4220 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

The Effect of Mesoscale Heterogeneity on the Genesis and Structure of Mesovortices

within Quasi-Linear Convective Systems

DUSTAN M. WHEATLEY* AND ROBERT J. TRAPP

Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

(Manuscript received 26 June 2007, in final form 2 January 2008)

ABSTRACT

This study examines the structure and evolution of quasi-linear convective systems (QLCSs) within
complex mesoscale environments. Convective outflows and other mesoscale features appear to affect the
rotational characteristics and associated dynamics of these systems. Thus, real-data numerical simulations
of two QLCS events have been performed to (i) identify and characterize the various ambient mesoscale
features that modify the structure and evolution of simulated QLCSs; and then to (ii) determine the nature
of interaction of such features with the systems, with an emphasis on the genesis and evolution of low-level
mesovortices.
Significant low-level mesovortices develop in both simulated QLCSs as a consequence of mechanisms
internal to the system—consistent with idealized numerical simulations of mesovortex-bearing QLCSs—
and not as an effect of system interaction with external heterogeneity. However, meso-␥-scale (order of
10 km) heterogeneity in the form of a convective outflow boundary is sufficient to affect mesovortex
strength, as air parcels populating the vortex region encounter enhanced convergence at the point of
QLCS–boundary interaction. Moreover, meso-␤-scale (order of 100 km) heterogeneity in the form of
interacting air masses provides for along-line variations in the distributions of low- to midlevel vertical wind
shear and convective available potential energy. The subsequent impact on updraft strength/tilt has impli-
cations on the vortex stretching experienced by leading-edge mesovortices.

1. Introduction In the idealized numerical simulations of QLCSs

(e.g., Thorpe et al. 1982; Rotunno et al. 1988; Weisman
An important unresolved issue in severe weather re-
1992, 1993; Skamarock et al. 1994; Weisman and Davis
search is the relationship between quasi-linear convec-
1998; Weisman and Trapp 2003; Trapp and Weisman
tive systems (QLCSs) such as squall lines and bow ech-
2003) and other convective storms, the initial condi-
oes and the complex mesoscale environments within
tions are supplied by a one-dimensional sounding that
which they evolve. Some observational results (e.g.,
varies only with height; horizontal homogeneity along
Klimowski et al. 2000; Przybylinski et al. 2000;
model vertical levels is assumed. The resultant class of
Schmocker et al. 2000) suggest that mesoscale variabil-
solutions—while arising from an incomplete formula-
ity in the wind and thermodynamic fields due, for ex-
tion of deep moist convection (see Balaji and Clark
ample, to convective outflows can significantly affect
1988)—agree with observations of highly organized,
the rotational characteristics of severe QLCSs. Never-
self-sustaining QLCSs (e.g., Burgess and Smull 1990;
theless, idealized numerical simulations produce appar-
Jorgensen and Smull 1993). Many hypotheses put forth
ently severe QLCSs in the absence of environmental
to explain the morphology, dynamics, and severe
heterogeneity.
weather potential of QLCSs are derived from idealized
modeling, and some have been validated by subsequent
* Current affiliation: NOAA/National Severe Storms Labora- studies. For example, a growing body of observational
tory, Norman, Oklahoma. evidence (e.g., Atkins et al. 2005; Wheatley et al. 2006;
Wakimoto et al. 2006) has confirmed the role of low-
level mesovortices in the production of damaging sur-
Corresponding author address: Dustan M. Wheatley, NOAA/
National Severe Storms Laboratory, National Weather Center,
face winds within QLCSs, as described in Trapp and
120 David L. Boren Blvd., Norman, OK 73072. Weisman (2003).
E-mail: dustan.wheatley@noaa.gov But idealized numerical simulations that develop me-

