UNIT-

chapte
ECOLOGY-
14 AN INTRODUCTION
All
organisms, including plants, are not
of
sort
surTounding medium known as independent of themselvesbut
depend upon some
the environment. There is a continuousinteraction between
organismsand environment. An tu
and reproduces within it. The organism, fully adapted to its environmental
environment can be conditions, 8TOWs
and biotic conditions which defined as the sum total of all the
influence the
relationship between the responses of organisms. There exists an physica
and physiological activities of the intricae
environment of a region. morphology
organism ana tne
The place where the
organism lives, is called its habitat
for its life activiies constitute while the conditions and
the environment. resources
environment.Basically, the Every habitat has its own
environmental complex particular type of
animals, which constitute the possesses the living organisms,
biotic environment plants and
minerals and solar
and the
conditions like air, water,
energy constitute the abiotic environment. physical
which surround and effect the life of These conditions of the
an organism in environment
These are also known as any respect are called the factors of
environment.
environmental or
ecological factors or simply factors.
Ecology is the branch of which deals with the
biology study of interactions between
organisms and their environment. In nature,
organisms survive only in proper environment.
Organisms interact with each other and are influenced
by whole complex of environmental factors.
Ecology deals with the
reciprocal relationships between the
environment.Term ecology was coined living organisms and their
physical
by Reiter (1868A.D.) and is derived from two Greek
oikos means house; and means words
logos study of. So ecology involves the scientific
of study of inter
relationship organisms with one another and with the environment. It was
called
reciprocal relationship by ErnstHaeckel (1869A.D.)Krebs (1972) gave amore informative study of
definition.
"Ecology the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution
is
and abundance of
organisms."It deals with the studyof populations,
of resources between biotic and abiotic
community, ecosystems, biosphere and
relationship
components. It is so asno individual is independent,so cannot
live in isolation. So life and
environment are interdependent so ecology is also called
Environmental
Biology or Bionomics. Ecology was called Hexicology by Mivart (1894). This
evident from
:
food chain, food-web, energy flow and bio-geochemical
cycles.
interdependenceis

Ecology is intimately connected with various disciplines of science humanitiesand in fact with
all
aspects of human endeavour. Ecology is primarily a field
study. It is a science of great practical
in the
significance having applications management of natural resources, agriculture, control of
pests, pathogens and in the conservation of soil, water, biotic
diversity and support systems of our
biosphere.
Environment means each and every thing outside the organism which influences it any way.
Environment includesall external factors, each of which is called ecological or environmental factor.
These ecological
factors
are broadly grouped into following categories
i) Climatic factors like wind velocity, atmospheric
light, temperature, humidity,atmospheric
pressure, rainfall, etc.

ii) factors related with soil like soil water, soil air, etc.
Edaphic

209
210 MODERN's BOTANY
Bc
iii) Topographic factors like altitude,
slopg ete
iv)Bioticfactors like bacteria, fungi, plants, symbionts,animals,etc. So environment occupi
the central
position in the field of ecology.
sOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF ECOLOGY
Ecology has been defined diferently by different scientists

isthe
relation of animals to its
organic (living) and inorganic(non-living) environme
(Emst -It
Haeckel, 1869).

Scientific
natural
history concerned with sociology and economics of animals (Charle
Elton, 1927).

-Scienceof inter-relationship between living organisms and their environment (Allee

et. g
1949).

Study of structure and functions of nature or ecosystems (Odum, 1971).

of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of
Scientific study organism,
(C.J. Krebs, 1988).
-Warning (1895) defined ecology as "the study of organisms in relation to their environment"

(1916) called it as "the science of community."

Clements
According to Taylor (1936) it is "the science of all the relations of all the organismsto all
the environments."
Andrewartha (1961) defined it as "the scientific study of the distribution and
of
-
organisms."
G.A. Petrides (1968) called it as, "the scientific
interactions which control the welfare of
approach to the study of
abundance

environmental
living things, regulating their distributions,

-
reproduction and evolution."

According to C.H. Southwick (1976), ecologyis the scientific study of the

abundance,

relationships of
living organisms with each other and with their environments.
FORMS/BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY
(A)On the basis of ecological group,
ecology is divided into three main divisions:
() Autoecology (Gk. auto =self). It is the
study of a between the
individualsof populationor reciprocal relationship
populationsof same species. So it involvesthe study of life
history,
populationdynamics, adaptation, behaviour,home range,etc. of a
single species. It is now called
population ecology or
demecology.
Main Branches of
Ecology

Autoecology Synecology Habitat ecology

(study of the ecology
(study of the ecology
of an individual in study
(descriptive
of groups or communities
elation to the
ofboth the organisms
in relation to their
and the kind of the
environment) environment) environment or habitat
where organisms live)

Autoecology Population
of a Community Ecosystem approach
ecology ecology
species (studyof (study of groups of
(study of communities together
(study of individuals
individual
individual of a given with their
non-living
communities) environment, interacting
species) species)
together so as to function
as a system)
ECOLOGYAN INTRODUCTION
211
(i)Synecology Gr.sy=together).
hers of ditferent It is the study of
ies of populations of abiotic reciprocal
relationship
same geographical community (sum of different between
d
It is
necology" were coined byarea). also called
populations or
Schroter and community ecology.Term and
G) Ecosystem Kirchner (1896 A.D) "Autoecology
ecolo8y.
afa specific Ecosystemecology is sum of
geograpncat area e8 a tropical
aterial cycling. interacting abiotic and biotic
forest, a
productivity, soil desert, a grassland, components
was given by A.G. Tansley (1935 formationand etc. It involves the study
A.D). energy flow in an
(B) On the basis of habitat ecosystem. Term
or eco5yste
Marineecology.Study of environment, ecology is
divided into
hving)conmponents ot following categories
oceans, seas, inter-relationship between the
biotic
(i) bays and (living) and abiotic (non-
estuaries. It is also
Fresh-water ecology.Study of called
of rivers, streams,lakes, oceanography.
reservoirs, etc.inter-relationship between the
(ii)Terrestrial
:
ecology Study of
of land.It includesdesert
It is also
called
limnology.
inter-relationship between the
biotic and abiotic

biotic and abiotic

components

(C)Other categories ecolog8y, forest

of ecology, grassland
ecology,cropland components
G)Radiation ecology ecology,etc.
ecology.Study of effects
and their of
radioactive
organisms environment. substancesand
i)Space ecology. radiations on the
of living
Study
flights development of to
ecosystem support human life
(iii)
Applied ecology. It during space
involves the
management, poultry fish application of
ecological
control, horticulture, management, management, forest principles for wildlife
floriculture, conservation, animal
iv) Production pollution control, etc. husbandry, pest
ecology. It involves the
organic matter) and net study of gross
of the productivity
ecosystem.It includesthe
(actual gainand is
equalto gross
productivity (productionof total
proper productivity minusrespiration)
maximum yield can be obtained management of different of
in and components
(v) space time. ecosystem so that
Palaeoecology. Study of
dinosaurs of relationship between the
Jurassic period of Mesozoic past life and its environment
era.
(vi) e.g.
Biogeography. Study of
(vii)Taxonomic geographical distribution of
living organisms in various
ecology.Study of realms.
ecology (of insects), avian specific taxonomic of
ecology (of birds), groups living organisms e.g. Insect
ecology (of microbes),etc. mammalian ecology (of
mammals), microbial
(viii)
Cytoecology. Scientific
study of reciprocal
structure) details of
different relationsip between the
populations of a cytological (cell
It now called
is species found in different environmental
gene-ecology. conditions.
(ix)
Pedology. Study of reciprocal
relationship between the soil features
humus-content,minerals,soil
type, etc.) and the living
(e.g. acidity,
alkalinity,
x) Physiological organisms.
ecology.Study of reciprocal relationship between
functional of environmentalfactors and
adaptability organisms.
xi) Conservation
ecology.Science of ecologydealing with the
resources. proper maintenance of natural
xii) Human ecology.Study human activities on the
of effect of
Or these and the implication
effects on man. So it with the environment of man. biosphere
deals
(xiii)
Demecology. It deals with the ecology of individuals of a
It is
also single species i.e.
known as population ecology. population.

(xiv) Community ecology. When the units of ecological studies are a group of different
POpulation
(community), it is called community ecology.
212 MODERNS BOTANY BS

(xv) Systems ecology. To study the structure and functions of ecosystem utilizing the procer
and science) is kno
ofsystem analysis (mathematicalmodels, statistical techniques computer
systems ecology wna
CHRONOLOGY OF ECOLOGY

are
Ecology started as a part of natural
also seen in Indian classical
writings
history and
like Vedic, Epic,
its roots are as old as

Puranic and Upnishadic

mankind. Its
o
refere

literature

Table of
I
represents a chronological findings in the field ecology
Table 1. in the field of Ecology.
Chronology
Scientist Contribution
a entitled "Air, water and places". H
Hippocrates (4thcentury B.C.) Wrote paper
for
(Fatherof medicine) stressed the need of ecological background medica

students.
Aristotle (4th Century B.C.) Studied the habits of animals and environmental

(Fatherof conditions of certain areas.

Biology)
(4th to describe the inter-relationship
Theophrastus century B.C.) First ecologist
(Fatherof Botany) and their physical environment.
between plants
and "population regulation
Anton von Leeuwenhoek Studied "food chains"
(17th century) concepts of ecology.

Published six volumes on the natural history of insects.

Reaumur (1683-1707A.D.)
Comte de Buffon (1756 A.D.) animals and plants are influenced
Population of man,
by some processes. He also coined the
the term
"environmental induction" to relate adaptations
to their respective
developed by living organisms
environment.
Alexander von Humboldt Explored tropical and temperate South America and
(1807A.DD.) showed the relationship between the plantsand
environmental factors like temperatureand type of soil.

