EVS Notes Sem IV_240313_155008

Environmental Pollution
5
5.1 Environmental Pollution
5.2 Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks
5.3 Solid Waste Management
5.4 Pollution Case Studies
Introduction:
For normal and healthy living conducive environment is required by all living beings, including
humans, livestock, plants, micro-organisms and the wildlife. The favourable unpolluted
environment has a specific composition. When this composition gets changed by addition of
harmful substances, the environment is called polluted environment and the substances polluting
it are called pollutants. Environmental pollution can, therefore, be defined as any undesirable
change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the
environment (air, water, soil), which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or
property.
5.1 Environmental Pollution:

Pollution can be anything - which damages the ecosystem and destroys the delicate balance in the
ecosystem. Thereby, it creates health hazards to human beings and animals besides damaging the
ecosystem. Extensive use of pesticides on crops has set imbalance in ecosystems of lands besides
causing drinking water pollution.
5.1.1 Meaning:
Environmental pollution may be defined as the "unfavourable alteration of our surroundings,
wholly or partly by human action". According to National Environmental Research Council
(NERC) Pollution is viewed as "the release of substance and energy as waste products by human
activities which result in changes, usually harmful, within the natural environment". The factors
responsible for the pollution crisis are population explosion, unplanned urbanization and
deforestation, profit oriented capitalism, technological advancement, industrial revolution etc.
The problem of environmental pollution is one of the terrifying ecological crises faced by man.
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Environmental pollution is a global problem and is common to both developed as well as
developing countries. The decline in environmental quality as a consequence of pollution is
evidenced by loss of vegetative cover and biological diversity, excessive concentration of
harmful chemicals in the ambient atmosphere, in food grains, growing risks of environmental
accidents and threats to life support system.
5.1.2 Types of Environmental Pollution:

There are seven types of environmental pollution:
A) Air Pollution
B) Water Pollution
C) Soil Pollution
D) Marine Pollution
E) Noise Pollution
F) Thermal Pollution
G) Nuclear Pollution
Explanation of these types of pollution is as follows:
A) Air Pollution:
It is an atmospheric condition in which certain substances (including the normal constituents
in excess) are present in such concentrations which can cause undesirable effects on man and
his environment. These substances include gases, particulate matter, radioactive substances
etc. Gaseous pollutants include oxides of sulphur (mostly SO2, SO3) oxides of nitrogen
(mostly NO and NO2 or NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (mostly
hydrocarbons) etc. Particulate pollutants include smoke, dust, soot, fumes, aerosols, liquid
droplets, pollen grains etc. Radioactive pollutants include radon-222, iodine-131, strontium-
90, plutonium-239 etc.
1) Classification of Air Pollutants:
Air pollutants may occur in gaseous or particulate form and may be organic or inorganic in
nature. On the basis of origin of pollutants they can be classified as primary or secondary
pollutants.
a) Primary Pollutants:
These are emitted directly from the point source (identifiable source) e.g. carbon monoxide
(CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulphur (SOx), hydrocarbons, radioactive
substances etc.
b) Secondary Pollutants:
These are formed by interaction of primary pollutants (S) with other primary pollutants (s) or
with some natural constituents of atmosphere, e.g. ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),
Photochemical smog etc.
2) Causes/Sources of Air Pollutants:
The sources of air pollution are natural and man-made (anthropogenic).
a) Natural Sources:
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The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea salt sprays,
biological decay, photochemical oxidation of terpenes, marshes, extra-terrestrial bodies,
pollen grains of flowers, spores etc. Radioactive minerals present in the earth crust are the
sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere.
b) Man-made:
Manmade sources include thermal power plants, industrial units, vehicular emissions, fossil
fuel burning, agricultural activities etc. Thermal power plants have become the major sources
for generating electricity in India as the nuclear power plants couldn‘t be installed as
planned. The main pollutants emitted are fly ash and SO2. Metallurgical plants also consume
coal and produce similar pollutants. Fertilizer plants, smelters, textile mills, tanneries,
refineries, chemical industries, paper and pulp mills are other sources of air pollution.
Automobile exhaust is another major source of air pollution. Automobiles release gases
such as carbon monoxide (about 77%), oxides of nitrogen (about 8%) and hydrocarbons
(about 14%). Heavy duty diesel vehicles spew more NOx and suspended particulate matter
(SPM) than petrol vehicles which produce more carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
c) Indoor Air Pollution:
The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas. Radon gas and its radioactive daughters
are responsible for a large number of lung cancer deaths each year. Radon can be emitted
from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles etc., which are derived from soil
containing radium. Radon is also present in groundwater and natural gas and is emitted
indoors while using them. Many houses in the under-developed and developing countries
including India use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood and kerosene in their kitchens.
Complete combustion of fuel produces carbon dioxide which may not be toxic. However,
incomplete combustion produces the toxic gas carbon monoxide. Coal contains varying
amounts of sulphur which on burning produces sulphur dioxide. Fossil fuel burning produces
black soot. These pollutants i.e. CO, SO2, soot and many others like formaldehyde, benzo-(a)
pyrene (BAP) are toxic and harmful for health. BAP is also found in cigarette smoke and is
considered to cause cancer. A housewife using wood as fuel for cooking inhales BAP
equivalent to 20 packets of cigarette a day.
3) Effects of Air Pollution:
Effects of air pollution are on human health, plants, aquatic life, marine life etc.
a) Effects on Human Health:
Effects of air pollution on human health are as follows:
i) Effect on Respiratory System:
Years of exposure to air pollutants (including cigarette smoke) adversely affect these natural
defenses and can result in lung cancer, asthma, chronic, bronchitis and emphysema (damage
to air sacs leading to loss of lung elasticity and acute shortness of breath).
