Module 14

H. R. Diagram

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. H. R. Diagram
3.1. Coordinates of H. R. Diagram
3.2. Stellar Families
3.3. Hertzsprung Gap
3.4. H. R. Diagram and Stellar Radii
4. Summary

1. Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to

 recognize an H. R. Diagram
 explain the coordinates of an H. R. Diagram
 appreciate the shape of an H. R. Diagram
 understand that in this diagram stars appear in distinct families
 recount the characteristics of these families
 recognize that there is a real gap in the horizontal branch of the diagram, called the
Hertzsprung gap
 explain that during their evolution stars pass very rapidly through this region and
therefore there is a real paucity of stars here
 derive the shape of the 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑻 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑳 plot at a given stellar radius
 explain that the stellar radius (and mass) increases upwards in the H. R. Diagram
 2. Introduction

In the last few modules we have discussed the stellar spectra and spectral classification based on
stellar spectra. The Harvard system of spectral classification categorized stellar spectra in 7
major classes, from simple spectra containing only a few lines to spectra containing a huge
number of lines and molecular bands. The major classes were named O, B, A, F, G, K and M.
Each major class was further subdivided into 10 subclasses, running from 0 to 9. Considering
the bewildering variety of stellar spectra, classes Q, P and Wolf-Rayet had to be introduced at the
top of the classification and classes R and N were introduced at the bottom of the classification
scheme. Some prefixes and suffixes were also suggested to be used with the spectral classes to
take account of special features of their spectra.

Earlier it was thought that the difference in spectra was due to the evolving chemical
composition of the stars. However, in 1920 Saha showed that the progression of spectra from
class O to M could be explained in terms of the decreasing surface temperature of stars. Saha
likened the process of ionization of atoms to a chemical process, and derived what we now call
Saha’s ionization formula. This formula gives the fraction of ionized atoms as a function of
temperature and pressure in the stellar surface layers. Taking the examples of atoms of
hydrogen, helium and calcium, we showed in the last module how the intensities of lines of these
atoms vary with temperature, in agreement with the spectral classification. In this module we
discuss a type of plot which has become an important diagnostic tool for the astronomers.

3. H. R. Diagram

We have already seen that astronomers are always on the lookout for relations which help them
to study the objects of their interest. One such relation is the one between some measure of the
luminosity of a star and some measure of its surface temperature. The relation, found
independently by Hertzsprung and Russell, is named after these astronomers and goes by the
name of Hertzsprung – Russell (H. R.) diagram. It is one of the most useful tools for the study
of stars and their physical properties.

3.1. Coordinates of an H. R. Diagram

Besides luminosity itself, absolute magnitude is measure of luminosity. The measures of surface
temperature are spectral class and colour index. Therefore, the coordinates of an H.R. diagram
are those shown in Fig. 14.1. Note that the surface temperature increases towards the left while
the colour index (𝐵 – 𝑉) increases towards the right. Similarly, the absolute magnitude, being
anti-correlated with luminosity, increases downwards.

Surface Temperature

Absolute Magnitude
Luminosit
y

O B A F G K
M (𝐵 − 𝑉)

Fig. 14.1. The coordinates of an H. R. Diagram. Notice that temperature decreases towards
right and absolute magnitude decreases towards the top.

Fig. 14.2 shows a schematic H. R. diagram. On the 𝑦-axis are the absolute magnitudes and
luminosities; on the 𝑥-axis are the temperature and spectral class. Separation of stars in neat
groups is immediately noticed.

Fig. 14.3 shows the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram with 22,000 stars from the Hipparcos
Catalogue and 1,000 from the Gliese Catalogue of nearby stars.
 Fig. 14.2. Schematic H. R. Diagram. Notice that the temperature and luminosity scales are not
linear. The density on the Main Sequence is indicative of the actual stellar numbers of stars on it.
(Source: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/variable_stars/HR_student.html)

3.2. Stellar Families

In the H. R. diagrams, the group of stars running from the top left to the bottom right is the most
populous group. This group is called the Main Sequence. On the Main Sequence the luminosity
steadily decreases as we go from the early to the late spectral classes. The lower region of the
Main Sequence is more crowded than the upper region. The stars at the lower end are red in
colour (because of the low surface temperature) and are very small in size. These stars are
therefore called Red Dwarf stars. These are the most abundant stars in the Galaxy. Another
group of stars is situated below the Main Sequence, occupying the left bottom corner. The stars
in this group have luminosities like those of the Red Dwarfs, but their surface temperatures are
much higher. These stars are known as White Dwarf stars. In abundance, they are next only to
the red dwarfs. That their name is descriptive of their size is clear from the fact that the white
dwarfs are about 10 magnitudes fainter than the Main Sequence stars of the same surface
temperature, and so must have very small surface area (and radius).

Fig. 14.3. H–R diagram with 22,000 stars plotted from the Hipparcos Catalogue and 1,000
from the Gliese Catalogue of nearby stars. Notice the use of colour index (𝐵 − 𝑉), surface
temperature and the spectral class along the 𝑥- axis. (Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram. Diagram made by
Richard Powell.)
Next in abundance are the stars called Giant Stars, lying above the Main Sequence. These stars
are much brighter than their surface temperatures would suggest, indicating that they are large in
size. The giant branch is almost horizontal, the luminosity of giants changing little with their
surface temperature. These stars belong mostly to spectral classes F, G, K and M. Brighter than
the giant stars by about 5 magnitudes (a factor of hundred in luminosity) are the Supergiant
Stars having radii of about 100 𝑅⨀ . In this group, too, luminosity does not change much with
spectral class. These stars are the least abundant stars. Between giants and the Main Sequence is
a group of stars called the Subgiant stars. These belong mostly to the latter spectral classes.
Finally, between the Main Sequence and the White Dwarf stars are the Subdwarf stars.