Edward Forbes (1846 A.D.) Studied the palaeo-ecologyof British Isles.

while food supply

Thomas R. Malthus |Organisms multiply geometrically
(1766-1834A.D.) increases arithmetically. He wrote an "Essay on Human
and that positive checks of
Population" proposed
Nature keep a balance between the organisms and
Nature.
Charles Darwin and Alfred of Natural Selection or Survivalof
Proposed "Theory
R. Wallace (1859A.D.) Fittest".

Saint Hillaire (1859A.D.) Coined the term "ethology" for the relationship
between organisms and environment. Now it
is

defined as the scienceof animal behaviour.

Liebig (1803-1873
Reiter (1865 A.D.) and
Ernst Haeckel (1869 A.D.)
Karl Mobius (1877 A.D.)
Forbes (1887A.D.)
Charles Davenport
Schroter and Schimper (1896 A.D. Gave the terms "Autoecology" and "Synecology"
J.E.B. Warming (1909A.D.)
A.D.)
Proposed carbon and nitrogen cycde in nature.
Defined ecology. Term ecology coined by Reiter.
Coined the term "biocoenosis"for biotic community.
Gave term "microcosm" for ecosystem.
Established physiological ecology.
Showed the inter-dependenceand close relationships
between plants and animals.
 AN INTRODUCTION 213
AN INTR

ECOLOGY (1916A.D) Established

Clements plant succession.
F.E.
,Thienemann
(1920A.D.)
(1927 A.D,)
,C.Elton (1932 A.D.)
Concept
Ecological
of
trophic level.

pyramids. Also animal ecology.

Lotka Mathematical
A.J.Gause (1934 A.D.)
expression of interspecific competition.
Struggle for existence. Studied
G.F. predator -prey
interactions.
(1935 A.D.) Coined the term
A.G. Tansley "Ecosystem".
(1944 A.D.) Coined the term
Sukachev "biogeocoenosis"for ecosystem.
(1950A.D.) Established
Howard "Behaviouralecology".
(1957 A.D.) Worked on nutrient
Ovington cycling.
(1966 A.D.) Food web and
R.T. Paine species diversity.
(1973A.D.)
C.J.Krebs Populationcycles in small mammals.
Lewis
D.H. (1974 A.D.) Evolution of
parasitism and mutualism.
Anderson (1978A.D.) Inter-and intra-habitat
J.M. relationship between organisms.
W.Arthur (1982 A.D.)
and (1950s)
Evolutionary significance of inter-specificcompetition.
E.P. Odum Worked on energy flow and
energy budget.
(1984 A.D.) Mutualism and
energy in food chains.
partitioning
R.D. Holt (1988A.D.)
Ecological approach to Pest
Management.
SCOPE OF ECOLOGY
As the life of organisms is linked directly and
all
indirectly to the environment,the
knowledge becomes important to be utilized in ecological
solving various problems faced
man. The field today by the
ecology has large contributions and still
organisms especially of
in the welfare of large to contribute
organisms includinghuman beings. Various socio-economic,
similar of the world are now based on political and other
policies
ecological aspects. Its relations, not
plant sciences, but with physical and social sciences has only with other
opened new prospects in combating the
SOcio-economical and environmental problems
whiçh are being faced these days.
The basic
problem,today,is that of calorie-malnutrition. Ecological
role in knowledge has an important
understanding the processes by which the net
productivity can be increased in
sector. agriculture
Ecological knowledge about crop rotation, weed control, soil
conservation, forestation, water
etc. have a
Supplies greatsignificance in this direction. Crop production is very much influenced
weeds. The biological and chemicalmethods used to control the weeds are
oy

Problems posing new ecological

upsetting the biotic balance of the nature.
lhe
activities of man have direct
impact on the components of nature. His social, religious
Cnomic
his ov set-ups have created newer ecological problems. These problems have a threat on
On nexistence. He has, now changed his ecological philosophy and directs his attention more
the
study of
ecological systemns.
Narural communities with their environments are our natural resources. Man, with his
tonate
indisc

v
use of biotic and abiotic resources, has created
ecological crises. It will be hazardous
the
y survivalof man. So, it is necessary to
regulate the utilization of these natural resources
develContinuousavailability in future. The ecologists all over the world are now
engaged in the
while t of strategies which enableus to make use of our natural resources to the fullest extent
still
maintaini them for continued use in future.
Theth
atsposed
to by atomic energy andhuman populationexplosion have made it mandatory
Which a acquaint himselfwith at least the overall environmental processes and conditions
Sential forthe survivalof individual organisms.Similarly, the environment pollution
214 MODERN's BOTANY BS
has become an international problem. Ecology has great applications in understanding the ca.
of pollution and its control.
To sum up, for other organisms and for his own survival, every man has to be educated.
a thorough understanding of the environment and management of natural resources,
throe
ough
adequate conservation practices. Ecological principles are being applied in crop production, an
range
management, grasslands, soil and water resources management and pollution control.

The IBP is a world-wide plan of study of biological productivity and human

welfare, initiatedb
Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a non-governmental in Paris.
International organisation IBPw
with the aim of in the lacunae in the of certain areas,
launched filling knowledge ecological by meansof
a co-ordinated
approach including standardisation of methods
comprehensive to ensure
comparable
results

RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCES

science which requires an adequate study of the basic
Ecologyisa multidisciplinary principles

upon knowledge of
of physical and biological sciences.Modern ecology depends the physics

chemistry, genetics, physiology,horticulture, forestry, mathematics,statistics, geography, geolog

agricultural
economics,meterology, sociology,
and morhology etc.because, sciences, climatology, taxonomy, pedology, zoolog
ecologyconcernswith the studyofliving organisms and the environment,
all those
disciplines which help in the understanding of living beings and the enviranment are
directly or indirectly related to ecology.

Ecology is a basic approach to the co vation of natural resources both renewable and
non
renewable and interlinks the sciences of zoology and
botany.A recent approach to the study of
ecology is the energ8y exchange relations within the biotic components and between the biotic and
abiotic components of the
biosphere. This aspect is known as ecological energetics. The relation
with economics lies in the fact that man in his
ecological studies aimsat the understanding of natural
resources and their management. So, in a broad sense, the
ecologyhas been defined as the "study
of economy of nature."

All the life

processes areunder the control of laws of physics and chemistry.
Morphological,
anatomical,physiological andbehavioural changes
are broughtoutby organisms to adapt themselves
to the
changing environment. PedologY, meterology,climatology, geography etc. are
related with the distribution of directly
plants and animals through time and space. Mathematics and
statistics are required for the reasonable
interpretation of ecological data.
Genetics providesan opportunityto studythe
genetic variability which enables the best suited
organism to surviveunder a particular
environment.Palaentologyprovidesinformationaboutthe
ancestral organisms and the environment existed in the past. studies help us to know
Pedological
how the soil conditions like
acidity, alkalinity, humus content, soil
influence the organisms. composition, minerals etc.

With this brief discussion,

it is
apparent that ecology is a synthetic branch of science witn
multifaceted dimensions. It is to
impossible study and interpret ecology without the
knowledge of variousdisciplines of physical and sciences.
requiring
biological
ECOLOGY AND LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Environment is composed of
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. In biologygenes
to ecosystem are studies with several intermediate levels of
organisation.
Organization is the arrangement of smallercomponents into
larger ones and so on
hierarchyor a pyramid in which components of each level co-ordinate with one in

a common anothertowards
goal.
This organization is
regulated by fourprocesses:
i) Aggregation (ii) Interactions (ii) Equilibrium (iv) Variations.
 215
INTRODUCTION
COLOGY-AN
a series and characterized by
Ecological hierarchy 1s of graded ecological categories is

) It has a specific structure

smaller biological
and function
units coordinate
at each level
to form next higher level of organizaion
i In this,

) Units lower
than the organisms to not show independent existence.
cannot live in isolation.
(iv) Organisms
level, units show interdependence.
()At each these
units show interactions with the physical environment from which
(vi) At each level,
and matter for their survival.
derive energy
ivi) The biological

Ecological hierarchy

(A) Organism
units are successfully
involvesfollowing seven categories
:
adapted to their environment.
(Fig. 1)

(B) Population
(C) Biotic community
(D) Ecosystem
(E) Biosphere
(A) Organism. It
is
characterized by:
(1) It is the smallest level of ecological hierarchy.

(2) It is most distinct and easily observable unit.

life processes independentlyofthosegoing on in other living organisms.
(3) It
performs all the
be acellular or multicellular.
(4) It
always has cellular nature and may
somne
(5) It is a unit and can be counted or measured. But it is not universal as in
quantitative
are interconnected or colonies of sponges and corals.
organically e.g. grasses
cases, organisms
of one another.
(6) The organism cannot exist independently
parts of the
of one another. It shows interdependence with other
(7)
Organisms cannot live in isolation
and abiotic factors of the environment. It derives matter and energy from
the
biotic factors

environment and wastes out of it for its survival.

expels
An organism has the to and self-regulate, self-perpetuate
(8) ability grow, repair regenerate,
and autonomous movements.
9)New organismsareproduced from the pre-existing organisms by the process of reproduction
asexual or sexual. This ensures the of life.
which
may be vegetative, 'continuity

(10) Organisms resemble their parents in a number of characters. It is so because they can
transmit their characters to their offsprings.

(11) An organism is fully adapted to its environment.

ike birth/
(12)
An organism has a definite life span which involvesdefinite series of stages

ching growth, maturity, ageing and death.