Suspended particulates can cause damage to lung tissues and diseases like asthma,
bronchitis and cancer especially when they bring with them cancer causing or toxic
pollutants attached on their surface. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) causes constriction of respiratory
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passage and can cause bronchitis like conditions. In the presence of suspended particulates,
SO2 can form acid sulphate particles, which can go deep into the lungs and affect them
severely.
ii) Effect of Oxides of Nitrogen and Carbon:
Oxides of nitrogen especially NO2 can irritate the lungs and cause conditions like chronic
bronchitis and emphysema. Carbon monoxide (CO) reaches lungs and combines with
hemoglobin of blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin. CO has affinity for hemoglobin 210
times more than oxygen. Haemoglobin is, therefore, unable to transport oxygen to various
parts of the body. This causes suffocation. Long exposure to CO may cause dizziness,
unconsciousness and even death.
iii) Effect of Other Pollutants:
Many other air pollutants like benzene (from unleaded petrol), formaldehyde and particulates
like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxic metals and dioxins (from burning of polythene)
can cause mutations, reproductive problems or even cancer.
iv) Effect of Hazardous Pollutants:
Many other hazardous materials like asbestos, beryllium, mercury, arsenic and radioactive
substances cause lung diseases and/or affect other vital organs like kidney, liver, spleen,
brain and some may also cause cancer.
b) Effects on Plants:
Effects of air pollution on plants are as follows:
i) Effect on Process of Photosynthesis:
Air pollutants affect plants by entering through stomata (leaf pores through which gases
diffuse), destroy chlorophyll and affect photosynthesis. During the day time the stomata are
wide open to facilitate photosynthesis. Air pollutants during day time affect plants by
entering the leaf through these stomata more than night.
ii) Effect on Waxy Coating:
Pollutants also erode waxy coating of the leaves called cuticle. Cuticle prevents excessive
water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. Damage to leaf structure
causes necrosis (dead areas of leaf), chlorosis (loss or reduction of chlorophyll causing
yellowing of leaf) or epinasty (downward curling of leaf), and abscission (dropping do
leaves).
iii) Effects of Particulars Deposited on Leaves:
Particulates deposited on leaves can form encrustations and plug the stomata and also reduce
the availability of sunlight. The damage can result in death of the plant.
iv) Effect of Oxide of Some Elements:
SO2 causes bleaching of leaves, chlorosis, injury and necrosis of leaves. NO2 results in
increased abscission and suppressed growth. O3 causes fleacks on leaf surface, premature
aging, necrosis and bleaching. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) causes silvering of lower surface
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of leaf, damage to young and more sensitive leaves and suppressed growth. Fluorides cause
necrosis of leaf-tip while ethylene results in epinasty, leaf abscission and dropping of
flowers.
c) Effects on aquatic life:
Air pollutants mixing up with rain can cause high acidity (lower pH) in fresh water lakes.
This affects aquatic life especially fish. Some of the fresh water lakes have experienced total
fish death.
d) Effects on materials:
Because of their corrosiveness, particulates can cause damage to exposed surfaces. Presence
of SO2 and moisture can accelerate corrosion of metallic surfaces due to formation of sulfuric
acid. Metal parts of buildings, vehicles, bridges, wires and metallic railway tracks are
affected. Sulfuric acid also damages buildings and causes disfigurement of statues made up
of marble and limestone.
Sulfuric acid formed by the atmospheric SO2 and water vapours damages the leather
binding of books. The pages of the books also become brittle. SO2 can affect fabric, leather,
paint and paper. Ozone in the atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber. Nylon stockings are
weakened and ultimately damaged. Tyres of various vehicles are also damaged. These days‘
chemicals are added to prevent damage to tyre rubber by ozone. Oxides of nitrogen and
ozone can also cause fading of cotton and rayon fibers.
4) Control Measures for Air Pollution (Control):
Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:
a) Sitting of Industries:
Sitting of industries after proper environmental impact assessment studies.
b) By Dilution of Emission:
This can be done by increasing the stack height (though up to permissible height), beyond
inversion layer. Wind currents will disperse the pollutants. But this results in interstate
dispute and is not considered to be solution for air pollution problem.
c) Minimise Activities which Cause Pollution:
Minimize/modify activities which cause pollution like transportation and energy production.
d) Use of Sulfur and Nitrogen:
Using low sulphur coal in industries. Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the
help of bacteria). Removing NOx during the combustion process and controlling the flow of
air and fuel in industrial boilers.
e) Control of Vehicular Pollution:
Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of engines; replacement of more
polluting old vehicles; installing catalytic converters; by engine modification to have fuel
efficient (lean) mixtures to reduce CO and hydrocarbon emissions; and slow and cooler
burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission. Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.
f) Use of Nonconventional Energy Source:
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Using non-conventional sources of energy can control the air pollution.
g) Plantation of Trees:
Planting more trees greatly reduce the pollution.
5) Control/ Remedial of Air Pollution at Source:
Reductions of air pollution at source are as follows:
a) Gaseous Pollutants:
Gaseous pollutants can be reduced by physical adsorption on porous solid materials like
activated charcoal, silica gel, fuller‘s earth, etc. Effluent gases can be absorbed in liquid
absorbent, e.g., SO2 absorbed in ammonia solution. They can be removed by condensation
which is carried out by cooling medium in tubes where the gases in contact condense and can
be collected thereafter. Combustion can be used to reduce pollution by burning the pollutants
in combustion equipment at optimal conditions of oxygen and temperature.
b) Particulate Matter:
Many devices are available now-a-days, for control of particulate matter, choice of which
depends on characteristics of particulate, flow rate, collection efficiency, costs, etc.
c) Cyclones:
It consists of a cylinder with an inverted cone attached at the bottom. The gas with particles
in it enters tangentially at the top of the cylinder and spins forming a vortex. Due to
centrifugal force, the particles strike the wall of the cylinder. The particles then fall in the
hopper due to gravity from where they are removed. The spinning gas forms an inner vortex
and leaves from the top. The cyclone is very efficient for larger particles. However, smaller
particles which pose human health problems are not removed efficiently. Therefore, cyclones
are employed before the use of other costly devices.
d) Bag House Filters:
A bag house filter contains a large number of filter bags made of fabric. They are hung
upside down in several compartments of bag house filter. Dirty gas is passed through the
filter bags which leaves the bags through their pores. The dust particles get deposited on the
inner surface of the bag filters and may form a cake which can be removed by shaking. The
device is efficient for removal of very small particles and is preferred in various types of
industries. The bag house filters are expensive and cannot be operated for moist gases.
