Anthropology Assignment

Q1Discuss the ways how human beings are different from other animal species and the sources of
biological variation which are responsible for the very variation?

Difference between human and animals are quit noticeable in most cases we can start from
the basic things like:-

1,Humans can think about certain things and are motivated by their instincts, intellect and
logic. Animals are incapable of reasoning and are simply motivated by their instincts.

2,Human beings are bipedal, which means that they walk on two legs. Animals are
quadrupedal, or four-legged.

3,Humans possess many cognitive abilities, like language capacity, reasoning ability, etc. All
these qualities distinctly separate humans from animals.

 Scientific introduction of human variation

All humans are different from each other, and much of this difference has a genetic basis:
differences in phenotype caused by differences in genotype. Some of these differences are
easily observable, and we know from our own experiences that they run in families – hair,
eye, and skin colour, stature, and some morphological features (Jobling et.al. 2014). Humans
are one of the most morphologically variable species of animals, and part of the reason this
variation exists is because members of our species occupy many diverse habitats. Yet the
exact genetic basis of this variation must be quite small. Biochemical evidence shows that
humans and chimpanzees differ genetically by between 1-2 % andthat this amount of
difference was accumulated over a period of approximately 7 million years (Boaz and
Almquist, 1997).

The first scientific attempt to categorize the newly discovered variation among humans was
Linnaeus’ taxonomic classification, which placed humans into four separate groupings
(Linnaeus 1758). Linnaeus assigned behavioural and intellectual qualities to each group, with
the least complimentary descriptions going to black Africans.Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
(1752 – 1840), a German anatomist, classified humans into five categories, or races.
Although Blumenbach’s categories came to be described simply as white, yellow, red, black,
and brown, he also used criteria other than skin colour. Moreover, he emphasized that
divisions based on skin colour were arbitrary and that many traits, including skin colour,
weren’t discrete phenomena (Jurmain et.al, 2005). In 1842, Anders Retzius, a Swedish
anatomist, developed a cephalic index as method of describing the shape of the head. The
cephalic index, derived by dividing maximum head breadth by maximum length and
multiplying by 100, gives the ratio of head breadth to length. Individuals with an index of less
than 75 had long, narrow heads and were termed dolichocephalic. Brachycephalic
individuals, with broad heads, had an index of over 80, and those whose indices were
between 75 and 80 were mesocephalic.
In discussions on human variation, people have traditionally clumped together various
attributes, such as skin colour, shape of the face, shape of the nose, hair colour, hair form
(curly, straight), and eye colour. People possessing particular combinations of these and
other traits have been placed together into categories associated with specific geographical
localities. Such categories are called races. While race is usually a term with biological
connotations, it is also one with enormous social significance. Moreover, there is still a
widespread perception that there is an association between certain physical traits (skin
colour, in particular) and numerous cultural attributes (such as language, occupational
preferences, or even morality). Therefore, in many cultural contexts, a person’s social
identity is strongly influenced by the manner in which he or she expresses those physical
traits traditionally used to define “racial groups”.

discussions on human variation, people have traditionally clumped together various

attributes, such as skin colour, shape of the face, shape of the nose, hair colour, hair form
(curly, straight), and eye colour. People possessing particular combinations of these and
other traits have been placed together into categories associated with specific geographical
localities. Such categories are called races. While race is usually a term with biological
connotations, it is also one with enormous social significance. Moreover, there is still a
widespread perception that there is an association between certain physical traits (skin
colour, in particular) and numerous cultural attributes (such as language, occupational
preferences, or even morality). Therefore, in many cultural contexts, a person’s social
identity is strongly influenced by the manner in which he or she expresses those physical
traits traditionally used to define “racial groups”.

 Deeper analysis of human biological variation

Monogenism and Polygenism

The dominant debate concerning human origin and variation before and around Darwin’s
time was between supporters of the unitary (monogenic) and of the separate (polygenic)
origin of the human species. Debate centred on whether the differences seen in modern
populations were of such a degree that different human groups should be considered
separate species. Monogenists believed that all human races were descended from one pair
(Adam and Eve), but they differed from one another because they occupied different
habitats. It emphasized the similarities among populations and pointed to the criterion of
inter-fertility between individuals of the different groups. This concept was an attempt to
explain phenotypic variation between populations, but did not imply evolutionary change.
The polygenist view, on the other hand, argued that human races or all populations were not
all descended from Adam and Eve. Instead, there had been several original human pairs,
each giving rise to a different group. Also, polygenists saw such a wide gap in the physical,
mental, and moral attributes between themselves and other peoples that they were sure
that outsiders belonged to different species. Thus, human races were considered to be
separate species (Jurmain et.al. 2001, Boaz &Almquist 1997).
  Causes of human variation

(A) Mutation

Mutation is defined as a change in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that can occur either as a
single base substitution or at a larger, chromosomal level.

From an evolutionary perspective, mutation is the only way totally new variation can be
produced. Effects on any gene should be minor, however, since mutation rates for any given
locus are quite low (estimated at about 1 per 10,000 gametes per generation). In fact,
because mutation occurs so infrequently at any particular locus, it would rarely have any
significant effect on allele frequencies. Certainly, mutation occurs every generation, but
unless we sample a huge number of subjects, we are unlikely to detect any noticeable effect.

B .Gene flow

Gene flow is the movement of alleles between populations. The term migration is
frequently used synonymously with gene flow; however, migration, strictly defined, means
movements of people, whereas gene flow refers to the exchange of genes– which can occur
only if the migrants interbreed.

