocorticoids - handles minerals and water balance in
the blood.
● The middle zona fasciculata cells produce glucocorticoids.
● The innermost zona reticularis produce sex hormones
(gonadocorticoids).
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ADRENAL MEDULLA
● Innermost part of adrenal gland
● Consists of round granular cells called chromaffin cells that
synthesize catecholamines, epinephrine (80%) and
norepinephrine (20%)
● Epinephrine handles the bronchial dilation, metabolism, and
raised blood flow to heart and skeletal muscles.
● Norepinephrine impacts vasoconstriction and increases
blood pressure.
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PINEAL GLAND
● Also called, conarium or epiphysis cerebri
● Tiny, pine-cone shaped endocrine gland located in the regions
in the epithalamus, in between the two hemispheres of the
brain.
● Secretes pinealocytes cells which contain the calcium salts.
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HORMONES SECRETED
● Secretes melatonin; a serotonin derived hormone.
● Melatonin has an impact on our ‘biological clock’ and can
modulate sleep cycle.
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PANCREAS
● Soft, triangular gland located behind the stomach.
● Consists of acinar cells - release enzyme.
● Within these acinar cells lie billions of islets of Langerhans -
consists glucagon-synthesizing alpha (α) cells (17%) and the
insulin-producing beta (β) cells (70%).
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HORMONES SECRETED
● Alpha cells and beta cells function as small fuel sensors,
releasing glucagon and insulin
● Insulin and glucagon are involved in the regulation of glucose
levels.
● Somatostatin; by the delta cells (δ) of the pancreas and
constitute about 7% of pancreatic islets cells and pancreatic
polypeptide (PP) released by F-cells that form the remainder of
the pancreatic islet cells
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GONADS - OVARIES
● Paired ovaries - produce estrogens and progesterone.
● Estrogens - growth of the reproductive organs and secondary
sexual features during puberty.
● Estrogens and progesterone together boost breast
development and control the menstrual cycle.
● Progesterone - helps in maintaining the pregnancy.
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GONADS - TESTES
● Located in the scrotum, perform spermatogenesis, and
produce testosterone.
● Initiates the growth of male reproductive organs and
secondary sex features.
● Also responsible in maintaining the healthy sperm count
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HORMONES ACTION
● Chemical messengers - travelling along with the
bloodstream.
● Maintain internal balance or homeostasis.
● Interact with receptors;
○ Present in or on the surface of the cell membrane. g.
protein or peptide hormones and catecholamines.
○ In the cytoplasm. E.g. steroid hormones; Or
○ In the cell nucleus. E.g. thyroxine
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MECHANISM OF ACTION
The mechanism of hormone action is grouped into two classes:

1. Fixed membrane receptor mechanism - Shown by the water-
soluble hormones that are amines or proteins in composition such
as the growth hormone, oxytocin, ADH, etc. Target receptors are
on the cell membrane to which the hormone binds.
2. Mobile receptor mechanism - Shown by lipid soluble
hormones such as fatty acids and steroids that can easily pass
through the plasma membrane.
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FIXED MEMBRANE RECEPTOR
● When the hormone binds on the specific target receptor, the

enzyme adenylyl cyclase in the cell membrane is activated.
This helps in the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP).
● cAMP acts as the secondary messenger.
● Diffuses through the cell membrane and activates several
enzymatic reactions to cause biochemical changes.
● The target cell responds to these changes and cAMP is
deactivated by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.
3
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MOBILE RECEPTOR MECHANISM
● Possess intracellular receptors.