DOI: 10.1175/2008MWR2294.1

© 2008 American Meteorological Society

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP
soconvective systems are unable to fully document the
environmental conditions affecting the life cycles of
these systems, as they cannot reproduce the inherent
four-dimensionality of the environment.
a. Conceptual models of storm–boundary
interactions that produce tornadoes
A long series of modeling and observational studies
have focused on the life cycles of convective storms in
the presence of environmental heterogeneity. Consider
the evidence that a kinematic boundary is at times a
necessary condition for the development of nonsuper-
cell tornadoes (e.g., Carbone 1983; Brady and Szoke
1989; Wakimoto and Wilson 1989; Mueller and Car-
bone 1987; Lee and Wilhelmson 1997a,b). In the con-
ceptual model of nonsupercell tornadogenesis, small-
scale circulations form along a convergence or shear
boundary through the release of a horizontal shearing
instability. The circulations strengthen to tornadic in-
tensity through stretching in the updraft of overhead
convection.
A preexisting1 thermal boundary has been suggested
as a necessary condition for the development of signif-
icant tornadoes [i.e., F2 or greater on the Fujita damage
intensity scale (Fujita 1981)]. Maddox et al. (1980) de-
veloped a physical model of boundary layer wind fields
to explain the seeming natural tendency of thunder-
storms to become more severe and even tornadic, upon
interaction with a synoptic-scale front or external thun-
derstorm outflow boundary. In their conceptual model,
boundary layer vertical wind profiles owing to shallow
baroclinic zones enhance moisture content, conver-
gence, and vertical vorticity, providing for tornadic
thunderstorms in an otherwise unsupportive environ-
ment.
Observational studies born of the Verification of
the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment
(VORTEX; Rasmussen et al. 1994) have considered a
number of cases where tornadogenesis via thunder-
storm interactions with shallow baroclinic zones ap-
peared likely. In particular, Markowski et al. (1998)
found that nearly 70% of the significant tornadoes that
occurred during VORTEX were associated in some
way with external shallow baroclinic zones. Moreover,
of this subset, most of the tornadoes occurred within
the baroclinic zones of the boundaries, and generally
within 30 km of the boundaries’ leading edges.
1
Here, the qualifiers “preexisting” and “external” refer to a
thermal and/or kinematic boundary generated by a source outside
the convective cell/system affected. Synoptic-scale fronts (i.e.,
warm fronts and stationary fronts) and old thunderstorm outflow
boundaries are both examples of preexisting thermal boundaries.
4221
An issue especially in the latter observational studies
is the difficulty in establishing the unambiguous effect
of environmental heterogeneity, due to the lack of a
homogeneous control. Toward this end, Atkins et al.
(1999) used a cloud-resolving model to quantify the
influence of preexisting boundaries on supercell evolu-
tion. In their control “no-boundary” run, the model was
initialized in the standard way, using a single-sounding
representation of a tornadic environment. Initial con-
ditions for the second, “boundary” experiment were
chosen to resemble the meteorological conditions near
Garden City, Kansas, on 16 May 1995, which was char-
acterized by a preexisting trough line. In both sets of
experiments, warm thermal bubbles were used to initi-
ate convection.
The inception and evolution of low-level rotation
[i.e, significant vertical vorticity of O(10⫺2 s⫺1) within
the primary updraft] within the storms simulated in
the boundary runs tended to be earlier, stronger, and
more persistent, when compared to the no-boundary
runs. Moreover, vorticity analyses of the two storms
revealed that the origin of rotation in the boundary
runs differed in part from the usual conceptualization
of low-level mesocyclogenesis (e.g., Rotunno and
Klemp 1985; Davies-Jones and Brook 1993), in which
streamwise horizontal vorticity along the forward-
(rear) flank gust front is vertically tilted by the primary
updraft (rear-flank downdraft). Now, the low levels
on the cool-air side of the boundary were a source re-
gion for parcels rich in horizontal baroclinic vorticity,
which then flowed into the updraft in a streamwise
manner. This behavior was consistent in those simu-
lated storms that propagated along the boundary,
sometimes at small angles toward the warm-air side of
the boundary.
By employing an otherwise idealized model with me-
soscale variability in the environmental conditions, the
experimental methodology of Atkins et al. (1999) and
more recently Richardson et al. (2007) represent the
most robust treatments of numerically simulated con-
vective storms interacting with their heterogeneous en-
vironment. It should be noted, though, that their initial
conditions are defined analytically (without enhance-
ment by observations) to closely resemble desired en-
vironmental conditions, and significant uncertainties
exist within this input, as stated by the authors. Fur-
thermore, the interaction is also necessarily “one way,”
hence, the convective scale is not permitted to modify
the mesoscale, which then cannot feedback to the con-
vective scale. For these reasons, it is uncertain whether
their idealized results can be generalized to the real
atmosphere.
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4222 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
b. Conceptual models of a QLCS interacting with
its environment
At present, only a few observational studies in the
literature have considered how mesoscale heterogene-
ities might affect the dynamics and severe weather po-
tential of QLCSs. Collectively, Klimowski et al. (2000)
and Przybylinski et al. (2000) have suggested that an
isolated convective cell(s) in advance of a linear MCS,
upon merger with the main convective line, plays a role
in subsequent bow-echo genesis. While not a prerequi-
site for these types of interactions, these cells often
initiate in proximity to and are indicative of a preexist-
ing surface boundary and associated region of en-
hanced low-level convergence. Such mergers, albeit lo-
cally, may intensify ongoing convection, which in turn
should force more intense (rainy) downdrafts. At last, a
deeper (i.e., stronger) cold pool and associated region
of hydrostatically induced high pressure accelerates the
near-surface horizontal flow.
Analogous to the findings of Markowski et al. (1998)
on supercell–boundary interactions, Przybylinski et al.
(2000) suggested an association between QLCS–
boundary interactions and tornadogenesis within
QLCSs. Similar interaction between a QLCS and its
heterogeneous mesoscale environment is noted by
Schmocker et al. (2000). In this conceptual model,
streamwise horizontal vorticity enhancement occurs
along a preexisting, line-normal thermal boundary,
where baroclinicity is appreciable. The production of
cyclonic vertical vorticity occurs as parcels flow into the
base of the updraft and undergo considerable vertical
vortex stretching. Indeed, Przybylinski et al. (2000)
noted that the development of severe weather (primar-
ily damaging “straight-line” winds) often followed the
interactions between QLCSs and preexisting surface
boundaries. Moreover, they noted a near one-to-one
correspondence between tornado damage (as inferred
from damage surveys) and mesovortex tracks (as in-
ferred from single-Doppler radar), which argues for the
enhanced potential for QLCS tornadogenesis.
While intuitive, this mechanism for low-level rotation
fails to explain the development of near-surface rota-
tion. In fact, Davies-Jones (1982a,b) contended that
such an “in, up, and out” type flow will only produce
significant vertical vorticity after parcels flowing into
the updraft have ascended a few kilometers. Abrupt
upward turning of the streamlines, which are coincident
with the vortex lines, would require uncharacteristic
horizontal variations in vertical velocities over very
short distances.
Results of the studies summarized above indicate the
need to investigate the interactions of QLCSs with their
VOLUME 136
complex mesoscale environments and the subsequent
implications for the rotational characteristics of these
systems. The inherent incompleteness of conventional
and even experimental observations has precluded a
satisfactory resolution of this scientific issue. To this
end, complete data are only available in the form of
numerical model fields. There are examples of numeri-
cal studies of QLCSs, such as Bernardet and Cotton
(1998) and Coniglio and Stensrud (2001), that have in-
corporated mesoscale variability in their initial condi-
tions, albeit through different means, but none of these
studies directly consider the subsequent impact of these
features on the simulated system. Largely, modeling
studies of QLCSs are still limited by the use of envi-
ronments that are horizontally homogeneous, despite
growth in computing power and the development of
advanced numerical weather prediction models. The
latter numerical models, though, can be run with het-
erogeneous initial conditions interpolated from a large-
scale analysis (e.g., the 40-km Eta analysis) for “real-
data” cases, as well as a land surface model.
Thus, using real-data numerical simulations of severe
QLCSs, the objectives herein are to
1) identify and characterize the various ambient meso-
scale features that modify structure and evolution of
simulated QLCSs; and then
2) determine the nature of interaction of such features
with systems, emphasizing the dynamics of genesis
and evolution of low-level mesovortices.
In section 2, candidate events for simulation and
analysis are identified, followed by a discussion of the
research methodology employed in this study. Section 3
provides an overview of the simulations. In section 4,
the mechanism(s) for low-level mesovortex genesis is
considered within a real-data framework, and then
compared to the fundamental explanation given from
an idealized perspective. The effects of meso-␥- and
meso-␤-scale heterogeneities on the rotational charac-
teristics of the simulated QLCS are examined in sec-
tions 5 and 6, respectively. Finally, in section 7, the
results of this study are summarized, their implications
are discussed, and suggestions for future research on
this topic are offered.
2. Methodology
The fully compressible, nonhydrostatic Advanced
Research Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF-
ARW; Skamarock 2005) version 2 is used to perform
real-data numerical simulations of the mature, exten-
sive bow echo on 6 July 2003 and the squall-line bow
echo on 24 October 2001. Schemes used to parameter-
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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP
FIG. 1. Horizontal grids used for real-data numerical simulations of quasi-linear convective systems on (a) 6 Jul
2003 and (b) 24 Oct 2001. In each case, d01, d02, and d03 utilize 9-, 3-, and 1-km horizontal grid spacings,
respectively.
ize physical processes include the six-class Purdue Lin
microphysical scheme (Chen and Sun 2002), the Noah
land surface model (Chen and Dudhia 2001), and the
Yonsei University (YSU) planetary boundary scheme
(Noh et al. 2003), and, for atmospheric radiation, the
Rapid Radiative Transfer Model (longwave; Mlawer et
al. 1997) and the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State
University–National Center for Atmospheric Research
(PSU–NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5; Dudhia)
scheme (shortwave; Dudhia 1989). All simulations take
account of earth’s rotation.
The initial conditions for the real-data simulations
are supplied by the 40-km Eta model analysis, with
boundary conditions updated on a 3-h interval using the
Eta model forecasts. Model computations are per-
formed on a parent grid and two inner or nested grids
that are fully two-way interactive. The parent grid uses
a horizontal grid point spacing of 9 km to allow for the
influence of large-scale forcing mechanisms. The effects
of deep cumulus convection are parameterized with the
Kain–Fritsch scheme (Kain 2004) only on this grid. The
intermediate and finest grids, with horizontal grid point
spacings of 3 and 1 km, respectively, effectively provide
for convective-system (Weisman et al. 1997) and cloud-
resolving modeling. The placement of the intermediate
grid encompasses the region of convection initiation,
while that of the finest grid reflects the movement of
the observed (and simulated) QLCS during it late for-
mative and mature stages; the domain constructions for
the specific cases are shown in Fig. 1. The parent grid at
every coarse-grid time step specifies nested lateral
boundary conditions. The vertical grid has 31 levels that
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are spaced less than 100 m near the surface to over 1 km
at model top (i.e., the 50-hPa pressure surface).
Interpretation of the modeling results that follow is
guided by our philosophical approach to real-data nu-
merical simulations. A successful simulation must rep-
licate the salient structural characteristics of the ob-
served system and its proximity environment. In this
regard, conventional observations are used to verify the
representativeness of the results. The observed and
simulated systems, though, are viewed most appropri-
ately as corresponding, but not identical, parts. Particu-
larly, at increasingly smaller spatial scales, the observa-
tions required to confirm the dynamical characteristics
of (some) system–environment interactions produced
in these simulations are not presently available. Like
earlier idealized modeling studies (later verified by ob-
servations), additional case studies and confirmatory
observations will be needed to further generalize in-
sights gleaned from this initial study.
3. Overview of the simulations
a. The 6 July 2003 bow echo: A warm-season
example
The bow echo of 6 July 2003, observed during the
Bow Echo and MCV Experiment (BAMEX; Davis et
al. 2004), is one subject of this study. This bowing con-
vective system evolved from intense multicellular con-
vection over northeastern Nebraska (see Fig. 2a), just
downwind of a shortwave upper-level trough and be-
neath moderately strong flow (21 m s⫺1) at 500 hPa.
The atmosphere in proximity to the mature system was
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4224 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 2. Comparison of radar reflectivity factor at 0.5° elevation and ⬃2-km AGL simulated radar reflectivity
factor at (a) ⬃0300 UTC (from the KOAX WSR-88D)/0130 UTC 6 Jul 2003, (b) ⬃0445 UTC (from the KOAX
WSR-88D)/0300 UTC 6 Jul 2003, and (c) ⬃2200 UTC (from the KIWX WSR-88D)/2300 UTC 24 Oct 2001. Note
the discrepancies in timing between companion panels in (a), (b), and (c), which are because of the evolution of
the simulated systems.