Biological relationships between inter-breeding human groups are best understood in terms
of gene flow between superficially distinct populations whose gene pool overlap
considerably. For example, we know that individuals from European and African populations
have interbred considerably since Europeans brought the first Africans to the New World as
slaves. Similar processes have mixed the genes of these and other in-migrating populations
with the genes of indigenous American populations. These are examples of gene flow among
populations of a single species that had experienced relative isolation in the past but that
continues to exchange enough genes often enough with neighbouring populations to
preserve an overall species identity (Schultz and Lavenda,1998). However, we must keep in
mind that, it would be a misconception to conclude that human gene flow can occur only
through large-scale movements of groups. In fact, significant alterations in allele frequencies
can come about through long-term patterns of mate selection. If exchanges of mates are
consistently in one direction over a long period of time, allele frequencies will ultimately be
altered. Due to demographic, social, or economic pressures, an individual may choose a
mate from outside the immediate vicinity

C.Genetic drift

Genetic drift is the chance factor in evolution and is tied directly to population size. The term
drift is used because, as a completely random process, the allele frequencies can change in
any direction. A particular kind of drift seen in modern populations is called founder effect or
bottleneck effect. Founder effect operates when an unusually small number of individuals
contributes genes to the next generation, making for a genetic bottleneck. This phenomenon
can occur when a small migrant band of ‘founders’ colonizes a new and separate area away
from the parent group. Small founding populations may also be left as remnants when
famine, plague, or war ravages a normally larger group. In another sense, we can say that,
each generation is the founder of all succeeding generations in any population
D.Natural selection

Natural selection is a mechanism of evolutionary change first articulated by Charles

Darwin. It refers to genetic change, or to changes in frequencies of certain traits in
populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals.

Q2, Discuss the kind of marginalization that you observe in your social environment (the
case of Ethiopia) and indicate some of the most marginalized groups and the major causes
for the marginalization of these groups of people?

Starting of from the definition Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social

group as minor, insignificant or peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain
groups from social interactions, marriage relations, sharing food and drinks, and working and
living together. 4

Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social groups in every society and
culture. These are Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are among
marginalized groups across the world. The nature and level of marginalization varies from
society to society as a result of cultural diversity.

 Kinds of4marginalization

1.Gender-based marginalization4

Gender-based marginalization is closely related to gender inequality. Gender inequality

involves discrimination on a group of people based on their gender. Gender inequality
mainly arises from socio-cultural norms. The manifestations of gender inequality varies from
culture to culture. Girls and women face negative discrimination in societies across the
world. Women are exposed to social and economic inequalities involving unfair distribution
of wealth, income and job opportunities.

2.Marginalized occupational groups

According to anthropological finding, there are occupational marginalized groups in many

parts of Ethiopia. The most marginalized occupational groups are tanners, potters, weavers
and ironsmiths. These craft-workers have different names in different parts of the4of the
country. Craft-workers such as potters and tanners are considered as impure and excluded
from social interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and participation in
associations and celebrations. As noted above, marginalized occupational groups are people
engaged in craftworks such as pottery, tannery, and iron works. Craft-workers in Ethiopia
produce several articles such as traditional hand-woven clothes, household utensils, and
farm tools. Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes. They have important contributions to
their communities; however, they are marginalized by the dominant and majority groups.
For examples, weavers produce cultural clothes highly demanded by thousands and millions
of people. Many people use cultural clothes during annual celebrations, religious holidays,
weddings, culture days, and mourning. The demand of cultural dresses has been increasing
in the last three decades. People dress cultural clothes in different occasions such as cultural
festivals, days of nations and nationalities, and religious celebrations. Despite their
contributions, weavers are marginalized from the wider society.

3.Age-based vulnerability

Age-based vulnerability is susceptibility of people, especially children and older people, to

different forms of attack, physical injuries and emotional harms. For example, children and
older people (people aged 60 and above) are exposed to possibilities of attack, harm and
mistreatment because of their age. As a result, vulnerable persons/groups need
specialattention, protection and support. In this section, we discuss some example related to
children and older people. 5

4.Religious and ethnic minorities marginalization

Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face different forms of marginalization. There
are several examples of marginalization and discrimination targeting religious and ethnic
minorities in the world.

There are two widely known examples:-

A, The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in different

parts of the world. They were targets of extermination in Germany and other

Western European countries because of their identity.

B, Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted people

in the world. According to Abdu Hasnat Milton et al (2017), the Rohingya are one of the
most ill-treated and persecuted refugee groups in the world‘. In recent years, more than
half-a-million Rohingyas fled from their homes in Nyanmar to neighboring countries such as
Bangladesh. As people living in refugee camps, the Rohingyas are vulnerable to problems
such as malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse. These are among the widely known
examples of discrimination against religious and ethnic minorities. The problem is not limited
to specific areas, regions or countries. Although the level of the problem varies in different
contexts, religious and ethnic minorities face different forms of discrimination in many parts
of the world.

 5Major causes for the Marginalization of these groups of people

There isn’t a single cause of marginalization. It’s a complex issue that stems from a
combination of systemic, social, and economic factors. These include but are not limited to
discrimination, income inequality, and lack of access to quality education and healthcare.

Generally, Certain groups in society are marginalized due to a combination of economic,

social, cultural, and political circumstances.
Source √Anthro Module

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