Corrosive gases may damage the material of the bags. Various types of materials, depending
on the nature of the fuel gases to be cleaned, are used for making the filter bags.
e) Wet Scrubbers:
Dirty gases are passed through water in the chamber or water is sprayed on the gas. Particles
are made wet and are removed from the gas stream which leaves from the top of the
scrubber. Wet scrubbers are very efficient for removing the particulates. The scrubbers are
very useful for removal of toxic and acidic gases also.
f) Electrostatic Precipitators:
The electrostatic precipitators may be plate type or cylinder type. Vertical wires are placed
between the parallel plates or wire is hung along the axis of the cylinder. High negative
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voltage is applied to the wire. Dust particles while passing from the lower end get negatively
charged (ionized) and are collected on the positively charged surface (plates/ cylindrical
body) while the clean gas leaves from the top. The deposited dust particles fall down in the
dust collector or are removed by scrapping or by liquids. Electrostatic precipitators utilise
electric energy and can efficiently remove even submicroscopic particles.
B) Water Pollution:
Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of water making it unsuitable for designated use in its natural state.
1) Types of Water Pollution:
There are two main types of pollution of water on the basis of number source of Pollutants,
these are as follows:
a) Point Source Water Pollution:
Water pollution take place from one source of pollutants
b) Non-point Source Water Pollution:
Water pollution take place due to multiple sources of pollutants.
2) Causes of Water Pollution:
Water is an essential commodity for survival. Water is needed for drinking, cooking, bathing,
washing, irrigation, and for industrial operations. Most of water for such uses comes from
rivers, lakes or groundwater sources. Water has the property to dissolve many substances in
it, therefore, it can easily get polluted. Pollution of water can be caused by point sources or
non-point sources. Point sources are specific sites near water which directly discharge
effluents into them. Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants,
underground coal mines, offshore oil wells etc. The discharge from non-point sources is not
at any particular site, rather, these sources are scattered, which individually or collectively
pollute water. Surface run-off from agricultural fields, overflowing small drains, rain water
sweeping roads and fields, atmospheric deposition etc., are the non-point sources of water
pollution.
a) Ground Water Pollution:
Ground water forms about 0.59% of the total water available on planet earth and is about 30
times more than surface water (streams, lakes and estuaries). Ground water seems to be less
prone to pollution as the soil mantle through which water passes helps to retain various
contaminants due to its cation exchange capacity. However, there are a number of potential
sources of ground water pollution. Septic tanks, industry (textile, chemical, tanneries), deep
well injection, mining etc., are mainly responsible for ground water pollution, which is
irreversible. Ground water pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate are posing serious
health hazards.
b) Surface Water Pollution:
i) Sewage:
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Sewage is waste matter such as faeces or dirty water release from houses and industries,
emptying the drains and sewers in fresh water bodies causes water pollution called as Sewage
The sewage problem is severe in cities.
ii) Industrial Effluents:
Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides,
ammonia, radioactive substances, etc., are sources of water pollution. They also cause
thermal (heat) pollution of water.
iii) Synthetic Detergents:
Synthetic detergents used in washing and cleaning produce foam and pollute water.
iv) Agrochemicals:
Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates) and pesticides
(insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water and surface run-off pollute
water.
v) Oil:
Oil spillage into sea-water during drilling and shipment pollute it.
vi) Waste Heat:
Waste heat from industrial discharges increases the temperature of water bodies and affects
distribution and survival of sensitive species.
3) Effects of Water Pollution:
a) Oxygen Demanding Wastes:
Organic matter which reaches water bodies is decomposed by micro-organisms present in
water. For this degradation, oxygen dissolved in water is consumed for respiration in
microbes. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of
water at a particular temperature and atmospheric pressure. Amount of dissolved oxygen
depends on aeration, photosynthetic activity in water, respiration of animals and plants and
ambient temperature. The saturation value of DO varies from 8–15 mg/L. For active fish
species (trout and Salmon) 5–8 mg/L of DO is required whereas less desirable species like
carp can survive at 3.0 mg/L of DO. Lower DO may be harmful to animals especially fish
population. Oxygen depletion (deoxygenation) helps in release of phosphates from bottom
sediments and causes eutrophication.
b) Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds (nutrients):
Addition of compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorus helps in the growth of algae and
other plants which when die and decay consume oxygen of water. Under anaerobic
conditions foul smelling gases are produced. Excess growth or decomposition of plant
material will change the concentration of CO2 which will further change pH of water.
Changes in pH, oxygen and temperature will change many physico-chemical characteristics
of water.
c) Pathogens:
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Many waste waters especially sewage contain many pathogenic (disease causing) and non-
pathogenic micro-organisms and many viruses. Water borne diseases like cholera, dysentery,
typhoid, jaundice etc. are spread by water contaminated with sewage.
d) Toxic compounds:
Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides and many other organic and inorganic
compounds are harmful to aquatic organisms. The demand of DO increases with addition of
biodegradable organic matter which is expressed as biological oxygen demand (BOD). BOD
is defined as the amount of DO required to aerobically decompose biodegradable organic
matter of a given volume of water over a period of 5 days at 20ºC. Higher BOD values of any
water sample are associated with poor water quality. The non-biodegradable toxic
compounds biomagnify in the food chain and cause toxic effects at various levels of food
chain.
4) Control /Remedial Measures for Water Pollution (Control):
Remedial measures for water pollution are as follows:
a) Pesticides and Fertilizers:
It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. However, due to
absence of defined strategies it becomes difficult to prevent water pollution from non-point
sources. The following points may help in reducing water pollution from non-point sources.
Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their surface
run-off and leaching. Use of these on sloped lands should be avoided.
b) Use of Nitrogen Fixing Plants:
Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.
c) Integrated Pest Management:
Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides.
d) Nutrient Rich Water used as Fertilizer:
Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich
water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.
e) Separate Drainage of Sewage and Rain Water:
Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided to prevent overflow of
sewage with rain water.
f) Planting Trees would Reduce Pollution:
Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also prevent soil erosion. For
controlling water pollution from point sources, treatment of waste waters is essential before
being discharged.
C) Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution is also called as soil contamination or land degradation as part of land
degradation. It is caused mainly by the xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or alteration in
the natural soil environment. It is mostly caused by agricultural chemicals like insecticides,
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pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and industrial waste or disposal of domestic sewage, waste
water. Soil pollution also caused by natural Oil.
1) Meaning:
One of the definitions of soil pollution is "decrease in the quality of soils either due to human
sources or natural sources or by both is known as soil polluter'. This is due to several reasons,
e.g. rapid rate of soil erosion, deforestation, loss of nutrients and soil microorganisms,
excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, excess or deficit of moisture soil,
temperature variation, lack of humus and different types of pollutants. With rapidly
advancing technology, man's impact upon the world of natural resources is beginning to
prove overwhelming. Rapid urbanization, with the consequent increase in population and
building construction has resulted in the reduction of lands for the wastes to be disposed.
Every year solid wastes are increasing tremendously all over the world, depending upon the
living standards of the people. Moreover, as every day passes, the garbage in the street corner
bin spilled over sooner than it could be emptied. Several hazardous chemicals and the
mountains of wastes are ultimately dumped on the lands; pumping industrial and municipal
wastes cause toxic substances to be leached and seep into the soil and affect the ground water
course. Modern agricultural practices introduce numerous pesticides, fungicides,
bactericides, insecticides, biocides, fertilizers and manures, resulting in severe biological and
chemical contamination of land. Apart from all these, direct pollution of soil by deadly
pathogenic organisms is also of major importance.
2) Types of Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution can classify in many ways. Soil can be classify on the basis of location:
a) Agriculture soil Pollution
b) Forestry
c) Urban
3) Causes of Soil Pollution:
Soil is the upper layer of the earth crust which is formed by weathering of rocks. Organic
matter (Humus) in the soil makes it suitable for living organisms and cultivation of crops.
a) Dumping of Domestic Waste:
Dumping of various types of materials especially domestic wastes causes land pollution.
Domestic wastes include garbage‘s, rubbish material like glass, plastics, metallic cans, paper,
fibers, cloth rags, containers, paints, varnishes etc. Leachates from dumping sites and sewage
tanks are harmful and toxic, which pollute the soil.
b) Dumping of Industrial Waste:
Industrial wastes are the effluents discharged from chemical industries, paper and pulp mills,
tanneries, textile mills, steel industries, distilleries, refineries, pesticides and fertilizer
industries, pharmaceutical industries, food processing industries, cement industries, thermal
and nuclear power plants, mining industries etc.
c) Waste from Thermal Power Plants:
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Thermal power plants generate a large quantity of ―Fly ash‖. Huge quantities of these wastes
are dumped on land which cause land pollution.
d) Use of Pesticides:
Pesticides are used to kill pests that damage crops. These pesticides ultimately reach the soil
and persist there for a long time. Pesticides which are persistent in nature are chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides e.g., DDT, HCH, endrin, lindane, heptachlor, endosulfan etc.
Residues of these pesticides in the soils have long term effects especially under the temperate
conditions.
e) Excreta of Animals:
Land also receives excreta from animals and humans. The sewage sludge contains many
pathogenic organisms, bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms which cause pollution in the
land.
f) Radioactive Substances:
The sources of radioactive substances in soil are explosion of radioactive devices, radioactive
wastes discharged from industries and laboratories, aerial fall out etc. Isotopes of radium,
uranium, thorium, strontium, iodine, caesium and of many other elements reach land and
persist there for a long time land keep on emitting radiations.
4) Effects of Soil Pollution:
Following are the effects of soil pollution:
a) Change in Properties of Soil:
Various types of chemicals like acids, alkalis, pesticides, insecticides, weedicides, fungicides,
heavy metals etc. in the industrial discharges affect soil fertility by causing changes in
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.
b) Effect on Soil Flora and Fauna:
Some of the persistent toxic chemicals inhibit the non-target organisms, soil flora and fauna
and reduce soil productivity. These chemicals accumulate in food chain and ultimately affect
human health. Indiscriminate use of pesticides specially is a matter of concern.
c) Cause of Diseases:
Sewage sludge has many types of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms which
may cause various types of diseases. Decomposing organic matter in soil by decomposers
(Microbes) also produces toxic vapours.
d) Cause of Abnormalities:
Radioactive fallout on vegetation is the source of radio-isotopes which enter the food chain in
the grazing animals. Some of these radio-isotopes replace essential elements in the body and
cause abnormalities
For Example: 1. Strontium-90 instead of calcium gets deposited in the bones and tissues.
The bones become brittle and prone to fracture.
2. Soil containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of contracting leukemia.
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e) Eutrophication:
Radioisotopes which attach with the clay become a source of radiations in the environment.
Nitrogen and phosphorus from the fertilizers in land reach nearby water bodies with
agricultural run-off and cause eutrophication. Chemicals or their degradations products from
land may percolate and contaminate ground-water resources.
5) Control of Soil Pollution:
Following are the control measures of soil pollution:
a) Effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on land.
b) Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed of by appropriate method.
c) From the wastes, recovery of useful products should be done.
d) Biodegradable organic waste should be used for generation of biogas.
e) Cattle dung should be used for methane generation. Night-soil (human feces/excrements) can
also be used in the biogas plant to produce inflammable methane gas.
f) Microbial degradation of biodegradable substances is also one of the scientific approaches
for reducing land pollution.
g) The "3 R's" Rule & Education: Implementation of Reduce, reuse and recycle policy for most
of the non-biodegradable products like plastic and which eventually have an impact on soil
pollution.. Awareness through school, college education also play a major role, to protect the
environment from soil pollution.