quite unstable and moist, with ML CAPE of 3079 J Such high instability apparently compensated for the
kg⫺1 in the 0000 UTC sounding from Omaha, Ne- relatively weak 0–2.5-km shear of 10 m s⫺1 (Figs. 3a,b),
braska, and surface dewpoints in excess of 18°C over thus, allowing for the formation of the strong system
eastern Nebraska and extreme western Iowa (Fig. 3a). shown in Fig. 2b. While short-lived, the bow echo of

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP 4225

FIG. 3. Proximity sounding and hodograph from (a), (b) OAX (Omaha, NE) observations
at 0000 UTC 6 Jul 2003, and from (c), (d) DTX (Detroit, MI) and (e), (f) ILN (Wilmington,
OH) observations at 0000 UTC 25 Oct 2001. In (b), (d), and (f), the first four nodes along the
hodograph trace correspond to 925, 850 (⬃1400 m), 700 (⬃3000 m), and 500 hPa (⬃5700 m).

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4226 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 4. Images of radar reflectivity factor and ground-relative radial velocity at (a) 0.5° elevation, from the
WSR-88D KOAX at 0554:13 and 0554:33 UTC 6 Jul 2003, respectively; and (b) 0.5° elevation, from the WSR-88D
KIWX at 2050:19 and 2050:39 UTC 24 Oct 2001. Range rings are displayed at 60-km intervals. Inset in (a) shows
storm-relative motion within the dashed box.