(B) Population. The second level of organisation in ecological hierarchy is the population.

Population is generally considered as a group of individuals (organisms) of the same kind

ies)in a given area. The study of ecological life history of a species is called autoecology. It
swith the requirementsand reactions of the individual species in relation with its environment.
das disciplines of economic botany like agriculture, silviculture, and horticulture are based on

adsdautoecology ofa species. The study of autoecologygivesus an idea about the distribution,
adaptation and speciation of a particular species.
C
PresCommunity.The next level, community, is a group of populations of different species
na given area. For example, all kinds of plants, all animals
and micro-organisms living
 MODERN'S BOTANY 8

of a kind of
individuals
in an area community, Different populations
constitute a
together a plant different kind
kinds of plants forming community,
onstitute a community as different as a whole show its own characteri
animal community etc. The community form and structure, domina
animals forming e diversity, growth
are not shown by its individualspecies, g. ascompared to the communs
whxh view are more dynamic
etc From evoluticnary point of population abiotic environme
consists of biotic
communities along with its me
(D) Ecosystem. An ecosystem
between the biotic and abiotic components of
in a given area. There is an interdependence of energy between the componens
is an exchange
of nutrients and movement
There flow ofenergyan
ecosystem. food chains and food-webs. The
are interlinked through is not
The biotic components of ecosystems. The size of ecosystem limited

of nutrients are the functional aspects a pond ecosyste

cycling by a forest ecosystem,a grasslandecosystem,
Individually,it may be represented like agro-ecosystems,
an aquarium et
and several man-made ecosystems
a desert ecosystem etc.
They are stable and self-regulating systems

BIOSPHERE

ECOSYSTEM

cOMMUNITY

POPULATION

ORGANISM (INDIVIDUAL)
LIVING

ORGAN SYSTEM

ORGANS

TISSUES

CELLS

- ORGANELLES COLLOIDS

NON-LIVING
1
cOMPOUNDS

MOLECULES
CRYSTALS

MIXTURES

ATOMS

ELEMENTAAY PARTICLES
(ELECTRONS, PROTONS
AND NEUTRONS)
Fig. 1.
Ecological hierarchy.
 217
INTRODUCTION
eoLOGY-AN
Biosphere.
When we see in terms of largest ecosystem, whole of the earth constitute a
ant ecosystem known as biosphere. All the ecosystems named above are the sub-units of
SB e. 1tis also called as ecosphere.
It is also called as "life
supporting zone" of the earth
ein the biosphere, ihving organisms interact with one another and also with the physical
a
onmentto maintain steady-state (self-adjusting equilibrium)system.
It is divisible into three

atmosphere and lithosphere.

hydrosphere,
moderm sense,the ecology has been broadly defined as the study of ecosystems.
puris
In its

IBP

The International Biological Programme (IBP)was launched (1964-1974)with a focus on the

of Under of this programme,
sological basis productivity and human welfare. the aegis productivity
af
diferent terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems was evaluated apart from studies on human
conservationof ecosystenm and the use of biological resources.
sdaptability,

Areas Studied in the IBP Programnme

1.
Productivity of terrestrial communities
2. Production process
3. Conservation of terrestrial communities
4.
Productivity of fresh water communities
5.
Productivity of marine communities
6. Human adaptability
7. Use and of
management biological resources.

ETEST OUESTIONSE
Define What the
ecology. is
scopeof ecology?
iow ecology is related with other branches of science ? What are the branches of
ecology ?
are the basic
What concepts of ecology ? Discuss the scope of ecology.
DISCuss the ecological levels of organisation. How do they differ with that of other biological levels
. of
organisation ?
Explain the following terms
DcOsystem, Biosphere, Systemsecology, Levels of organisation, Habitat.
DISCuss the significance of ecology to mankind.
Define different branches
3. ofbiology.
Defi
ecology and environment. Describe the varicus levels of organisation.
 Chaptes ENVIRONMENTAL
15 FACTOR-CLIMATIC
ENVIRONMENT INTRODUCTION
organisms, including plants, are not independent of themselves but depend upon
All

sort of surrounding medium known as environment. There is continuous interaction betweems

a
organisms and theenvironment. An organism, fully adapted to its environmental conditions,
and reproduces within
a
environment can be defined as the sum total of all the phy
The
it.
and biotic conditions which influence the responses of organisms. There exists an intia
relationship between the morphology and physiologicalactivities of the organism and the envin
ment of a region. A healthy environment, for the development of any organism, should provia
the space for growth and movement, air in fresh conditionand in sufficient amount, water,minerd
and energy to carry out all the processes of life.
An organism, itself is a component of environment. Its growth and development, behavin
and life history,all are influenced by the environment. The organisms, by their life activities, al

the environmental complex. The place where the organism lives,

is
called
bring changes in the environment.
activities constitute Eve
habitat while the conditions and resources for
its life

the environmental complex poses

habitat has its own particular type of environment. Basically, andthephysi
which constitute the bioticenvironment
the living organisms, plants and animals, abiotic
and solar energy constitute the environment.The
conditions like air, water, minerals the life of an organism in any respecta
which surround and effect
conditions of the environment or ecological facto
These are also known as environmental
called the factors of environment.
or simply factors. the each other to form a
dynamic syste
interact with
The biotic and abiotic environments and differe
aquatic, possess
of the terrestrial
of a habitat. Two major habitats earth-the
and their habits are different in these
habita
particular of
The kinds organisms of the environment like light, a
environmental complexes. control of abiotic compOnents
is also under the
Their distribution altitude etc.
nutrients, temperature, life activities
of organisms because the lati
moisture, influences the the environment. In this wa
As stated earlier, environment from the components of
food and fuel abiotic and outside the environmee
have to obtain their the environment its exIstence
and
upon adjust itself accordin
the organism is fullydependent respond to the environnental stimuli
which cannot adapt themselves
do n
Thus, organisms OTganisns
is unthinkable. Those
to the conditions,
through adaptations. pressures.
to the environmental been grouped variously b
and succumb ev nave
survive
factors (components
o tne are
into two major grouns
The ecological all the
factorS classied
Sometimes organisms directly e.e
different ecologists. the
These factors influence
and soil
air etc.
)
Direct factors.
soil nutrients ms indirectly by
indirectly
modifvin other factctors e
by modifying
soil, moisture, organisms etc.
humidity, These factorsaffect altitude, slope
factors. soil organisms, on the basis of their nature
ii) Indirect wind, two
into two categories
precipitation, are divided
soil structure, factors factors.
These environmental or physical
or non-living factors.
(A) Abiotic or biological
or living 216
(B) Biotic
 TA
FACTOn CLIMATIC 219
NTAL
NTAL
Table 1.
mIOMI Components of environment,

Abiotic Component Biotic

Components
Energy Green plants
Radiation Non green plants
Temperature
& heat flow
Decomposers
Water Parasites
and wind
Amospheric gases Symbionts
Fire Animals
Gravity Man
Topography
Geologic substratum
Soil

ABIOTIC FACTORS
These include the non-living physico-chemicalfactors of environment.These
are divided into
categories
thefollowing

() Climatic Factors

(i) Edaphic Factors.

()Climatic Factors. These include the physical factors of environment like:
(a) Light.

(b) Temperature
(o)Humidity
(d) Wind

(e)Rainfall

(0 Water

(g)
Atmospheric gases.
CLIMATIC FACTORS
(a) AIR (ATMOSPHERE)
GASEOUS COMPOSITION
Gaseous envelope surrounding the earth
is called
atmosphere. Several concentric layers can
in vertical
ldentified profile of atmosphere. Density,
temperature and composition differs in
ayers. Near the carth's surface, density ís highest and with increase in latitude
es. Starting from earth's surfacefour concentric
layers can be distinguished:
densityy

roposphere (ii) Stratosphere(ii) Mesosphere (iv) Thermosphere (Fig. 1).

re
roposphere.
emp
decreases

éiphralosphere.
It extends

rapidly
up to altitude of 16 kilometres from the surface of the earth.
with increasing height in this layer.
It extends between altitudes of 16-50
kilometres. increases with
Temperature
layer.A layer of ozone called ozonosphere lies between altitudes of 25-50kilometres.
ert excellent region for air travel due to low moisture contents and absence of
Ivection large
currents.

ihheioLOsphere. It lies between altitudes of about 50-80 kilometres.

Temperature decreases
S
(iv) Atmosphere'sminimum temperatureis present in upper part of atmosphere.
layer.

peras
PeTature
mosphere. It extends from an altitude of 80 kilometres upwards. In this layer
increases with
height.
 220 MODERN's BOTANY B.Sc.