D) Marine Pollution:
Oceans make up the main part of water bodies on the earth and are also home to a large
number and wide variety of marine species or life forms.Over the years and especially in
modern times, surplus human activities have adversely affected the marine life.
The most important ill effect has been marine pollution.It is believed that everything that
is carried away by rivers ultimately ends up in sees. This leads to pollution by sewage
garbage, agricultural waste, fungicides, pesticides and heavy metals by discharge of oils and
petroleum products and by dumping of radioactive waste into sea.
1) Causes of Marine Pollution:
Following are the causes of marine pollution:
a) Industrial Garbage:
Various industrial projects dump their industrial garbage and the them and polluted release in
the water of sea e.g. The industrial projects in Minamata city in Japan released their garbage
in the sea water which increased the mercury in the sea water which results in the death of
poisonous fishes.
b) Discharge of Hazards Material through Ships:
Oil spills are becoming a major hazard as tankers and cargo ships discharge it either
deliberately or accidentally. Poisonous materials like PCBs, mercury, PAHs and dioxins
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along with other radioactive wastes that are disposed into these bodies cause enormous
marine pollution.
c) Disposal of Human Waste:
In addition to these, the damage occurring due to the large scale and insensitive disposal of
human wastes and sewage contents into oceans is unimaginable. Moreover, the dead organic
matter that remains in the water causes further pollution that is very dangerous to the existing
life forms.
2) Effects of Marine Pollution:
The effects of the marine pollution are as huge and varied as the causes themselves.
a) Disruption of Various Cycles:
The oil pollution results in disruptions to the cycle of coral reefs, clogging of the gills of
fishes thereby resulting in their death and hampering the process of photosynthesis of marine
plants leading to their end.
b) Effect on Marine Life:
Oil pollution on a large scale also indirectly affects areas that may not have seen the spill.
The disposal of toxic wastes has both direct and indirect effect on marine life and equally
hazardous consequence on the human race as we are closely linked with aquatic life forms in
many ways.
c) Effects of Toxins:
Toxins along with garbage deplete the oxygen content of the water thus making it impossible
for many life forms including bigger species like whales, dolphins, penguins, shark, iguana
and seals to survive.
d) Effects of Pesticides:
Some of these substances such as the normal DDTs and pesticides accumulate in the fatty
acids of animals and results in the failure of reproductive system of some of the species
especially mammals.
e) Effects of Other Activities:
Apart from these, activities like farming, forestry and mining if not done with care lead to
sediments being deposited in the waters and impacts adversely both plant as well as animal
life in the oceans. This is one of the main effects of marine pollution.
f) Effects of Plastic Debris:
Plastic debris, discarded fishing nets and other similar items that are there purely because of
human negligence act as severe agents of marine pollution and have an effect that cannot be
imagined unless witnessed. The large scale death of animals due to plastic consumption like
the sea turtles who consume it thinking it to be jellyfish is an example.
3) Control Measures of Marine Pollution:
Measures to prevent marine pollution can only be effective if all nations join forces to
address the issue. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) plays a central role in
promoting such international cooperation.
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a) Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships:
Regulations must be applied to all kinds of oils, hazardous liquid substances in bulk, harmful
substances in packaged form, sewerage, and water generated on ships; and regulations must
be applied to the construction and equipment of ships, and inspections must be conducted to
ensure compliance. In tandem with the enforcement of regulations to control hazardous
liquid substances, the Environment Agency also evaluated 53 unclassified liquid substances.
b) Prevention of Marine Pollution by Wastes:
It is important to prohibit the disposal of industrial wastes at sea, except for uncontaminated
organic materials of natural origin.
c) Prevention of Marine Oil Pollution:
Prevention of marine oil pollution must be done by taking the serious actions on it. It is most
important.
d) Marine Environment Monitoring and Research:
The concentrations of hazardous substances as well as general items that impact the quality
of water and sediment have to be measure. The research program to study the effects of
pollution on marine organisms and those of air pollution on the marine environment has to
conduct.
e) Strengthening of Marine Environment Conservation Measures:
Strengthening of marine environment conservation measures should have to be done. This
affects the pollution rate.
E) Noise Pollution:
Sound is mechanical energy from a vibrating source. A type of sound may be pleasant to
someone and at the same time unpleasant to others. The unpleasant and unwanted sound is
called noise.
1) Sources of Noise Pollution:
The sources of noise can be classified as:
a) Mobile Sources:
Mobile sources are various modes of transportation (like air, road, and rail transportation)
b) Stationary Sources:
Stationary sources include industrial operations, construction activities and celebrations
(social/religious functions, elections etc.), electric home appliances etc. High levels of noise
have been recorded in some of the cities of the world. In Nanjing (China) noise level of 105
dB has been recorded, while in some other cities of the world these levels are: Rome 90 dB,
New York 88 dB, Kolkata 85 dB, Mumbai 82 dB, Delhi 80 dB, Kathmandu 75 dB.
2) Causes of Noise Pollution:
Multiple causes may attribute to noise pollution. Some of the most popular causes are listed
below:
a) Industrialization:
~5. 14~
Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing a large amount of
noise. Apart from that, various equipment like compressors, generators, exhaust fans,
grinding mills also participates in producing big noise.
b) Poor Urban Planning:
In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also plays a vital role. Congested
houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequent fights over basic
amenities lead to noise pollution, which may disrupt the environment of society. Noise
pollution in urban settings may also be caused when residential properties and industrial
buildings are in proximity. In situations like these, the noise from the nearby industrial
property might hinder the basic well-being of the individuals living in residential properties.
c) Social Events:
Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties, pub, disc or
place of worship, people normally flout rules set by the local administration and create a
nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight, which makes
the condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people selling
clothes via making a loud noise to attract the attention of people. While this may not seem
like much at the outset, over time, it affects the hearing abilities of the individuals who are
constantly exposed to these sounds.
d) Transportation:
A large number of vehicles on roads, airplanes flying over houses, underground trains
produce heavy noise, and people find it difficult to get accustomed to that. The high noise
leads to a situation wherein a normal person loses the ability to hear properly.
e) Construction Activities:
Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges, dams, buildings, stations,
roads, flyovers takes place in almost every part of the world. These construction activities
take place every day as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodate more people.