6 July 2003 exhibited the salient features of more orga-
nized systems—including a well-defined rear-inflow jet
(RIJ), line-end vortices, and a diversity of low-level
mesovortices (e.g., see Fig. 4a)—and produced tens of
high wind reports [(National Climatic Data Center)
NCDC 2003], with widespread F0-intensity (and more
localized F1-intensity) wind damage occurring across
eastern Nebraska and western Iowa.
To simulate this event, the WRF model is applied to
is initialized at 0000 UTC 5 July 2003, approximately
21 h before the occurrence of initial convective cells.
Such a period of time is necessary for the simulated
environment to evolve from an otherwise cold start,
which possesses no cloud water and only that hetero-
geneity resolved in the initial conditions.
1) SYSTEM-SCALE STRUCTURE

a domain that covers the Great Plains, upper Midwest, Comparable to the observed severe bow echo (see
and the lower Ohio River Valley (Fig. 1a). The model Figs. 2a,b), the simulated bow echo has a structure and

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP
evolution described as follows: At approximately 2100
UTC 5 July, several individual convective cells initiate
over the southwest quadrant of South Dakota, ahead of
a synoptic-scale shortwave trough embedded in north-
westerly flow (not shown). These convective cells move
to the east-southeast and merge with ongoing convec-
tion over northeastern Nebraska (Fig. 2a). By 0130
UTC, the interaction of these cells leads to a mesoscale
convective system greater than 100 km in length, as
evidenced by a continuous line of simulated radar re-
flectivity in excess of 35 dBZ (Fig. 2a). Over the next
few hours, this system grows upscale into a mature,
extensive bow echo approximately 200 km in length,
which moves through the Omaha metropolitan area
and into western Iowa (Fig. 2b).
Although occurring 1–2 h early compared to the ob-
servations, the salient features of the observed system
(rear-inflow jet, line-end vortices, etc.) are reproduced
well by the WRF model at high resolution. To demon-
strate this point, the system-scale structure of the simu-
lated bow system during its mature stage, at 0300 UTC,
is examined (Fig. 5a). At approximately 2.00 km AGL,
a narrow zone of nearly continuous updraft occurs
along the system’s leading edge. A concentrated rear-
inflow jet extends tens of kilometers rearward of the
active leading-line convection. Furthermore, a domi-
nant cyclonic vortex is evidenced on the northern end
of the convective system by a general cyclonic turning
of the velocity vectors.
2) SUBSYSTEM-SCALE STRUCTURE
Here the subsystem-scale structure of the simulated
bow system during its mature stage, at approximately
0300 UTC, is examined (Fig. 5b). At approximately
400 m AGL, several small-amplitude waves occur along
the leading edge of the cold pool (i.e., the 304-K po-
tential temperature contour), and are collocated with
low-level mesovortices. For reference, a “significant”
mesovortex is one with a diameter ⱖ4 km (four hori-
zontal grid intervals on d03), maximum vertical vortic-
ity ⱖ0.01 s⫺1, appreciable vertical depth (⬎1 km), and
general time and space coherency.
A west–east cross section through MV2 (see Fig. 5b)
at 0300 UTC provides further insight into the structural
characteristics of a significant mesovortex (Fig. 6a).
MV2 is located within a zone of potential temperature
gradient behind the advancing edge of the cold pool.
The maximum vertical vorticity associated with MV2,
0.016 s⫺1 or approximately 1.6 times mesocyclone-scale
vorticity, occurs at low levels. An earlier west–east
cross section through MV2 confirms that it develops
first near the surface (not shown) and builds upward to
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4 km MSL. The structure and evolution of MV2, as well
as other low-altitude mesovortices within this simulated
bow system (for the strengths of other mesovortices,
see ahead Fig. 17), are consistent with QLCS observa-
tions (e.g., Atkins et al. 2004, 2005; Przybylinski et al.
2000) and the idealized numerical simulations of (e.g.,
Weisman and Trapp 2003).
b. The 24 October 2001 squall-line bow echo: A
cool-season example
The squall-line bow echo on 24 October 2001 is the
other subject of this study. Occurring in October, this
event exemplifies a severe bow echo forced at the syn-
optic scale by a dynamic pattern more typical of cool-
season months. Ahead of a strong, migrating low pres-
sure system over the upper Midwest, meteorological
conditions across northern Indiana, southern Michigan,
and surrounding areas were marginally unstable, with
ML CAPE of 500–1000 J kg⫺1 in the 0000 UTC sound-
ings from Detroit, Michigan, and Wilmington, Ohio
(Figs. 3c,e). Large vertical wind shear was concentrated
at low levels in these same soundings, with (south)
southwesterly winds increasing to greater than 25 m s⫺1
at 1–2 km AGL (Figs. 3c–f). Within this low-instability/
high-shear parameter space, an extensive, south–north-
oriented squall line develops across the eastern half of
the United States. This mesovortex-bearing system
(e.g., see Fig. 4b) was host to 13 tornadoes across north-
eastern Indiana, and numerous incidents of high wind
were also reported (NCDC 2001). Results of a real-data
numerical simulation of this bow-echo event are sum-
marized below.
The WRF model is applied to a domain that covers
the eastern one-half of the United States (Fig. 1b). We
note that the placement of the finest grid is chosen such
that it covers the area of embedded bowing segments.
The model is initialized at 0000 UTC 24 October 2001,
approximately 18 h before convective storms.
1) SYSTEM-SCALE STRUCTURE
Comparable to the observed severe squall-line bow
echo (Fig. 2c), the simulated squall-line bow echo has a
structure and evolution described as follows: by 1800
UTC, convective cells associated with a strong, prefron-
tal convergence line organize into a linear convective
system over central Illinois and southeastern Missouri
(not shown). Around 2300 UTC, the main convective
line extends from southern Michigan southwestward
over northeastern Arkansas, as evidenced by a continu-
ous line of simulated radar reflectivity in excess of 35
dBZ. This main convective line develops pronounced
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4228 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 5. Horizontal cross sections at ⬃2.0 and ⬃0.4 km AGL at (a), (b) 0300 UTC 6 Jul 2003 and (c), (d) 2300
UTC 24 Oct 2001. Positive and negative vertical velocities are shown, in (a) and (c), every 5 m s⫺1 as solid and
dashed black lines, respectively, with no zero contour. Positive vertical vorticity values are shown, in (b) and (d),
every 500 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1 as solid black lines. In (a)–(d), rainwater mixing ratios greater than 1, 3, and 5 g kg⫺1 are
shaded light, medium, and dark gray, respectively, and every tenth ground-relative, horizontal wind vector is
plotted. Full and half barbs denote speeds of 10 and 5 m s⫺1, respectively. Low-level mesovortices are denoted with
an MV# on the plots at ⬃0.4 km AGL. Tick marks are displayed every 20 km.

bowing segments over the northern half of Indiana and
southern Michigan, each with their own rear-inflow jets
(Fig. 5c). It should be noted that the timing of the simu-
lated squall line, though, lags the observed system by
about 1 h.
2) SUBSYSTEM-SCALE STRUCTURE
At approximately 400 m AGL, a number of low-level
mesovortices can be found along-line during the simu-
lated system’s time on the finest grid (e.g., Fig. 5d).