140

130

ac
1ONOSPHERE
THERMOSPHERE
pre
(TEMPERATURE INCREASES
100 WITH HEIGHT)

MESOPAUSE

MESOSPHERE
(TEMPERATUREDECREASES
WITH HEIGHT)

STRATOPAUSE

ozONOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE
(TEMPERATURE CHANGES LITTLE
WITH HEIGHT)

TROPOPAUSE
TROPOSPHERE
(TEMPERATURE DECREASES
WITH HEIGHT)

100 200
EVEREST 300

TYPICALTEMPERATURE IN DEGREE CELSIUS

Fig. 1. Different
layers of atmosphere based on
temperature.
The outer
extremely rare-fied
fringe of the is known as
merges with outer atmosphere
space. exosphere. It gradually
lonospherehashigh
quantity of ionsand free electrons.
signalled from surface of earth. They help in reflecting the radio waves
Thus they
stationed at different help in long distance
heights in radio-communications.Satellites
thermosphere.INSAT-1B was launched are
Shuttle'Challenger' in August 1983. from American
onlyoperational satellite now in So,we have an exclusive satellite in
use around the
Space |
all world with a geo-stationary orbit. It is
single purpose satellites. the
Air is multipurpose the
being used as medium for capability, others are
transmitting system for the aviation
communication of sound and transport. It is
Homosphere extends up to 100 kms. human voice. main
circulation in it.
from earth's surface. It is
homogenous due to
ar
Heterosphere represents the outer
radioactive substances. region of
thermosphere and bears
gases mixed with

CHARACTERISTICSIcOMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
AIR
1. Earth's surface is COMPOSITION
dominated by
tively. Rest of 1% is contributed nitrogen and
by argon 0.93% and oxygen contributing 78% and 20.9%
krypton and many other gases in minute CO,0.03% along with respec
quantities. hydrogen, helium,
2. Small amount of water neon
vapours,dust, salts,
smoke is also found.
 MENTAL FACTOR-CLIMATIC 221

Movement of air up to height of 100 kms occurs largely and

3.
is
responsiblefor mixing up
king the atmosphere homogeneous.
ndParticular
Pa climaticconditions and water cycle in an area is controlled by general circulation
a
Troposphere is pecular in the sense that it contains much of air.
of

Atmosphere provides oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen to living beings.

b.

7.Ozone layer is in the stratosphere. Ozone is

produced in the stratosphereby the action of
eonergy UV radiations. Oxygen being a good absorber of UV radiation, its there presence
tively blocks out sun's ultra-violet radiations.
high

S. The stratospheric ozone layer, thus

an plays important protective role for life on earth. It
s heen estimated
that one percent
drop in ozone level in the
stratosphere could cause 10,000more
os of skin cancer a year in USA alone. Ozone is an allotropic form of
hsmolecule rather than two as in the case of
per oxygen containing three
atoms common oxygen.
9. There are several
gaseous chemicals as
nitrogen oxide and methane, which can
Vgen. Both these gases are produced in plenty destroy
by natural processes.
10. Lightning and volcanic
eruptions release enormous
has highest concentration 25 kms over earth's quantities of nitrogen oxide. Ozone
surface. However, it is never more
than one millionth
of main atmosphere.Much
change in ozone quantity of cause
earth around. atmosphere may bad effects on life
on

Table 2.
of
Composition dry atmosphere.

Component Volume
1.
Nitrogen (N,) 78%
2. Oxygen
(0,) 21%
3. Carbon dioxide
(cO) 0.03%
4.
Argon 0.93%

ROLE OF ATMOSPHERE
1. Air functions
as a medium forlocomotion of insects, birds et.
2. Ozone layerof atmosphere the
3. Air
protects living organisms from harmful radiations of sun.
the source of
is
oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen required for various metabolic
activities of
living beings.
4. It
helps in dispersal of spores, pollen, seeds etc.
5. Air
maintains
temperature onearth required for life.
6. Air transmits sound
for communication.
7.
lonospherereflects the radio waves back to earth for long distance
Presence of ions communication due to
and free electrons in this zone.
8.
Burning of fire takes
place in presence of oxygen.
S.Specific climatic conditions and water cycle is maintained due to
circulation of air.
Pollution
Air is
being polluted due to automobiles, aeroplanes and
industries, thereby changing the
POStion of
atmosphere. This is a threat to environment,climate and ultimately to
living beines
ngi
ATMOSPHERIC GASES
Prahe gases presentin the atmosphere are chiefly oxygen,carbon dioxide and nitrogen
which
sreatly influence the living organisms.
 MODERN'8 OTANY B80
Atmosphew is the thik gaseous envelope aound the The composition of
eartlh, atnmosplh.
air is
hen
Ogen 08 Nitogen 78.01
Car diiile- 00 4) Water vapours 0,1%

osle gases, dust partivles, smoke (industrial dineharge), micro organisms,Da

,
theie
pollen

grains ngane gases

and other gasws (0,
(
methane eleased dluring the decomposition of dead plantsand anima
NIH, etc. released from inlustries and volcanoes)arealso present. Th
wnns gnatly art the weather and living organisms
) Ogen. Main sounes of gen
are produce8 Which evolve oxygen as a
by-product
photsynthesis It foms 2084 of theatmosplhereair andischietly usedby most ofl livingorganis
in their aewbic ertain
espirationept anaerobeseg ntamoeba, Tuenia, Ascaris, Tasciola,man
barteria like clstridiwm
These organisms are adapted to live in oxygen-ree habitats
hrough
anaerwbi respiration. Enamv/w can survive even in the
presence of small amount of oxygen soi
mimaembe.Ohgen acts as a limiting lactor in the distribution of animals in aquatic media and
a

at
high altitudes of mountains (er Andes lake) due to low
atmosphericoxygen. So animal lifle, with
ertain eeptions, is wanting in tresh wvater bodies with industrial wastes
polluted causing low
wgen tensim and deep sea waters (eN Black
sea).Aninmals which can survive even in highly
olhuti water include Colpidinum, Parumecium, blood wormm and
(about SN) times denser than air) sludge worm. It is so as the water
contains nuch less free oxygen than air (only
10 of the orgen present in about
equal volume of air). So aquatic animals especially lishes are nicely
adaptxito countereurrentmechanism
the
(forrapid oxygenuptake) and rapid circulation of waterover
respiratry surtar of the gills by a continuous one
way flow.
Carbon dionide. Main sourcesof are animals
and combustion CO, (release CO, in
expired air), decomposen
proesses going on in the industries and automobiles.
by volme. It is mainly used by
the producers as a raw material in the
CO, forms about 0.03 percent
ts essential both
tor plants and animals.About process of photosynthesis. So
of the is used
50% CO, by oceans and green plants
Atmospheric CO, is always a limiting lactor tor
photosynthesis. So
upto 15 to 20 photosynthesis increases in
times.However, the amount ot CO, in the water is not
CO
animals usually a limiting factor for land

b)LIGHT (RADIATIONFACTOR)
Light is a very important of the
climaticfactors which is
development and ditterentiation of plants. Similarly, light, as a directly responsible for the growth
the colour vision, eye complex physical factor, alsoaffects
size,skinpigmentation,
the migration, reproductionand biological periodicityo
animals. Thus, light is a tactor of physical and
physiological importance.
ELECTROMAGNETic sPECTRUM
The source of energy on our
sole
plaet 1s the sun.The solar
siN tVpes of
electromagnetieradiations (F8:2). he radiant energy is received in the fornm o
insolation. The wavelength of visible energy incident on the
earth is called
spectrum ranges from 390 mu to
rest is invisible. The visible
spectrum can be
780 mu (3900 À-7800 Å), the
colours and having ditterent ditterentiated into seven types of
It 18 called radiations of diferent
wavelengths. VIBGYOR.Theinvisible spectrum beyond the
violet region includes ultraviolet
red region has the infra-red
rays, gndAys tuys and cosmic
rays and radio waves. rays, while that
beyond the
Solar radiation betore
entering into atnnospnereat
nerey at a constant rate of 2 cal cm 63 km above earth's
0.7 um (i.e.visible spectrum)
minanu
is also called
is A
as PAR Sar constant.
(photosynthetieal. Wavelengths
surface) bear
of 0.4

radiations0.1 jumto 0.4 junm is absorbed byozone layer inatmosphere.

to 0-320um)
i active radiation).
U
tpes: (i UV.C0100to0.280 um) (ii) Uv-B (0.280 and (i uradiations are of thre
UVC is lethal and UV-B is harmful to organisms.
 uENTAL FACTOR-CLIMATIC
223
ENVIRONMENTAL
SHORTEST
WAVELENGTH LONGEST
MAXIMUM WAVELENGTH
ENERGY MINIMUM
0.005-200 A ENERGY
0.001-1.4A 150-3900A
7800 A 10-10A
X RAYS
GAMMA ULTRAVIOLET
RAYS WAVES INFRARED
WAVES RADIOWAVES

VISIBLE LIGHT
3900-7800A

VIOLET BLUE GREEN YELLOW ORANGE RED

3900-4300 A 4300-4700A
4700-5600Å 5600-5900À
5900-6200A 6200-7800A
Fig. 2.
Spectrum of electromagnetic radiations.

30UNITS 19 UNITS 51 UNITS

21 UNITS

Outgoing
Infra Rød

Radlations

Absorbtion
by Water
CO2
and
other
Back
gases
Scattering
by air

Absorbed EmittedHeradiated,
nfrared
by by the
surface
H20, O2
dust

REFLECTED
BY
CLOUDS

ABSORBED
BY
CLOUDS

EARTH

ig.3. The global disposition of solar radiation and terrestrial

infrared radiation,
based on 100 units of incident solar
radiation.