However, while this does help us to some degree, in the long run, the noise from
construction activities hinders the hearing abilities of individuals exposed to this sound. A
part of it includes construction workers who participate in these activities, while another part
of it consists of people who encounter this noise either from their homes or while traveling.
f) Household Chores:
We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our daily life. Gadgets like
TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners, washing machine and dryer,
cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that is produced. Still, it
affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in a bad way. While this form of pollution
may seem harmless, it, in fact, has far-reaching consequences. The adverse effects on the
health of the environment are quite severe. Not only is the local wildlife affected by
pollution, but humans also face a number of problems due to it.
g) Noise from Air Traffic:
~5. 15~
While many find it difficult to believe, air traffic too contributes to significant levels of noise
pollution. Noise from a single aircraft may produce sounds of up to 130 dB. Now, imagine
the amount of noise produced by the numerous aircraft traveling our airspace.
h) Catering and Nightlife:
When the weather is good, restaurants, bars, and terraces spill outside. Late night parties
continue with loud music and unnecessary noise made by the party mongers. These can
produce more than 100 dB. The noise from pubs and clubs are also included.
i) Animals’ Sound:
The noise made by animals cannot go unnoticed, particularly a howling or barking dog.
These can produce noise around 60-80 dB.
3) Effects of Noise Pollution:
Noise pollution can be hazardous to human health in the following ways:
a) Interferes with Man’s communication:
In a noisy area communication is severely affected.
b) Hearing Damage:
Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. It depends on intensity and duration of
sound level. Auditory sensitivity is reduced with noise level for over 90 dB in the mid-high
frequency for more than a few minutes.
c) Physiological and Psychological changes:
Continuous exposure to noise affects the functioning of various systems of the body. It may
result in hypertension, insomnia (sleeplessness), gastro-intestinal and digestive disorders,
peptic ulcers, blood pressure changes, behavioral changes, emotional changes etc.
d) Psychological Issues:
Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites, bars and even
in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the occurrence of
aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue, depression, anxiety,
hysteria and hypertension in humans as well as animals can be linked to excessive noise
levels.
The level of irritation increases with increased noise, and people tend to become less and
less patient. These, in turn, can cause more severe and chronic health issues later in life.
e) Cognitive Issues & Behavioral Changes:
Noise affects brain responses and people‘s ability to focus, which can lead to low-
performance levels over time. Like other sound waves, too much noise when it goes to the
brain leads to lower response rates as well as making the mind dull. It is also poor for
memory, making it hard to study. The studies have shown that school children living near
railway stations or airports have problems in learning.
Research has shown that people who live near airports or busy roads, usually have a
higher incidence of headaches, take more sleeping pills and sedatives, are more prone to
minor accidents, and are more likely to seek psychiatric treatment.
~5. 16~
f) Sleeping Disorders:
While it may not seem like much at this point, excessively high levels of noise are likely to
hamper your sleeping pattern, thereby leading to irritation and uncomfortable situations.
Without a good night‘s sleep, you might experience multiple problems related to fatigue.
This will affect your performance in the office as well as at home. It is therefore
recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest. If a certain noise is
disturbing your sleep, take an actionable measure to reduce it. While in some instances, it is
completely unavoidable; there are other instances (like noise from TV or gadgets) that can be
easily avoided by making good lifestyle changes. Interestingly, our ears need rest for 16
hours and even more to make up for two hours of exposure to 100 dB.
g) Cardiovascular Issues:
Blood pressure levels, cardiovascular disease, and stress-related heart problems are on the
rise. Studies suggest that high-intensity noise causes high blood pressure and increases
heartbeat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow.
Since bringing these rates to a manageable level depends on our understanding of noise
pollution, we need to be wary of the ill-effects and tackle these situations mindfully.
h) Trouble Communicating:
High decibel noise can put trouble and affect free communication between people. This may
lead to misunderstanding, and you may get difficult understanding the other person. Constant
sharp noise can give you a severe headache and disturb your emotional balance.
i) Effect on Wildlife:
Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because of noise pollution since they are more
dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us since their survival
depends on it.
A recent study published in Biology Letters found that human-created noise affects a
wide range of animals. The ill-effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react more
aggressively in households where there is constant noise.
They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems. In nature,
animals may suffer from hearing loss, which makes them easy prey and leads to dwindling
populations. Others become inefficient at hunting, disturbing the balance of the eco-system.
j) Effects on Species Depending on Mating Call:
Species that depend on mating calls to reproduce are often unable to hear these calls due to
excessive man-made noise. As a result, they are unable to reproduce and cause declining
populations. Others require sound waves to locate and find their way when migrating.
Disturbing their sound signals means they get lost easily and do not migrate when they
should. To cope up with the increasing sound around them, animals are becoming louder,
which may further add to the pollution levels. This is why understanding noise pollution can
help us lower the impact it has on the environment.
F) Thermal Pollution:
~5. 17~
When someone thinks of pollution, the idea of thermal pollution often doesn‘t come to mind.
People will first think of things like carbon emissions, personal pollution and waste, and a
variety of other changing factors. However, thermal pollution is a real and persistent problem
in our modern society. Thermal pollution is defined as sudden increase or decrease in
temperature of a natural body of water which may be ocean, lake, river or pond by human
influence.
This normally occurs when a plant or facility takes in water from a natural resource and
puts it back with an altered temperature. Usually, these facilities use it as a cooling method
for their machinery or to help better produce their products.