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP
FIG. 6. West–east vertical cross sections of vertical vorticity, vertical velocity, and potential temperature (see
color bar) through (a) MV2 in Fig. 5b at 0300 UTC 6 Jul 2003 and (b) MV3 in Fig. 5d at 2300 UTC 24 Oct 2001.
Vertical vorticity (black lines) is contoured every 400 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1 with no zero contour and dashed negative
contours. Vertical velocity (gray lines) is contoured very 5 m s⫺1, with no zero contour and dashed negative
contours.
Maximum vertical vorticities associated with these
mesovortices, at times, exceed 3 times mesocyclone-
scale vorticity. A west–east cross section through MV3
at 2300 UTC shows its maximum vertical vorticity, like
that of MV2 from the 6 July 2003 bow-echo event, oc-
curring at low levels (Fig. 6b).
4. Analysis of low-level mesovortex genesis
a. The 6 July 2003 bow echo
The development of a significant low-level mesovor-
tex on the finest grid is now examined. At 0300 UTC,
MV2 is one of several significant mesovortices along
the system’s leading edge (see again Fig. 5b). The de-
velopmental history of MV2 can be traced back to a
cyclonic–anticyclonic vortex couplet some 30 min ear-
lier (Fig. 7). At this earlier time, a nearly symmetrical
(particularly in regards to vortex intensity) couplet
straddles a low-level downdraft and local maximum in
the rainwater mixing ratio field. This implication is that
this and other mesovortices are formed as horizontal
vorticity associated with the cold pool is tilted into the
vertical by convective downdrafts.
To confirm the deductions from Fig. 7, consider the
following form of absolute vertical vorticity equation:
d␨a
⫽ ␻H ⭈ ⵱Hw ⫺ ␨a⵱H ⭈ VH ⫹ F␨, 共1兲
dt
where ␨a ⫽ ␨ ⫹ f(␪) is the absolute vertical vorticity, ␪
is the latitude, ␻H is the horizontal vorticity vector, w is
4229
the vertical velocity, VH is the horizontal velocity vec-
tor, and F␨ is the mixing term. The first and second
terms on the RHS of the above equation represent the
tilting of horizontal vorticity in the vertical and the
stretching of absolute vertical vorticity, respectively. As
in Trapp and Weisman (2003), the time-integrated con-
tributions from the tilting and stretching processes in
Eq. (1) are calculated along trajectories as follows:
␨a共x, y, z, t兲 ⫽ ␨a共x0, y0, z0, t0兲 ⫹ 冕t0
t
␻H ⭈ ⵱Hw dt
⫺ 冕t0
t
␨a⵱H ⭈ VH dt. 共2兲
Here, model data predicted every 1 min are used to
diagnose these forcing terms as well as ␨a. Trajectories
of all parcels in the vicinity of significant low-level
mesovortices are considered. The total time integration
period is t ⱕ 10 min.
Backward trajectories are calculated for parcels
spaced every 1 km within a cubic region encompassing
MV2. All of the parcels originate from either the inflow
or the rear of the system. Figure 7 shows a representa-
tive trajectory projected into the plane. Times series of
parcel height show that the positive vertical vorticity
associated with MV2 is generated in a downward cur-
rent of air, as baroclinic horizontal vorticity is tilted
vertically (Fig. 8). Beyond 0236 UTC, the terminus for
the above trajectories, MV2 is maintained along the
gust front for greater than 1 h.
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4230 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 7. Approximately 400-m AGL horizontal cross section of potential temperature contours (every 4 K),
vertical velocity (see color bar), and vertical vorticity contours (every 400 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1, with no zero contour and
dashed negative contours), at 0236 UTC 6 Jul 2003. Tick marks are plotted every 1 km.

b. The 24 October 2001 squall-line bow echo
Horizontal components of vorticity are quite large in
the prefrontal environment—typically between 0.03
and 0.04 s⫺1—owing to an intense southerly low-level
jet (20–25 m s⫺1 at ⬃500 m AGL). Upward tilting of
this eastward-directed horizontal vorticity generates
vertical vorticity values of 0.001–0.003 s⫺1 at ⬃250–
750 m AGL (Fig. 9). With subsequent stretching, the
rate of vorticity production shown in Fig. 9 readily ex-
plains the narrow band of positive vertical vorticity
along the east flank of the system-scale updraft—
especially below 1 km AGL—where ␨ ⬃0.004 s⫺1.
The emergence of vorticity maxima and ultimately
low-level mesovortices from this 3- (⫾1) km-wide vor-
tex sheet appears to be associated with the release of a
horizontal shearing instability (see, e.g., Carbone 1983;
Mueller and Carbone 1987). At 2100 UTC, a number of
small-scale vortices separated by ⬃10–20-km distance
can be found along the northern end of the squall line
(Fig. 10a). (The southern end of the squall line enters
this domain with well-developed vortices.) This spacing
is consistent with the linear theory of Miles and How-
ard (1964), which predicts that the wavelength of the
instabilities is ⬃7.5 times the vortex sheet width, and
with the idealized numerical simulations of Lee and
Wilhelmson (1997a,b), which suggest that this wave-
length can be roughly half this theoretical value. Fur-
ther evidence of horizontal shearing instability as a
mechanism for the generation of low-level mesovorti-
ces is the general lack of anticyclonic–cyclonic vortex
couplets at all stages of vortex development (see Fig.
10b).
In summary, the basic mechanism for low-level
mesovortex genesis within the real-data numerical
simulation of the warm-season QLCS event of 6 July
2003 is dynamically equivalent to the process described
within the idealized modeling framework of Trapp and
Weisman (2003). As just shown, mesovortices occurring
within the cool-season QLCS event of 24 October 2001

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP 4231

FIG. 8. Time series of parcel height (thin solid line), absolute vertical vorticity (small dashed line), and the
time-integrated contributions to vertical vorticity (thick solid line) from the tilting (medium dashed line) and
absolute vorticity-stretching terms (large dashed line) for a representative parcel originating in the inflow. Time
“0” corresponds to the release time of 0236 UTC 6 Jul 2003.