5Written with smallc (calorie) and kilocalorie is written with C or as kcal

capital (Calorie).
Spectral distribution of solar radiation
Visible = 39% reaching the earth
light
Infrared
60%
Ultraviolet
=1%
 MODERN's BOTANY
224 BS
The amount of insolation reaching the earth's surface, is much less than that
which enter
earth's
atmosphere. According Geiger (1961),to out of total solar input, about 86% of lio
consumed in the evaporation of water and the remaining 14% heats the light i
atmosphere. The
utilize 15 total incident light. From the visible about 83% is plan
less than of spectrum, absorbed.
12% is and 5% is transmitted (Fig. 4). The ability of a surface to refle
reflected remaining
radiations is called albido value and is
incoming expressed in percentage.
Parametersof light affecting the living organisms
The activities of both and animals depend
plants
upon three
parametersof light: light intensity, light
quality and light duration. Light intensity of the
atmosphere depends upon a number of factors like ABSORBED83%
season, altitude, latitude and atmospheric conditions. REFLECTED 12

Atmospheric components like gases (N,, O, and

CO.etc.)andsuspended particles (clouds, smoke, dust
etc) reduce
light intensity. According to
Geiger out of
morning solar radiations, 42% are reflected (33%
cloudsand 9% by dust by
particles), 10% are absorbed by
the ozone
layer and only 48% reaches the surface of
the
earth. The of light
intensity is further reduced by TRANSMITTED 5%
additional
vegetational cover. It is also
greatly affected
by the Fig. 4. Figure
topography of the habitat on south- depicting the absorption,
e.g. greater reflection and transmission of
facing slopesof the mountains. light from a le

Light quality is also modified by several

the longer environmental factors
e.g. water vapours
wavelengths particularly infra-red while reflect the abson
light. green and blue wavelengths
o
Daily light durationvaries with the
almost 12 hours while it
tilt of earth's
axis. On the
varies with season in equator,the length of day
and temperate area. The
progresses June 21 is days grow longer as
spr
longest day, while
at the December 21 is shortest day. The day
poles throughout the summer. length is 24hous
EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON
AQUATIC SYSTEMS
Phytoplanktons are found on illuminated surface of water. On
organisms are found at the sediments of a the other hand benth
lake.
Three zones in a lake can
be identified which are
and determined by
temperature from the water surface to bottom. gradientsof light, oxys
() Littoral zone. It is
shallow water zone
presentat the edge of lake. It
ii) Limnetic zone. It
is bears rooted
present behind littoral zone and plans
phytoplanktonsare found in plenty. Light can contains often wafer.
of water. penetrate from 20-40m. He
depth depending on clar
(iii)
Profundal zone (dark zone).In this
benthic zone light fails to reach
region where micro-organisms,snails bottom of lake
and constiu
EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON slugs etc. are found.
PLANTS (FIG.6):
A. Physiological responses
(1) Synthesis of
pigments. The synthesis of
chlorophyll in the leaves
and bright
pigmen
 FACTOR-CLIMATIC
VIRONMENT, 225

LIMNETIC ZONE

HIGH

LIGHT AND
OXYGEN
PROFUNDALZONE LEVELS
(DEEP)

BENTHIC REGION
SOIL
LOW

Fig. 5. The zones in a lake water.

the
flowers and fruits is controlled
light so light helps in
by
dispersal The photosynthesis, pollination and
respectively. plants grown in the absenceof
(2) light become etiolated.
Photosynthesis.In photosynthesis, radiant
energy of sunlightis converted into chemical
energy throughphotosynthesis.
During photochemicalphase ofphotosynthesis, main
photolysis of water and processesare
photophosphorylationwhich produce the assimilatory (ATP and
NADPH) and oxygen is evoled. Blue and red power
light regions of spectrum aremost effecient. The
at which rate of light
ntensity
S called photosynthesisis just sufficient to meet the requirementsof
respiration
compensation point.

STRONG LIGHT MODERATELIGHT DIFFUSE LIGHT

6. Relationship between of chloroplasts and

Fig arrangement light.

has Number and position of chloroplasts (Fig. 6). The upper surface of leaves of sun-plants
of srCnioroplasts and are
arranged in line with the direction oflight to screen from the effect
gnt. But in the leaves of are less in number and are
shade-plants, the chloroplasts
226 MODERN'S BOTANY B

arranged at right angleto the direction of light to receive

as much light as
possible. The arrano
of chloroplasts changed with the change in light intensity. The chloroplasts are
is
epistro
(parallel to horizontal walls) in moderate light while are
parastrophe (against the vertical
in strong light. wall
(4) Photoperiodism. It is the of
response organisms to the photoperiod (light duration
day).On thisbasis, the angiosperms are divided into three categories: long-day
plants (c.g. Rad.
Spinach, Secale cereale,
Sorghum vulgare, short-day plants (e.g. Xanthium, Chrysanthem
etc.);

Cosmos, Datura, Salvia, Cannabis) and day-neutral

plants (e.g. Cotton-Gossypium, Tomat
Lycopersicum, PotatoSolanum)
6) Transpiration.Light increases the rate of i.e.
transpiration indirectly by increasing
temperature of leaves and promoting the of stomata.
opening
(6) Plant
growth. On the basis of the effects of light on their vegetative
are divided into two
developments,plan
categories: heliophytesor photophilous or heliophilousplants
in strong (whichgr
light and are called
sun-plants e.g. pines, willows, birches etc.) and sciophytes o
photophobous or heliophobous plants (which grow in lower light intensities and arecalled
shad
plants
(7) Seed
germination.On the basis of responseof seedstowards light (Photoblastic
the plants are divided into 3 responsa
Positive
categories whose seeds
photoblastic require light forthe
germination e.g. Viscum, Lepidium, Lectuca etc., negativephotoblastic whose seeds
germinate int
absence of light e,g. onion,
lily, Phlox,etc. and non-photoblastic whose seeds germinate
tive of irrespe
light eg. Bean, maize, etc.

IGHTREGULAT
STEM
AND
PHOTOSYNTHESIS LEAF
STOMATA FORMATION
ANDOF

OPENING
CLOSING
MENIS
ER
HANNNH

NOLLONa0dd
L
MOVEMEN

<
Fig. 7. Various effects of light upon a green plant.

(8) Stomatal opening.Inmost of plants, the

light favours the opening of stomatabyprornou
the photosynthesisand malic acid formationbut in the
xerophytes, light stimulate the closng
stomata which during and open at night and are called scotoactive
close day stomata
(9)
Various phototropic movements like bending shoot of plants are under
of the
indie
influence of light. Sun-floweralso orients itself in relation to position of sun.
 FACTOR-CLIMATIC
oNMENTAL
inhibits the production of auxins or growth hormones
ioht also
(10) 1ents. (e,g.
movemen
leaves of Oxalis are expanded horizontally during day and
Photonastic rhythms in
plants
(11)1 are circadian
al night)
tnoop EFFECTS
B.OTHER light has many other direct or indirect effects on thephysiologyand
dition toaboveeffects,
In
of plants,
etc. are

morphology
mosaicarrangement of leaves, rossette habit, epiphytic habit
liken
Many adaptations for maximum illumination
the foliage
to display and adventitious roots are meant to
in plants like tendrils, hooks,spines
The modification
for maximum exposure
of plant leaves to light.
the stem erect
hold

8. Stratification
of light
in multistoreyed vegetation.
Fig. in affect the shape,
orgrowth hormones which, turn,
ofauxins are taller with
The plants growing shade
in
(ii)
Lightinhibits theproduction
movements and orientation ofplant
parts. and compact under
size, Whereas the plants are stouter
broad leaves.
long internodes and
illumination. are under the indirect influenceof
movements like bending in plants
Various phototropic
light.
 ic
hissbilastie)
phosklaoti
pssisivs phanslesiei, wrkeres
1he
ssede
ede
soe
vhic gprinte ingectoe
ses pnatie
of
mdark nng
liat omidtions called sn

Keoghyte ore ulo ifuened by iga

1 OF LGH1 ON THE D11KIBUT10 OF PLANTS the distributicm

varins deyths deteriines
of
plans
1hedarroing iht intenoity st
bron algpe in meotatdanyr
td een slge lo fenund akong the ohone-ine,
aly dorp watars
om in

gplanto
unfvvwer, poplars, pines
oundiy, thay are
gow in full
called helinphytes

Certain plants
can
or shadeintierant piay

survie tniy
under shade and m
est There are planns wtu
alel onphytes n ohade Alerant larits ey fir, spriuae called fatsltative ssivphy
sAe
under shade,they are
ow in ight but can grom fairly mell
are thone plants
which gyon in lkon iit irtensity
but can surn
Fseultative heliophytes
unlight mditims
in full

Kalative length varies,

day
when we move frmm equaton o pes.We
knou that day lengh
er
like flowerine, dormancy
varionus physiologjalproresns
photpenid) ontrol of plants
play
an inportant ole in the nafural distributin
speciesup
isregulated by light.The dorninant
4
raifi
ation in turrestrialnnmunities
o The ieht peTIEtrating through uP
higheat tanopy
levul uiiz marimum ight. in the different ty
as
anopy o ower evels differ in quantily as well quality resulting

of planta gwing in Varius sfratas

)111MAL IACIOK(TEMPERATURE)
almost the actívíties of the organism
all
Eve
Ite moot important eeologiral factor affer ting
he melabolie ivilies aml physiolal proK95A09 which
are dependent upon tenperature.
metabolic rae
ion has an oplium temperature at shows themazirnum it

temperr
phyailojgal fu Variation and latifudinally. The nean
shuows a geal amount
of altifudinally
Temperalue the temperaturevalues arenaxinumz
eof air hanges by 10wilheveryJatitude, Obviously, te
toWards thee poles, Most organisms can survivein
of the
he eualr and der roae gradually shelled protozoans,dry sees
ranpe of 00C xept cerlain bacteria, known
cyanobacteria,
lemperalure in hot spring (690U
tosurvíveeven
efain yeasto ele, 1he bar teria and cyanobacteria are ternperatures due
or pemmalat (10"
lo 50'O ul most of the organisms arekilled by higher to freezing of
bog
low temperature due
of wliile othern are killed by very
denaturation enzymes water, Tolerance power totheextremes
ila exept dry seeds, spore9and cysts which have no
Irom opeios lospecies,
enperalure varie
ICTSOF TIMIRATUR ON ANIMALS
Ihe animala in the following ways
alfeca
Temperature ofspermatogenic tissue
Inanimals,he maturation gonadsand activity
of
(1)Reprodution, In blow fly,
Calliphora sericate,
which varien from secies toupecies.
alan
teneralure dlependen, 32.5° (afterwhicn
inereasen with increase in temperature upto
number ol eppo lail per lemale,
(an acridid insect), egg laying increa
Chrologonun trachyplerus
in
mimber derease tiinilarly, of anin
om 29'C o 0C. capacity)
Tus, temperature alio affecto the fecundity(reproductive about
fron 22"C to 32"C increases the egg laying 20-30u
Timilarly, an inerease in lemperature
animalslay "wintereggs"after which adults die i
in Melamps anguinipen (grasslhopper). Some
the egp
ae
reallat lo low lemperalure
 FACTOR-CLIMATIC 229
oNMENTAL
of Maximum and Minimum temperature of Calcutta and
3. Comparisoy
Table Nagpur located at the 22 N latitude.