● The hormones bind to the target receptor that activates the
enzymatic activity of the cell to bring about biochemical
changes.
● Transcription of DNA is initiated by the hormone-receptor
complex.
● mRNA is translated into protein. This protein causes
biochemical changes inside the cell.
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NEUROENDOCRINE REFLEX
● A physical stimulus causes a nervous signal, which triggers the
release of hormones from the brain into the blood.
● A variety of actions may occur depending on the stimulus and
the hormone released
MILK EJECTION REFLEX
• Milk release from the udder requires muscular contraction around
the alveoli, influenced by oxytocin from the brain.
• The physical action of nursing sends a message to the brain,
causing neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus to release
hormones into the blood.
• Oxytocin is released into the pituitary, which diffuses into arterial
blood flow and exits the pituitary through veins.
MILK EJECTION REFLEX
• Myoepithelial cells contract when muscle cells meet oxytocin
from the blood, ejecting milk into ducts that drain the milk from
lobules to cisterns and finally exits through the teat canal.
• A suckling calf induces the strongest neuroendocrine response,
delaying the cow's return to estrous.
• Suckling results in longer postpartum anestrous interval (PPAI),
crucial for dairy herds.
FERGUSON REFLEX
● These are the mild contractions in the uterus of a pregnant
woman, which start as a result of the signals arising from a fully
grown foetus.
● Foetal ejection reflex involves involuntary uterine contractions
that are meant for the parturition/delivery of the baby from the
vagina.
● This reflex is also known as the Ferguson reflex.
FERGUSON REFLEX
● Once the signals from the fully-grown foetus arise and stimulate
the pituitary gland of the mother, it starts releasing oxytocin.
● Oxytocin, also called birth hormone is a hormone released from
the posterior pituitary gland
● Oxytocin follows a feedback mechanism to produce uterine
contractions, i.e., the more the uterus contracts, the more
oxytocin is released.
Which of the following statement is wrong regarding conduction of nerve
impulse?
A) In a resting neuron the axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ions
and nearly impermeable to Na+ ions.
B) Fluid outside the axon has a high concentration of Na+ and low
concentration of K+ in a resting neuron
C) Ionic gradients are maintained by Na-K pumps across the resting
membrane, which transport 3 Na+ ions outwards for 2 K+ ions into the
cell
D) In a polarized neuron, the outer surface of the axonal membrane
possess a negative charge and its inner surface is positively charged.
Consider the following hormones
1) Antidiuretic hormone 2) Aldosterone 3) Parathormone 4)
Oxytocin
In the vertebrate animals, the hormones involved in the control of
osmoregulation
would include
A) 1,2,3 and 4 B)1,2, and 3 C) 1 and 2 D) 2 and 4
In which part of the brain do you see Tectum and Tegmentum?
A. Epithalamus
B. Midbrain
C. Hippocampus
D. Thalamus
Bears belong to class Mammalia, which are homeotherms in
general. But bears are found to undergo Hibernation. What type of
thermoregulation is this called?
A. Poikilothermic
B. Homeothermic
C. Heterothermic
D. None of the above
The structure that regulates the size of the light opening is the
A. Pupil
B. Iris
C. Retina
D. Lens
If you enter a room and smell a strong odour, but the odour soon
seems to fade away, you have experienced
A. Damage to your sensory receptors

B. Sensory adaptation
C. A change in concentration of the substance you smelled.
D. A change in room temperature
Which of the following is NOT a taste recognized by the gustatory
cells of the taste buds?
A. Sweet
B. Salty
C. Sour
D. Bitter
Which of the following statement about mechanoreceptors is
FALSE?
A. Some mechanoreceptors can sense movement and vibrations

B. There are three kinds of mechanoreceptors
C. Each kind of mechanoreceptor has a different level of
sensitivity.
D. Some mechanoreceptors can sense the fine details of an object
Which of the following statements about Photoreception is TRUE?
A. Rhodopsin is found in cone cells

B. Rod cells are responsible for colour vision
C. Cone cells are sensitive to dim light
D. The retinal molecule changes shape when it absorbs light.
Which of the following is NOT a steroid hormone?
A. Oestrogen
B. Epinephrine
C. Progesterone
D. Cortisol
Cells that respond to a hormone are
A. Target cell
B. Affectors
C. Effectors
D. Chromosomal cells
The hormone that regulates the amount of electrolytes in the body
A. Cortisone
B. Aldosterone
C. Androgen
D. Epinephrine

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CHEMICAL

Endocrine glands release their secretions directly into the bloodstream.

● Regulate temperature of the body, metabolism, and secretes vital

● Also called, hypophysis, is positioned in the lower part of the

● Neurosecretory cells are responsible for the communication

● Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Controls kidney’s water

● T3 (triiodothyronine) and T3 (reverse T3)- possess three

The mechanism of hormone action is grouped into two classes:

● When the hormone binds on the specific target receptor, the

● Possess intracellular receptors.

A. Damage to your sensory receptors

A. Some mechanoreceptors can sense movement and vibrations

A. Rhodopsin is found in cone cells

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