appear due to the release of a horizontal shearing in-
stability. In each case, the genesis mechanism is in di-
rect response to the intrinsic dynamics of the system—
as suggested in the aforementioned idealized experi-
ments—and not from some system interaction with
external (from the system) mesoscale heterogeneity.
This finding is significant given that such variability can
arise in real-data numerical simulations without further
refinement, and previous observational studies of
mesovortex-bearing QLCSs have described this type of
role for system–environment interactions. Subsequent
sections, though, will demonstrate how preexisting het-
erogeneities can affect the structure and evolution of a
preexisting vortex.
5. An effect of meso-␥-scale heterogeneity
When present, heterogeneity in the mesoscale envi-
ronments of the QLCSs is normally revealed well in
maps of the magnitude of the gradient of equivalent
potential temperature (␪e) (Fig. 11). In the case of the 6
July 2003 bow-echo event, one can identify two distinct
scales of heterogeneity, excluding the horizontal vari-
ability in temperature associated with the system-
generated cold pool (Fig. 11a). The meso-␤-scale het-
erogeneity is related to an airmass boundary across cen-
tral Nebraska and west-central Iowa, and is reserved
for discussion in section 6. The meso-␥-scale heteroge-
neity is a nearly circular outflow boundary displaced
just to the northwest of the northern end of the main
convective line. This outflow is associated with a cluster
of convective cells that initiated 1–2 h earlier over ex-
treme southeastern South Dakota, and have since
moved east-southeast over west-central Iowa. The
southern periphery of this outflow possesses a cross-
boundary ␪e gradient of the order of 10 K km⫺1, and is
oriented normal to the system’s leading edge.
We now consider the effect of this mesoscale hetero-
geneity on the developmental history of MV1, another
leading-edge mesovortex that forms during the mature

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4232 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 9. A forward trajectory: Time series of parcel height (thin solid line), absolute vertical vorticity (small
dashed line), and the time-integrated contributions to vertical vorticity (thick solid line) from the tilting (medium
dashed line) and absolute vorticity-stretching terms (large dashed line) for a representative parcel originating in
the inflow. Time “0” corresponds to the release time of 2130 UTC 24 Oct 2001.

stage of the simulated bow echo (see Fig. 5b). At 0253
UTC, MV1 is one of two mesovortices embedded
within an elongated region of positive vertical vorticity
along the northern end of the system’s leading edge
(Fig. 12a). The vorticity maximum of approximately
0.01 s⫺1 associated with MV1 is located just on the
warm-air side of the line-normal boundary. Like MV2,
this mesovortex is generated via the tilting of baroclinic
horizontal vorticity within a downdraft; its intensifica-
tion appears to be linked to a focused region of en-
hanced low-level convergence, produced by the inter-
section of the system-generated cold pool and bound-
ary (Fig. 12d).
Over the next few minutes, in a storm-relative frame-
work, the boundary moves toward the south-southeast
(Fig. 12b). By 0256 UTC, the local maximum in the
convergence field associated with the boundary spa-
tially corresponds with MV1 (Fig. 12e), presumably
promoting the stretching and subsequent amplification
of its vertical vorticity. The process of mesovortex in-
tensification continues through 0303 UTC (Fig. 12c),
after which mesovortex strength increases by nearly
200%, to nearly 0.03 s⫺1.
To confirm the nature of this QLCS–boundary inter-
action, backward trajectories were calculated for par-
cels within a cubic region encompassing MV1 (see Fig.
13 for their projections into the horizontal plane). The
upper bound for this cubic region is the model sigma
level at approximately 1 km AGL. Similar to the analy-
sis of low mesovortex genesis in section 4, parcels
within the vortex region at 0303 UTC—the time of
peak mesovortex intensity—originate from the inflow
and behind the gust front (Fig. 13a). In this case,
though, nearly 50% of the considered parcels originate
along the boundary (Fig. 13a). Horizontal cross sections
of horizontal vorticity vectors show appreciable stream-
wise horizontal baroclinic vorticity associated with the
boundary (Fig. 13b). However, as shown in Fig. 13b and
confirmed in Fig. 14, tilting of such vorticity is relatively
weak for parcels flowing along the boundary. For the

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP
FIG. 10. Horizontal cross section, on the lowest model level, of
(a) vertical vorticity (every 250 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1, with no zero contour
and dashed negative contours), at the two times indicated. (b) The
inner box and “x” shows the geographic area and the center of a
mesovortex at 2130 UTC, respectively. Also in (b), vertical vor-
ticity contours (every 250 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1, with no zero contour and
dashed negative contours) and potential temperature contours
(every 4 K). Tick marks are plotted every 20 km in (a) and every
1 km in (b).
parcel examined, the tilting process contributes no
more than 0.002 s⫺1 (i.e., ⬃10% or less) to mesovortex
strength at 0303 UTC, which is representative of the lot
of parcels considered. However, small amounts of ver-
4233
tical vorticity born in the boundary contribute to MV1,
which as demonstrated is amplified by significant
stretching due to the QLCS–boundary interaction. It
should be noted that parcels originating farther behind
the boundary begin with small amounts of negative vor-
ticity, which tends to zero with stretching.
While significant, the QLCS–boundary interaction
described above is a relatively short-lived process. Be-
yond 0303 UTC, the convergence maximum has moved
beyond the center of circulation, which is increasingly
dislocated from the leading edge of the gust front (not
shown). MV1 begins to weaken in the same period of
time.
To summarize, these simulation results show that the
effect of the boundary is limited to the intensification of
MV1.
6. An effect of meso-␤-scale heterogeneity
The meso-␤-scale heterogeneity in Fig. 11a is related
to a low-level airmass boundary that had been quasi-
stationary over east-central Nebraska and west-central
Iowa for 1–2 days prior to the bow-echo event. Across
this transition zone, the low-level flow is south-
southwesterly over southern parts of eastern Nebraska
and western Iowa, and becomes light and variable (to,
at times, easterly) north-northwest of this area (shown
for the simulation in Fig. 15a), producing significant
convergence across central Nebraska and west-central
Iowa. This east–west-oriented boundary is distin-
guished from the surrounding area by a relatively subtle
meridional temperature gradient. Significant low-level
moisture convergence occurs along and north of the
boundary, as revealed by the sharper gradient in
equivalent potential temperature (shown for the simu-
lation in Fig. 11a).
A number of these environmental conditions play a
significant role in both the formation and mature stages
of the simulated system. For example, the pooling of
moisture near the boundary and the associated desta-
bilization helps to control the east-southeasterly orien-
tation and motion of the initial convection storms (Figs.
2a,b). Additionally, the vertical juxtaposition of weak
easterly flow at the surface and westerly flow at 700 hPa
produces a belt of enhanced 0–3-km shear along and
north of the boundary (Fig. 15c). The shear distribution
at midlevels is qualitatively similar to the low-level dis-
tribution, with greater values occurring in proximity to
the boundary (Fig. 15d). This horizontal variation in the
low- and midlevel shear fields produces significant
along-line variability during the mature stage of the
simulated system: the northern half of the simulated
system propagates through stronger shear along and
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4234 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 11. Horizontal cross sections of the magnitude of the ␪e gradient on the lowest model
level (see color bar; K m⫺1) at (a) 0300 UTC 6 Jul 2003 and (b) 2300 UTC 24 Oct 2001. In (a)
and (b), the 1 g kg⫺1 rainwater mixing ratio contour is contoured (dashed line). In (a), black
dots denote the positions of 40-km line-averaged cross sections shown in Fig. 16. Tick marks
are displayed every 20 km.