Temperature-celcius
Maximum=
Minimum =Max
Min.

Calcutta
Nagpur
Month Max. Min. Max. Min.

Jan
26 12 3
9
Feb.
34 20 36 19
March
36 24 40 24
April
36 26 43
May
34 26 38
June
32 20 31
July
32 26 30
Aug.
32 26 31 23
Sept.
32 20
Oct. 31 24
Nov. 29 18 30
Dec. 27 13 29

from 1.5 to
(2) Growth and Development. In Ostrea virginea, the length of body increases
to 20°C.In Calliphora (blow incubation
103 mm with an increase in
temperaturefrom 10° fly), period
in hatching of eggs
with increase in temperaturewhile in mackerel,time (in hours) taken
decreases
decreases from 10°C (207hours) to 21°C (51 hours).

to affect a number of morphologicalcharacterseg

13)
Morphology.Temperature is also known
(warm-blooded animals) ofcold regions are large
tBergaman's rule. The birds and mammals
bear is much larger in size than the black bear of
tnan those of warmer region e.g. polar while the penguin of equatorial
Crate area; and Antarctic penguin is about one-metre long
agos islands is only half a metre long. It is so as a large sized body will have less surface area
Per unit of
weight so loses less heat.
of mammals are relatively shorter in colder
Allen's rule (Fig. 9). The tail, snout,ears and legs
It was noticed in foxes and gazells. The pinnae of the desert fox
Meol the warmer parts.
of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) are small sized and those of
rferda) are largest sized whileinthose size. This is so as smallstructures lose less heat. Similarly,
lezs,e
cars andpex lagopus) are smallest
pinnaeof Gazella picticanda of Himalayas areshorter than those of G. benetli ot plains

8: 9
Fig. 9. and
Allen's rule showingrelationship between size of pinnae temperature.
A. Arctic fox. B. Red fox. C. Desert fox.
230 MODERN'S BOTANY

+Jorden's rule. The fishes waters of low temperature tend to have more Vori
found in

e
than those of warmer waters s.58 vertebrae in a cod hatching at 4-8°C and 54 vertebrae in
n
at 10-11°C. aog
hatching
+Gloger's rule. The mammals, birds and insects of tropical region (warmer region) are
m.
in colour and
heavily pigmented than those of arctic region (cold region). But Hyla
darker (tree
and Phrynosoma (Horned toad) are dark skinned in low temperatures.
have relatively narrow wings
+Rensch's rule.Thebirdsof colder regions tend to thanthehi
found in warmer areas.

4)Temperature tolerance. On animals aredivided into following

this basis,
categories
These can tolerate a wide range of temperature
+Eurythermal organsims. fluctuations
man, etc
Cyclops, toad, wall lizard,

organsims. These can tolerate only a small rangeof temperature

+Stenothemal variatione
and fishes.
corals, snails

+Mesothermal organisms.Organisms living at high summer temperature and low winte

temperature.
+Microthermal. Organisms living at moderate summer temperatureand low winter
tempe
ature.

(5) Metabolism.
Temperature fluctuations seem have a remarkable effect on
to
metabolismd
certain animals mainly due to acceleration of
enzymes-controlled chemical reactions (Vont Hofr
law) eg. chirping of tree crickets is increased with increase in temperature.
6) Thermal regulation. Different living organisms tide over very low or very high temperatur
conditions differently e.g.

+Encystment. It involves the formationof a hard and chitinous protective coat, called cys
around thebody.Itis commonly seen
in Amocba,Euglena and many invertebrates. Encysted capsuls
are formed in the life worms and nematodes.
cycle of flukes, tape
+Hibernation (winter-sleep). It is period of
dormancy during winter. Poikilothermal or
ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals like amphibians (eg. frog) and reptiles (e.g. wall lizard)and
some homeothermal (warm-blooded) animals like
insectivores, bats, ground squirrel, jumping
mice,and wood chucks undergo hibernation
during which body temperature,metabolic rate and
energy requirementsare greatly reduced.
+Coccinella septempunctata undergo hibernation and aestivation
in different countries due to different
during different periods
environmental temperatures.
+Aestivation (summersleep).Itis period of dormancy during summer months soasto escape
from scorching heat of sun. It is
commonly observed in lung fishes (e.g. Protopterus-remains
surrounded in a cocoon ofslimein a tube-like burrow),
lady-bird beetles, certain bugs and snails (eg
Ariophanta). In many insects, crustaceans, mites and snails,aestivation is characterized
by diapause
(suspensionof morphologicalgrowth and development).
+Periodic activity. Poikilothermal animals like lizards become either auroral or
both. Snakesaregenerally nocturnal. Calotes, vesperal or
Crocodylus, Testudo, etc. warm up their body by basking
in the sun
during day.
+Cyclomorphosis. It is characterized by change in body shape with seasonal
temperatue
changes and has been observed in smallaquatic creatures like Cladocera,
Daphniaetc. InDaphnia, size
of helmet on head increases with increase in
temperatureand environment.
+Thermal migration.It involves the shorter or longer journeysundertaken
by animalssoa"
to resist the
temperatureextremes e.g. nocturnal activity of some desert animals;temporarily gomg
in water
by frogs, turtles and many amphibious forms;and long -trip migrationby many birds
Arctic tern, Siberiancranes, American golden (e8
ploveretc.), mammals (e.g. Bison,Reindeer Caribou
etc.) and fishes (e.g. Aguilla, Salmon etc.).
 CLIMATIC
FACTOR-
MENTAL
The birds and mammnals haveconatantbody
othermy. temperature and are called
NONA or Wam-b
blooded
animals to deal with
+Home
al or
endothermie temperatureextremes This
of water from their bodies during summer and
rough evaporation through insulating
homethe weather of wintermonths conservation of
ers, fats etc.during cold body heat by
wahieve of subeutaneus zone especlally in whales, seals,
diposus
adiposu polar bear and
f
of paniculus hair by arrector muscles to more air and constriction of superficial
laver erection of
pili trap
acts as a
animals, hypothalamus thermostat.
phael In these
behavioural
patternseg thermotaxis
certain
l'emperaturechanges also induce
lndvessel
+Behaviour. Ticks locate their warm blooded hosts; raltle snake,vipers can
towardsheat).
i etc.
ntation
by body heat.
their
heir prey
Altenberg and Muller showed
that inerease in
lemperature increases the
Variations.
so
in
Drosophila melanogaster (Iruit ly), producing more variations.
ofcrossing over
o

chances activities and physiological aredependent upon temperature It is the

ll metabolic processes
function has an optimum temperatureat which it
riticalbecause every physiological
factor

Above or below it, the rale decreases, Three cardinal limits of temperature
itsmaximum rate.
its
shows on the basis of its effect on a metabolic process
been recognized the rate of
à Optimum temperature.The temperatureat which any is
physiological activity

mavimum. limit at which the rate of

It is the lower temperature any
i) Minimum temperature.
minimum. the activity stops.
hysiological activity
is If the temperaturedecreases further,
ph
(ii) Maximum temperature. It is the highest temperature limit tolerated by plants beyond
the physiological activities cease.
which

power to the extremes of temperaturevaries from species to species. Every species

Tolerance
and Like
hasisown maximum, optimum minimum temperaturefor theirphysiological processes.
mld blooded animals, plants have no fixed internal but
temperature, depends upon the tempera- it

ture of environment.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON THE PHYSIOLOGYOF PLANTS

A. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES
1. Metabolism. All metabolic are controlled by enzymes and the activities of
reactions

enzymes are affected

by temperature. Thus, the temperatureabove or below the
optimum
for a chemical reaction decreases the rate of physiological activity. So,all the
processeslike
photosynthesis and respiration are affected by the change in temperature
2. of transpiration increases with rise in
Transpiration. The rate temperature.Extremely high
temperature, if
prolonged,may cause water stress to plants.
3. water Active absorption of minerals is affected
Mineral absorption and uptake. by
energy this is At low
temperature becausethe required for process temperaturedependent.
the nutrients remain tightly bond to soil so more
temperature, energy is required for their
Low the viscosity of waterand remain
absorption. temperatureincreases tightly bound to
the soil. It causes hinderancein the
absorption of waterparticularly the passiveabsorption.
4.
Reproduction.Flowering in plants is also affected by temperature, the phenomenon
studied as
thermoperiodism.Rhythmic diurnal cycle in temperature changes,affect the
various events. For example, seed
physiological germination in many plant species is
related to alternating high and low temperatureof
day and night.
5.
Vernalization. Many species of plants require low
temperaturetreatment for seed germi-
nation and flowering, a phenomenon known as vernalization.
32 MODERN8 BOTANY B
Injury due to extremes of temperature
The temperature, very high and very low, cause wide spread injuries to the plant
Many species are killed due to winter frost when water in the cells freeze at very
temperature causing dessication. Sometimes, the cells are ruptured when water expands on freezie
In most of the
species,prolonged freezing result in the precipitation of proteins, dehydratiom a
death of
cells.
Many species become domant and their biological activities reduced toan extremel
Winter frost renders a high viscosity in
protoplasm causing slow
low diffusion
level. through r
Exeessive high temperature causes loss of chlorophyll and result in chlorosis of
tissue. leav
is also
Chlorosis followedby wilting and necrosis. igh temperatureincreases transpiratiom and t
so high that it cannot be replenished by
loss of water reaches absorption,thus protoplasm become
leaves become flaccid and The condition is known as "leaf scorch"eg tip
dehydrated, wilt. burn
lettuce etc., onion blight; sun scald in needle blight in
potato, lettuce and cabbage, pine,spruceand
Heat cankers and sunscald of stem are the disorders of high also causes
tir. temperature.It many
types of injuries to fuits. IHeat spot, fruit scalding, waler core are some of the disorders. Hip
temperature inhibit seed development and prevent its germination.
B.OTHER EFFECTS
1. The flowering in the plants in response to temperature is called
Thermoperiodism.
thermoperiodism whileinitiation of flowering in
response to low temperatureis called vernalization.
first in winter wheat variety which was stimulated to flowerin
It was reported by Lysenko spring
also in of Secale cereale
Later it was
also. reported the winter variety (rye) and Hyoscyamus nige
(1939) proposed that induction of flowering is through a
(Henbane). Melchers phytohormone,
namely vernalin.

wIND FLOw

SUMMER STRATIFICATION AUTUMN TURNOVER

WARM LAYER MIXING OF WATER

THERMOCLINE

coOL LAYER

SOIL SOIL

SPRINGTURNOVER WINTER STRATIFICATION

ICE
MIXING OF WATER 0C

4°C

sOIL SOIL

Fig. 10. Thermal stratification found in lakes.

and high temperaturesretared the growth

2. Growth and development. Both,extremelylow
and development of plants. Low temperaturesare known to cause dessication (injury due to
and freezing injury Ginjury toplantcells
dehydration),chilling injury injuryto plants ofhotclimate)
due to ice-crystal formation in the intercellular spaces).
 MENTAL FACTOR-CLIMATIC
al stra in lakes.
In
233
Thermalstratification
3. t varying depth oths leads to
thermal
deep aquaticsystems,due to
stratification. A differences in
Waler oline. DuU zone of slow temperature
M thermocline. During summer, surtacewater changeeiin temperature is
bears a
alled water by hermocline. Two
ther
higher temperature, which is se
layers are separated
romi)Epi imnion. It
representsupper distinguishable due to thermocline.
layer of water.
ace, in winter season. In
This water is temperate lakes, water is at freezing i

mpera mixing of in cool in autumn

and warm in
to free water aquaticsystem and is
called as spring nis
eads of oxygen and nutrients spring turn over.This leads to
leading to excessive
ion. It growth of
(ii)Hypolimnion
representsthe lower phytoplankton.
in temperate lakes. layer of water and temp
.ring winter body emperature is about 4°C
Due
to stratified condition in
summer and
1d due to less supply of oxygen winter, growth
and nutrients. of
ph
phytoplanktons is highly
based zonation
Temperature
Tatitudinal Zones. As many as six
north of temperature based terrestrial latitudinal zones are
ontiated equator,each being characterized
by a specific
dnconiferous forests, deciduous vegetation type e.g. Snow,
forests,
hundra, grasslandsor deserts and tropical rainforests.

CESNOW
TUNDRA

LIN
WINTER

-EPILIMNION
A
SUMMER

TREE
CONaEST
FOREST
DECIDUOUS HYPOLIMNION

EQUATOR
DESERT
GRASSLAND
OR
TROPICAL
RAIN FOREST
:
CHAOBORUs
MUD
CHIRONOMUS

11. Latitudirnal zonation of vegetation

Fig. types. Fig. 12. Thermal stratification in
deep lake.
+Altitudinal Zones. As many as four temperaturebased terrestrial altitudinal zones are
differentiated in Himalayas, each having specificvegetation type: alpine (having Rhodendron,
oaks and Magnolin), tropical and subtropical zones
erus),
ixed temperate(mainly conifers, (having
forests, bamboos, sal, etc.)

C. ADAPTATION OF PLANTS TO EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE

surviveunder extremes
In order to of temperature, plants have evolved many morphological
These are found in xerophytes. Mesophytes and
h physioiogical adaptations. hydrophytes lack
adaptation.

to
Leaves in plants are vertically oriented
many avoid their perpendicular exposure to
Cming light. in many
Leaf-colouration desert plants are of adaptive significance. Whitish or

eygreen leaf colouration escape extreme heat absorption. Thick cuticle, leaf hairs etc. also help
the heat and saving the from reduçes the
ecting underlying tissues injury. Transpiration

rature of leaf by utilizingheat in the evaporation of water. Low degree of protoplast hydration
hses heat tolerance as can best be seen in lichens. Many plants escape
withstand the extremesof
thermal
extremes by
ucing spores or seeds that are capable to temperatures. In some
234 MODERN's BOTANY BSc

plants, the above ground vegetative parts are destroyed by extreme temperature but the ni
In some
survive by means of underground tubers, stolons, corms, rhizomes etc. plants, thereiIs
low an
increase in osmotic concentration that prevent freezing under temperatures.

D. TEMPERATURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS

The structure and compositionof vegetation of anarea is highlydependent upon temperatue
The extremesof high temperatureare met in equatorial belt graduallydecreasing away from it an
extremes of low temperatureare met at poles. Equatorial belt, tropics, temperate and polar regiom
have their own particular type of vegetation. The hot and humid equatorial and tropical region ha
stratas. They are richest in diversi
evergreen forests with a rich diversity of vegetation in different
and density. The temperate regions have low temperaturesand are covered with ri
relatively
forests of conifer trees like pines, deodar and dicots like birches, oaks, chestnut etc. The vegetation
line beyond that
Is
sparse at polar
region
due to extreme low temperaturesup to snow there is
0
vegetation
Thesame type of vegetation distribution occurs alongthealtitude of mountains.The variationy
in temperatureand the type of vegetation can be seen in Himalayas. At lower altitudes (upto 150
meters), the conditions are warm and humid consisting of vegetation dominated by Sal
(Shorea

robusta), Dalbergiasisso0o, Eugenia etc. Above, the vegetation comprises of the temperate species like
Pinus roxburgii and Quercus incana. Around 3000 meters, there is a dominance of Pinus walichiana
Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow etc. Above 4000 meters (Alpinezone), the growth of trees is negligible
and shrubslike Rhododendrons, grasses and dicot herbslike Primula, Saxifragas, Anemones make their
appearance.Further above 5000 meters temperatureremain below freezing points and under such
conditions only some specialized algae, some lichens and some mosses grow for short duration

Beyond that there is no vegetation. The overall conclusion about the influence of temperatureon
vegetation has been drawn in Schimper's first law which states that, "while the general typeo
vegetation (i.e. forests, grasslands, deserts) is not related to temperature,the type of flora
of a
particular region is determined by it."

(d) WATER
Water is essential for life. It covers more than 70% of the earth's surface. The chief source oi
water is atmosphericprecipitation. It may occurin the form
soil of snow, rain, hail, sleet,frost, dew,
fog or mist. About 45% of water flows into rivers, 20% percolates into soil and 35% lost by
of snow and ice arealso
evaporation. Melting importantsourcesof water. Land plants derive water
from while animals from pools, ponds, lakes, rivers, springs etc.
the soil the land derive water The
to face of water scarcity or abundance, so osmoregulation
organisms have different problems s
water percolates into the soil and is callei
required fortheir proper functioning. A part of ground
gravitational water whose top layer is called water table. Water in the soil is present either
as
hygroscopicwater (physically bound on soil particles) or combined water (chemically bound water
with solid chemicalcompounds like etc.) or
sulphates, silicates, capillary water (waterin between
soil micelle). Out of these water forms, water is the
only capillary available waterwhile
combined
and hygroscopicwaters are non-available waters.
WATER CYCLE
It represents the movement of water between
aquaticsystems,air and land.
The precipitation (rainfall) involves all those form of water
comingon earth in the form of rains
snow, hails and dew. It is the main sourceof water to
plants. The amount, form and availability
precipitation determinesthe type and distribution of plants in different areas.
About 75 per cent of earth is covered with water.There is a
gradual evaporationof water ro
water bodies like oceans, lakes,
ponds, and streamsetc. and returns on earth in the form of
ra"
 ENTAL OR-CLIMATIO
MENY e water
absorbed
hails
tion either in the torm trom
of frost
the soil
s
dew by plantsreturnsback
or de returns back
through transpiration and
235

transpiraton

0-20

III) 20-40
60
100
80
200
A 200-400

HEAbove 400

Fig. 13. Rainfall map of India.