1) Causes of Thermal Pollution:
Thermal pollution is defined as a sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a natural
body of water, which may be ocean, lake, river or pond by human influence. This normally
occurs when a plant or facility takes in water from a natural resource and puts it back with an
altered temperature. Usually, these facilities use it as a cooling method for their machinery or
to help better produce their products. Following are the causes of thermal pollution:
a) Water as Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial plants:
Production and Manufacturing plants are biggest source of thermal pollution. These plants
draw water from nearby source to keep machines cool and then release back to the source
with higher temperature. When heated water returns to the river or ocean, the water
temperature rises sharply. When oxygen levels are altered in the water, this can also degrade
the quality and longevity of life in wildlife that lives underwater.
This process can also wipe away streamside vegetation, which constantly depends on
constant levels of oxygen and temperature. By altering these natural environments, industries
are essentially helping decrease the quality of life for these marines based life forms and can
ultimately destroy habitats if they are not controlled and careful about their practices.
b) Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion is another major factor that causes thermal pollution. Consistent soil erosion
causes water bodies to rise, making them more exposed to sunlight. The high temperature
could prove fatal for aquatic biomes as it may give rise to anaerobic conditions.
c) Deforestation:
Trees and plants prevent sunlight from falling directly on lakes, ponds or rivers. When
deforestation takes place, these water bodies are directly exposed to sunlight, thus absorbing
more heat and raising its temperature. Deforestation is also a main cause of the higher
concentrations of greenhouse gases i.e. global warming in the atmosphere.
d) Runoff from Paved Surfaces:
Urban runoff discharged to surface waters from paved surfaces like roads and parking lots
can make water warmer. During summer seasons, the pavement gets quite hot, which creates
warm runoff that gets into the sewer systems and water bodies.
e) Natural Causes:
~5. 18~
Natural causes like volcanoes and geothermal activity under the oceans and seas can trigger
warm lava to raise the temperature of water bodies. Lightening can also introduce massive
amount of heat into the oceans. This means that the overall temperature of the water source
will rise, having significant impacts on the environment.
2) Effects of Thermal Pollution:
Among recognized scientists and scholars, there are generally two schools of thought when
it comes to the effects of thermal pollution. Some lean on the side of the negatives of this
pollution on marine ecosystems and how it is detrimental to positive environmental practices.
The effects of thermal pollution on ecosystems, however, greatly outweigh the benefits that
industries have by participating in the act.
a) Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels:
The warm temperature reduces the levels of DO (Dissolved Oxygen) in water. The warm
water holds relatively less oxygen than cold water. The decrease in DO can create
suffocation for plants and animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods, which may give
rise to anaerobic conditions. Warmer water allows algae to flourish on surface of water and
over the long term growing algae can decrease oxygen levels in the water.
b) Increase in Toxins:
With the constant flow of high temperature discharge from industries, there is a huge
increase in toxins that are being regurgitated into the natural body of water. These toxins may
contain chemicals or radiation that may have harsh impact on the local ecology and make
them susceptible to various diseases.
c) Loss of Biodiversity:
A dent in the biological activity in the water may cause significant loss of biodiversity.
Changes in the environment may cause certain species of organisms to shift their base to
some other place while there could be significant number of species that may shift in because
of warmer waters. Organisms that can adapt easily may have an advantage over organisms
that are not used to the warmer temperatures.
d) Ecological Impact:
A sudden thermal shock can result in mass killings of fish, insects, plants or amphibians.
Hotter water may prove favorable for some species while it could be lethal for other species.
Small water temperature increases the level of activity while higher temperature decreases
the level of activity. Many aquatic species are sensitive to small temperature changes such as
one degree Celsius that can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other
adverse cellular biology effects.
e) Affects Reproductive Systems:
A significant halt in the reproduction of marine wildlife (although this may be true,
reproduction can still occur between fish – but the likelihood of defects in newborns is
significantly higher) can happen due to increasing temperatures as reproduction can happen
~5. 19~
within certain range of temperature. Excessive temperature can cause the release of immature
eggs or can prevent normal development of certain eggs.
f) Increases Metabolic Rate:
Thermal pollution increases the metabolic rate of organisms as increasing enzyme activity
occurs that causes organisms to consume more food than what is normally required, if their
environment were not changed. It disrupts the stability of food chain and alters the balance of
species composition.
g) Migration:
The warm water can also cause particular species of organisms to migrate to suitable
environment that would cater to its requirements for survival. This can result in loss for those
species that depend on them for their daily food as their food chain is interrupted. Above all
else, the most important thing to consider is that the effects of thermal pollution greatly
outweigh the human need for it to be done. Plants and industries have been able to find
successful ways around thermal pollution, but many of them are not practicing it because it‘s
simply easier to work from the traditional model.
3) Control of Thermal Pollution:
a) Artificial water bodies for cooling due to radiation, convection and radiation.
b) Construction of cooling towers for radiation.
c) Use cogeneration where the heat is recycled.
G) Nuclear Pollution:
Nuclear pollution is pollution caused by nuclear waste. Nuclear waste consists of radioactive
waste from the unusable radioactive byproducts from the military, scientific and industrial
fields.
1) Causes of Nuclear Pollution:
Following are the causes of nuclear pollution:
a) Operations Conducted by Nuclear Power Stations:
Operations conducted by nuclear power stations produce radioactive waste. Nuclear waste
may generate low to medium radiation over long period of times. The radioactivity may
contaminate and propagate through air, water, and soil as well. The main issue is the fact that
nuclear waste cannot be degraded or treated chemically or biologically. Nuclear-fuel
reprocessing plants in northern Europe are the biggest sources of man-made nuclear waste in
the surrounding ocean. Radioactive traces from these plants have been found as far away as
Greenland.
b) Mining and Refining:
Mining and refining of uranium and thorium. Mining of radioactive ores (such as uranium
and phosphate ores) involve the crushing and processing of radioactive ores and generate
radioactive by-products.
c) Nuclear Fuel Cycle:
~5. 20~
Nuclear fuel cycle (used in many industrial, medical and scientific processes). Nuclear
weapons – probably the highest amounts of human-induced radiation pollution have been
generated in the mid twenty century through various experimental or combat nuclear
detonations (that ended the Second World War).
d) Defense Weapon Production:
Defense weapon production also release radioactivity from the handled radioactive materials
(usually of high health risks). However, unless accident occurs, the current standards will not
allow the release of any significant amount of radiation.
e) Nuclear Accident:
Nuclear accident already classic example of such accident is the nuclear explosion, 1986 at a
former Soviet nuclear power plant from Chernobyl and explosion, 1979 at Three Mile Island
nuclear-power generating plant near Harrisburg, PA. The effects are still seen today. Even
accidents from handling medical nuclear materials or wastes could have radiation health
effects on workers.