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP 4235

FIG. 12. Approximately 250-m AGL horizontal cross sections of equivalent potential temperature (every 4 K)
at (a) 0253, (b) 0256, and (c) 0303 UTC; and of divergence/convergence contours (dashed/thin solid lines; every
400 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1, with no zero contour), at (d) 0253, (e) 0256, and (f) 0303 UTC. In (a)–(c), rainwater mixing ratios
between 1 and 3 g kg⫺1 are lightly shaded, with values greater than 3 g kg⫺1 darkly shaded. In (d)–(f), convergence
values greater than 1200 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1 are shaded. In (a)–(f), positive vertical vorticity contours are plotted every
0.005 s⫺1 (thick solid lines). Tick marks are displayed every 1 km.

north of the boundary, while its southern half propa-
gates though the area of weaker shear south of the
boundary (Figs. 15c,d). Consistent with the theoretical
discussion of Rotunno et al. (1988), this configuration is
supportive of deeper, stronger, and more vertically
erect updrafts along the leading edge of the northern
half of the simulated system (see Figs. 16a,b).
The thermodynamic conditions of the storm proxim-
ity environment also may contribute to the variations in
updraft strength/tilt shown in Fig. 16. Here, the distri-
bution of most unstable (MU) CAPE is qualitatively
similar to the distributions of low- and midlevel shear,
with large amounts of MU CAPE in proximity to the
boundary (Fig. 15a). Also, convective inhibition (CIN)
is smallest in proximity to the boundary (Fig. 15b). The
environmental sensitivity experiments of Weisman
(1993) found that greater system-scale organization
could be promoted by simply increasing environmental
CAPE (above at least 2000 J kg⫺1), even for relatively
weak low- to midlevel shear values.
These effects of the meso-␤-scale heterogeneity on
the system-scale structure also have consequences on
the evolution of low-level mesovortices along the lead-
ing edge of the system. The strong, erect updrafts on
the northern end of the line provide greater opportu-
nity for deep lifting and vortex stretching than do those
on the southern end of the line. Not surprisingly, low-
level mesovortices along and north of the boundary
tend be deeper, stronger, and longer lived than their
counterparts on the southern end of the line (Fig. 17a).
Vertical vorticity associated with northern-end meso-
vortices exceeds 0.03 s⫺1 compared to 0.01 s⫺1 for
mesovortices on the southern end of the line. This find-
ing is consistent with Weisman and Trapp (2003), who
noted the dependence of low-level mesovortices within
squall lines and bow echoes on environmental vertical
wind shear.
As a reference, it is interesting to compare mesovor-
tex evolution in the 6 July 2003 QLCS to that in the 24
October 2001 QLCS. The numerous vortices on 24 Oc-
tober 2001 have strengths comparable to those occur-
ring on 6 July 2003, yet their tracks are nearly continu-
ous (Fig. 17b). This reflects the relatively homogeneous
environment encountered by the 24 October 2001
QLCS, as illustrated by the nonexistence of a ␪e gradi-
ent in excess of 1 K km⫺1 outside of the system-
generated cold pool (Fig. 11b). Hence, we can conclude
that the effect of mesoscale heterogeneity appears suf-
ficient but not necessary for the later-stage develop-
ment of low-level mesovortices.
7. Summary and discussion
Real-data simulations of two severe QLCS events
have been presented, with an emphasis on the relation-

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4236 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 13. Approximately 250-m AGL horizontal cross sections, at 0303 UTC of (a) positive
vertical vorticity (every 500 ⫻ 10⫺5 s⫺1) and equivalent potential temperature (every 4 K);
and of (b) vertical velocity contours (see color bar; areas of downdraft are enclosed by dashed
contours) and horizontal vorticity vectors. A vector with a magnitude of 0.1 s⫺1 exactly
reaches the tail of the next adjacent vector. In (a), the projections of 3D trajectories released
at 0303 UTC (thin gray lines) are displayed. In (b), the projection of a 3D trajectory origi-
nating from the boundary is displayed. In (a) and (b), tick marks are plotted every 1 km.

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP 4237

FIG. 14. Time series of (a) parcel height (thin solid line), vertical vorticity (small dashed line), and the time-
integrated contributions to vertical vorticity (thick solid line) from the tilting (medium dashed line) and absolute
vorticity-stretching terms (large dashed line), for a representative parcel originating along the boundary; and of (b)
the magnitude of the horizontal vorticity vector. Time “0” corresponds to the release time of 0303 UTC 6 Jul 2003.