If we plot apparent magnitude instead of the absolute magnitude, no such correlation with the
surface temperature is found (Fig. 14.4). There is no separation into families either.

Fig. 14.4. Lack of correlation between the apparent magnitude and the spectral
class. (Source: http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys230/lectures/hr/hr.html)
3.3. Hertzsprung Gap

4. Following comments are called for about the H. R. diagram:

Fig. 14.5. An HR diagram with the instability strip and its components
highlighted. (Source: Wikipedia)
1. The stars are found all over the diagram; the groups simply define the locations where the
stars tend to congregate.
2. There is a real paucity of supergiant stars of spectral classes A, F and G. This defines a
real gap in the supergiant branch, called the Hertzsprung gap (Fig. 14.5). The reason for
the presence of this gap is that during their evolution stars stay at this location for a very,
very short time.
3. The H. R. diagrams shown above feature the stars found in the spiral arms of our galaxy
and other galaxies. These stars are the so-called Population I stars. These are young
stars. The stars found in the globular clusters and in the central bulge of the Galaxy and
other galaxies are generally old stars (Fig. 14.6). These are known as Population II
stars. The H. R. diagram of the Population II stars is quite different from that of the
Population I stars (Fig. 14.7).

Fig. 14.6. The Messier 80 globular cluster

contains hundreds of thousands of stars
(Source: NASA/ESA). The density of stars in
a globular cluster is so large that the cluster
appears almost spherical. All these stars are
old Population II stars. Since the stars in
globular clusters can be assumed to be of the
same age (born at the same time), though
different in masses, H.R. diagrams of these
clusters throw a lot of light on stellar
evolution.
 Typical H. R. Diagram of a Globular Cluster

Horizontal Branch
Hertzsprung Gap
104
Luminosity (𝐿⨀ )

Main
10−4 Sequence

40000 20000 10000 5000 2500

Temperature (K)
Fig. 14.7. A typical globular cluster H. R. Diagram.

H. R. diagram of globular cluster M3 is shown in Fig. 14.8.

3.4. Importance of H. R. Diagram

The importance of H. R. diagram to astronomers can hardly be overstated. It is an

important tool for them since all physical properties of a star can be read from its location
on the H. R. diagram. The diagram has been called the horoscope of stars, because
astrologers claim that they can read the events of the entire life of a person from birth to
death from her horoscope. Luminosity and temperature of stars are, of course, the
coordinates of the diagram and can obviously be read. As we shall just see, the radius of a
star, the mass of a star, its spectral type, its colour, the processes of energy production in its
core, its age and the stage of its evolution, can all be inferred from the location of the star
on the H. R. diagram. Whenever a new object is discovered, its location on the H. R.
diagram is of prime importance, because it gives clue to all its physical properties.

Fig. 14.8. H. R. diagram of globular cluster M3. (Source:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:M3_color_magnitude_diagram.jpg)

3.5. H. R. Diagram and Stellar Radii

We know that the luminosity of a stars is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

𝐿 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜎𝑇 4 . (14.1)
For the Sun, we have

𝐿⨀ = 4𝜋𝑅⨀ 2 𝜎𝑇⨀ 4 . (14.2)

If we express luminosity, radius and surface temperature of a star in solar units, then its
luminosity can be written as

𝐿 = 𝑅2 𝑇 4 . (14.3)

In terms of logarithms, we can write

log 𝐿 = 2 log 𝑅 + 4 log 𝑇. (14.4)

For a fixed 𝑅, this equation represents a straight line in the log 𝑇 − log 𝐿 plane. Since

𝑅1
log 𝐿
𝑅2

𝑅1 > 𝑅2

log 𝑇

Fig. 14.9. Showing the line of Equation (14.4) for two values of the stellar radius.

temperature increases to the left; the straight line is as shown in Fig. 14.9. Fig. 14.10 shows an
H.R. diagram with lines for various stellar radii drawn in its plane. We note the increase of
stellar radius going upwards. Since mass of a star is also determined by its radius, it also
increases upwards in the diagram.
Fig. 14.10. An H.R. diagram with stellar radii drawn on it. The stellar radius
increases upwards. (Source: https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0728c/)
4. Summary

 A plot of some measure of the luminosity of stars against some measure of

their surface temperature is called an H. R. diagram.
 Stars arrange themselves into neat families on the H. R. diagram.
 There is no such correlation between the apparent magnitude and the surface
temperature.
 The major families are: Supergiant Stars, Giant Stars, Main Sequence stars,
White Dwarf stars.
 The Red Dwarf stars on the lower reaches of the Main Sequence are the most
abundant stars in the Galaxy.
 Next in abundance are the White Dwarf stars which lie about 10 magnitudes
below the Main Sequence. These stars are very small in size.
 Next in abundance are the stars called Giant stars, which are really huge in
size, lying above the Main Sequence.
 Very bright Supergiant stars are rather rare. They lie about 5 magnitudes
above the Giant stars. The radii of Supergiant stars may be as large as 100
𝑹⨀ .
 There is a real paucity of Supergiant stars of spectral classes A, F and G.
This defines a real gap in the Supergiant branch, called the Hertzsprung gap.
 H. R. diagram of old stars (Pop II stars) found in the globular clusters is
different from the H. R. diagram of young (Pop I) stars.
 In the H. R. diagram the radius and mass of stars increase as we go up.