Rains. Rainfall is the
chief source of water
tes the soil and present in the soil. Some amount of rain
penetra
percolates downwards where it is water
available for the to absorb.
plants like lichens, plants
epiphytes,orchidsabsorb water
directly from the
Many
atmosphere. The penetration
and
percolation of rain water the
depends upon rain showers.
Torrential rain
pardly effective in the earlier (heavy showers) is
period of shower when the soil is not saturated
e no with water. Low showers
of significance because thewater
evaporatesbefore penetration. So,
without
long breaks are effective. only medium showers
Dew. The
evaporation of water takes place from
as plant surface and soil surface which
Eted vapours in the atmosphere. When the become
is low, the
Of frost or
dew. Dew is the main source of temperature
water in ephemeral
vapours condense in the
porationof dew also plants growing in deserts.
increases
atmospheric humidity.
1ails. Smallpellets or
grainsof ice form the sleet and balls or lumpsof ice
uious to
plants as they beat theplantsand
represent hails.They
completelyruin them. In their low intensity,
duse breakage of branches,flowersand fruits.
the
they
Ow.Precipitation
ca
Plants
of atmospheric moisture in the solid state is
called snow. The
used
Cum
by snow is similarto that caused by hails and sleet. Snow cause
damage by
damage to

of toxic suffocation,
anaion
Plants
materials, oxygen deficiency etc.
Heavy snow kills the
young seedlings of
 MODERN'S BOTANY
BS
Rainfall is uneven at diferent places of earth.
Cherrapunjiget
> 11,000 mm rainfall everyy
y
when compared with deserts receiving <100 mm rainfall each year. yer

Precipitation is an indirt factor atfecting plants through atmospheric humidity and wa

wate
vegetation of a particular region
content of the soil. However, the is
primarily determined bv
amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall. In a broad sense,depending upon the amount
the vegetation may be of three types-forests, grasslandsand deserts. Where the rainfan
raintall,
distributead throughout the year, the plants show luxuriant growth as found in
evenly tropi
and warm-temperate rain forests. Where rainfall does not occurin winter, the
subtropical vegetat
of broad - leavei iccompaniedwith leaf fall as in cold temperate deciduous forests
trees
onsists
coniferous forests, the plants have needle like leaves and remain evergreen.
cold temperate Th
show verophytic structure asrainfall is not available throughout the year. Where water is scarce an
is low the of short life-cycled plants. Trees and
there temperature, vegetation comprises shrubsa
here. It can be in ice rainfall in and
notpresent seen Tundras and deserts. Light winter heavy rain
to like
Summer seasoncoresponding the growing seasonof plants grasses, herbs, sometimes shrus
and scattered traes arethe haracteristic of
grasslands. Scanty raintall and scanty vegetation o
scattered thorny shrubs and trees
correspond to deserts
The evaporation ofwaterfrom oceans takes place
utilizing solar energy.These water vapous
and vapours from plants collect in the
through transpiration atmosphere. Low pressureand low
temperatureat higher altitudes causes the condensationof atmosphericvapours to form clouds
further condensation,
they precipitate in the form of rains or snow under the force of
winter, due to low soil gravity.
temperature, the atmosphericvapours condense in the form of frost
or de
drops. From biological point of view,all plants absorbwater from the soil, so outof
different typeo
percapitations, rainfall is most important.
It is a pH dependent and occurs slowlyin
process acidic conditions. These
are also nitrifying bacteri
chemosyntheticautotrophs.
D. Denitification.It is
abiological process by which ammonium compounds, nitrates and
reduced or any other
nitrites are
respiratory fuels is oxidized to form
in combustion of wood, coal, CO,and water. It is also usi
petroleum etc. to yield CO, SO,water, oxides of
Microbia! oxidation nitrogen, ett
produces variety of oxides. The oxygen in the is in a
dynamic equilibrium. Organisms get it from air or water for oxidativeatmosphere state o
reactions
Oxygen (respiration
production. Oxygen is
mainly produced during the photolysis of water in the
phase of ligkt
photosynthesis. It is again made available to environment in
the form of combination with
CO, or with hydrogen as H,O. Oxygen is also released as a carbon in
and decay of organic matter part of CO, due to death
(Fig. 14).

OXYGEN

ORGANIC
RESPIRATION COMPOUNDS

COMBINATION
COMBUSTION
MICROBIAL
OXIDATION REDUCTION

OXIDES
CO
PHOToSYNTHESI
Fig. 14.
Oxygen cycle.
 NTAL FACTOR-CLMATICc 237

of is for lift. It is an essential need of both

Inportance water. Water indispensable plants and
about 60-90% ofbody weight,it is forthe
mals Every onganism containswater required working
a
mar-molecules, as good ionizer, transport of materials, solubilization of chemicals and for
ral chemicalreactions ike hydrolyticdigestion of polymeric nutrients, photosynthesis, etc. It

for hydrophytic and many aquatic animals. is also an agent of geological

actsas a habitat It

hange
Ris an agentofenergy transfer and use.The large amounts of energy involving in convertingg
eto water (S0 g calg), raising water temperature (1 g cal/g/degree)and vaporizingit (536 g
of
a tremendous
al make water tactor of
neutralizing heat radiations of sunlight, so acts as a
buffer.
emperature
Two types of water cycles. There are two overlapping water cycles in nature i
1. Global water cycle not involving life and
2 Biological water cycle involving the life

1. Global water cycle

Water evaporatesinto the atmosphere from sea, lakes, rivers etc. It is estimated that about
446 x 10
grams of water gets evaporated and precipitated annually.More than 75% of total
occurs ocean. It is further about 95% of earth water is bound
evaporation from the estimated that
and and about
in the lithosphere sedimentary rocks, only 5% is actually or potentially free and
in circulation
outofwhich 99% is in the ocean.But the atmosphere can hold only 0.13x 10
grams
of water vapours at any timeso the atmosphere mustbe replenished with water vapours 34 times

ina year (approximatelyafter every 11 days).

VaS

WOUs

NOuY
RAIN
POND

RIVER

TO KABSORPnON
DRINKING
oUNTAIN

TOSEA AIVERS ROM PRING

FRO GROUND WATER

Fig. 15. Water cycle.

The clouds thus formed areblown over to land. Here they are cooled to form rain, hail, snow
falls into oceans (Fig. 15). Some water falls into
etc.
Part of rain ground. The run off water is finally
collected in ocean making its way through ponds, rivers and sea. Water from these water bodies
the permanent zones (gravitational water). Water is also made
may percolate in the soil reaching
due to melting snow. A large amount of water remains underground as well as in the
available
perennial snow in the polar regions and mountain peaks above snow line.
TOrm of

The evaporation from these water bodies return the water to the atmosphere.The energy for
global water cycle is provided by sunlight. So global water cycle involves the interchange
the
 MOOERNS BOTANY 8
between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via precipitation evaporatiOn. and The cyele
state one because total is balanced by total evaporation
steady precipitation
2. Biological water cycle
take water
Inthis underground water acts asa starting point. Aquatic organisms
cycle,
and
their surroundings.The plants may take water
from these water bodies
alsofrom the soil
the animals may take water from the plants which they eat, or consume water Irom different w
vh
bodies, or the gravitational waterdirectly. After the death
and decay of these organisns,the w
in the form of vapr
is again made available. Animals release the water into air by respiration
or to soil as fluid excretion. The plants lose most of the water by the process of transpiration.
and form clouds. Rain adds water to the soil
Wa
vapours thus formed enter the global water cycle
reservoirs From this water is made to plants. So there is exchange of waler
again available betw
the global water cycle and biological water
cycle

EVAPORATION

WATER TABLE

WATER LOGGING

Fig 16. and waterloEging. Salts and other minerals accumulate in the
Salinisation
upper layers of poorly drained soil.

AQUATIC ADAPTATIONS IN HYDROPHYTESs

The plants which live in abundance of water either partially or completely submerged an
called hydrophytes. These may be free floating (eg. Lemma, Wolffia, Eichhornia, Azolla, Pistin, et
floating leaved,rooted hydrophytes (e.g.
Nymphaea, Victoria,
etc;) submerged floating hyde
rooted hydrophytes (eg.
phytes (eg. Ceratophyllum, Utricularia,
etc.);
Submerged Vallisnn
Hydrilla, etc.) and rooted emergent hydrophytes (eg. Sagittaria, Typha etc.).
Potamogeton,
Water conservation in plants
The growing in relatively dry habitat are called xerophytes. Xerism may be
plants due
ERN'S
B0TANY
FACTOR-CLIMATIC 239
ration. ENVIRONMENTAL
ENV
n. Thecy
dryness (actual shortage of water in the soil eg. deserts) or physiological dryness
sical

esenceof more salts in soil water e.g. saline or water logged soils). Xerophytes are divided into
isms take
lso fromWate waters
1
threecategories
Ephemerals.
wet
These are also called "drought evaders"
or "droughtescapers". These
live

seeds which are resistant to drought eg.

r from desonlv for a short season and produce Argemone mexicana,
of oniy
OreanterentSolanum xanthocarpum, Echinops echinata, Boerlhavvia repens of Sahara desert (a life cycle
organisms, the
n the 10-14 day
formof These store water in their internal fleshy water storage tissue so are drougnt
vap (2) Succulents.
of
store water in their roots), Opuntia (Chylocaulous-
stranspiration.
wato on.Tesistent plants e.g. Asparagus (Chylorhizous-
in stem), Aloe (Chyloph llous), Agave, Euphorbia, etc. These suffer dryness only
angeof water
ne so water stored

beh
externally.
as experience dryness both inter-
(3) Non-succulent perennials. These are true xerophytes
and externally e.g. Calotropis procera, Acacia nilotica, Prosopis, Nerium, etc.
nally

E(TEST QUESTIONS
1. the light as climatic factor of an ecosystem.
Explain
2. Explain water as a climatic factor of the ecosystem.
factor on the living organisms.
3. Discuss the effects of temperature as a climatic

4. Enlist the effect of light on plants.

5. Enlist the effect of wind on living organisms.

the
in

CCumulate

subme
npletely
Azolla,
Oornia, floating

ierged(es
etc
phytes
Tyha
ra,
may
Xern