ship between these systems and the complex environ-
ments within which they evolve. The 6 July 2003 event
exemplifies a warm-season bow echo, and is character-
ized by considerable heterogeneity on multiple scales.
The 24 October 2001 event is a cool-season, squall-line
bow echo that formed in the relative absence of meso-
scale heterogeneity, but was strongly forced on the syn-
optic scale.
The simulations replicate the characteristics of highly
organized, severe QLCSs, and thus capture the salient
features of the observed systems. For the 6 July 2003
QLCS event, the model reproduces a mature, extensive
bow echo with a horizontal scale well in excess of 100
km. On the system-scale, this simulated bow system
possesses a dominant cyclonic vortex and weaker anti-
cyclonic vortex on its northern and southern flanks,
respectively, as well as a concentrated RIJ tens of kilo-
meters rearward of the leading-edge convection. For
the 24 October 2001 QLCS event, the model repro-
duces a more dynamically forced squall line with a hori-
zontal scale of several hundred kilometers. Comparable
with the observed system, a number of embedded bow-
ing segments occur over the northern half of Indiana
and extreme southern Michigan.
In both cases on the subsystem-scale, several low-
level mesovortices with horizontal scales of 5–10 km
form on the simulated systems’ leading edges. The posi-
tive vertical vorticity associated with these circulations
is maximized near the surface, and extends into the
midlevels of the troposphere.
External heterogeneity is shown to play no detect-
able role in mesovortex genesis, which runs counter to
what has been suggested by previous observational
studies of mesovortex-bearing QLCSs. The simulated
environment on 6 July 2003 possessed meso-␥- (order
of 10 km) and meso-␤-scale (order of 100 km) hetero-
geneities in the form of convective outflow and an air-
mass boundary, respectively, and mesovortices occur
before any significant interaction with these environ-
mental features. With the 24 October 2001 QLCS
event, mesovortices readily form within a relatively ho-
mogeneous mesoscale environment, as gauged by the
magnitude of the ␪e gradient, and their strengths were
comparable to those of its warm-season counterpart.
This behavior, whereby mesovortices form as a conse-
quence of the intrinsic dynamics of the system, is con-
sistent with previous idealized numerical simulations of
highly organized QLCSs (see Trapp and Weisman
2003).
The genesis mechanisms of the low-level mesovorti-
ces are dissimilar between the two cases. For the warm-
season case, mesovortices are formed by the tilting of
crosswise horizontal baroclinic vorticity in downdrafts,
consistent with the idealized modeling results of Trapp
and Weisman (2003). For the cool-season case, tilting of
the strong environment horizontal vorticity produces a
vortex sheet, within which mesovortices appear to form
through the release of a horizontal shearing instability.
In each case, vortex intensification is a consequence of
the stretching.
Mesoscale heterogeneity can still have an effect on
the dynamics of QLCSs, however. The nature of such
system–environment interaction appears dependent
upon the scale of the heterogeneity. In the case of the
6 July 2003 simulated bow system, a leading-edge meso-
vortex undergoes rapid intensification after interacting

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4238 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 136

FIG. 15. Horizontal cross sections, at 0000 UTC 6 July 2003, of (a) CAPE for the parcel in each column with maximum equivalent
potential temperature below 3000 m AGL (i.e., most unstable CAPE), (b) CIN for these same parcels, (c) every ninth 0–3-km shear
vector and corresponding contours, and (d) every ninth 0–6-km shear vector and corresponding contours. In (a) and (b), every ninth
ground-relative, horizontal wind vector from the lowest model level has been plotted. In (a)–(d), full and half barbs denote speeds of
5 and 2.5 m s⫺1 respectively; flags indicate speeds of 25 m s⫺1.

with meso-␥-scale heterogeneity in the form of convec-
tive outflow. Trajectory analysis shows the boundary to
be the predominant source region for air parcels popu-
lating the vortex region at peak intensity, many of
which possess horizontal vorticity of the order of 0.05
s⫺1. However, vertical vorticity equation analysis shows
that vortex intensification owes to the stretching of ver-
tical vorticity brought about by enhanced convergence
at the point of QLCS–boundary interaction. The time-
integrated contribution to vertical vorticity from the
tilting term is negligible, in contrast with current con-
ceptual models of QLCS–boundary interactions.
Meso-␤-scale heterogeneity in the form of interacting
air masses provides for along-line variations in the
strength of low- to midlevel vertical wind shear and the
amount of thermodynamic instability as the simulated
bow system moves across eastern Nebraska and west-
ern Iowa. North of the airmass boundary, stronger low-
to midlevel vertical wind shear, as well as larger
amounts of CAPE, help to maintain lift along the gust
front during the simulated system’s mature stage, de-
spite a strengthening cold pool. This system-scale be-
havior feeds back onto the subsystem scale. Mesovor-
tices north of the boundary experience deeper lifting

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NOVEMBER 2008 WHEATLEY AND TRAPP 4239

FIG. 16. The 40-km line-averaged vertical cross sections of potential temperature and circulation vectors through the (a) northern and
(b) southern ends of the system at 0300 UTC 6 Jul 2003. The horizontal components of circulation vectors are scaled such that a
magnitude of 25 m s⫺1 exactly reaches the tail of the next adjacent vector. The maximum vertical vectors in (a) and (b) are 10.8 and
6.6 m s⫺1 (see bottom-right corner of each plot), respectively.

FIG. 17. Mesovortex tracks for the periods (a) 0000–0400 UTC 6 Jul 2003 and (b) 2100 UTC 24 Oct–0000 UTC 25 Oct 2001. Track
plots represent the sum of 10-min positive vertical vorticity fields, for values greater than 10⫺2 s⫺1, over the periods of interest. In (a),
the shear-no shear line is derived from Fig. 15d.

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4240 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
and achieve greater maximum vertical vorticities, while
those on the southern end of the line (within the nomi-
nal shear region) are weaker and shorter lived.
The present study has evidenced the effect of meso-
scale heterogeneity on the rotational dynamics of
QLCSs, but the nature as well as sheer number of such
storm–environment interactions cannot possibly be de-
scribed through analysis of two simulated events. To-
ward a better understanding of these processes, data
assimilation experiments are now being performed with
an ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) and involve the use
of routine surface and upper-air observations. This part
of the study will further consider the effect of mesoscale
heterogeneity from the viewpoint of system initiation,
and thus will concentrate on seemingly unpredictable
QLCS events in which significant mesoscale variability
appears to have played a role in system initiation and/or
evolution.
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank the
three anonymous reviewers for their constructive com-
ments. Resources made available through NCAR’s Sci-
entific Computing Division and Purdue University’s
Rosen Center for Advanced Computing were used to
generate the WRF model simulations. This research
was supported in part by the National Science Founda-
tion, under Grant ATM-023344 (DMW and RJT), and
by a Bilsland Dissertation Fellowship (DMW).
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