2) Effects of Nuclear Pollution:
Following are the effects of nuclear pollution:
a) Effect of Dose of 25 rems :
Dose of 25 rems (unit of radiation needed to damage cells) causes changes in blood, above
100 rems cause nausea, vomiting, headache and loss of leucocytes whereas 300 rems and
above cause internal harm including damage to nerve cells. The immediate effects occur
within few days such as hair loss, subcutaneous bleeding, change in metabolism and
proportion of cells. The delayed effects occur in few months or years which included genetic
mutations and tumors formation. The free radicals slowly and steadily destroy proteins,
membranes, and nucleic acids in human body.
b) Effects on Sensitive Regions:
The most sensitive regions exposed to radiation are actively dividing cells such as skin,
gonads, intestine, and bone marrow. Nuclear accidents may produce fallout which can
pollute water supplies for years after the incident. The organism lives in water show
sensitivity to the radiations. The 1986 explosion of a nuclear generator in Chernobyl
(Ukraine) created a large radioactive cloud which polluted existing water supplies and
produced contaminated rain in nearby countries.
c) Effects of Radiations:
The radiations which are harmful influence nature and occur in the coastal areas. The fishes
and water polluted by the radiation. Nuclear radiation can contaminate soil, leading to plants
which contain radiation and pose a health threat to individuals. Researchers explored the
Marshall Islands, an area widely known for nuclear bomb testing by the U.S. military in the
1950s and 1960s. They found that current soil samples and local foods, including coconut
meat, contained radiation levels significant enough to pose a health risk to individuals.
~5. 21~
Radiation also damages chromosomes. It increases the frequency of chromosomal
aberrations and causes genetic mutations. Such genetic changes may adversely affect plant
metabolism or change their characteristics in subsequent generations.
5.1.3 Role of an individual in prevention of pollution:

The role of an individual in maintaining a pollution free, pure and congenial environment and in
preserving its resources is actually the need of the hour. Individuals can, however, play an
important role in abatement of air, water, soil or noise pollution in the following simple manners:
1) Decrease Waste:
Reducing waste is a crucial step in preventing pollution. Landfills and incinerators release
carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases that contribute to local and global air
pollution. Choosing products with recyclable packaging or less packaging reduces waste.
Check with your local recycling site to learn which plastics and other recyclables are
aceepted. Avoid purchasing products that cannot be recycled locally. Compost food wastes to
reduce landfill space and pollution.
2) Reduce Toxins:
Mercury, a bio accumulating toxin that affects the brain and neurological health, can be
found in electrical switches, fluorescent bulbs, thermometers, thermostats and older batteries.
Bioaccumulation is a process in which mercury, or any other persistent pollutant,
accumulates in fatty tissues of animals and plants and increases in concentration as the food
chain progresses. To prevent mercury pollution, choose mercury-free products, like digital
thermometers, or use products that contain little mercury. Check with local waste
management services about the best method for disposing of mercury-containing products.
Degreasers, pesticide formulations, cleaning products and paints often contain ethoxylates
and nonylphenol. These chemical compounds pollute groundwater and are toxic to fish and
other aquatic organisms. Choosing products free of these chemicals helps prevent pollution.
3) Use More Efficient Transportation:
Selecting a fuel-efficient vehicle is an essential step for pollution prevention. One year of
using fuel-efficient vehicles reduces greenhouse gas emissions by one ton, according to the
Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy. Maintaining your vehicle is also
essential to preventing pollution. Low tire pressure and a poorly tuned engine increase fuel
consumption and emissions by 50 percent. Carpooling, public transportation, walking and
biking are ways to reduce pollutants, prevent wear and tear on your vehicle, and save money.
4) Reduce Energy Consumption:
Unplugging electronics when they are not in use and turning off unnecessary lights are
examples of reducing energy consumption. Energy conservation does not require significant
sacrifices. Purchasing energy-efficient and water-efficient appliances, electronics and
plumbing devices reduces not only energy consumption but also your electric and water bills.
~5. 22~
The EPA partners with environmental organizations and industrial companies to select
energy- and water-efficient products labeled with the Energy Star or Water Sense logos.
5) Vote Green:
Support amendments, initiatives and laws that prevent pollution. Vote to encourage green
infrastructure and low-impact development, improve waste reduction, decrease air pollution
emissions and groundwater pollution, and limit pesticide use. Look for opportunities to
support alternative energy sources. Local electric companies may offer wind or solar power
alternatives.
6) Use of Phosphate:
Use low-phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent,
and shampoo.
7) Use of Manure:
Use manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers to fertilize gardens and
yard plant.
8) Use of Biological Methods:
Use biological methods or integrated pest management to control garden, yard, and
household pests.
9) Drain of Chemicals:
Don't pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oils, or other products containing harmful chemicals
down drain or on the ground. Contact the authorities responsible for their disposal.
10) Recycle:
Recycle old motor oil and antifreeze at an auto service center that has an oil recycling
program.
5.2 Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks :

Radiations are the waves of energy that travels and spread all around in our environment. These
radiations are useful as well harmful for us. Examples include visible light, radio waves,
microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet lights, X-rays, and gamma-rays, etc. The differences
between these various types of radiation consist in some physical properties such as
energy, frequency, and wavelength. Radiation pollution refers to the increase in the natural
radiation levels in our surroundings due to human activities.
It is said that in today‘s world about 20% of radiation we are exposed to is due to
human activities. The human activities that may release radiation involve activities with
radioactive materials such as
1) Mining
2) Handling and processing of radioactive materials,
3) Handling and storage of radioactive waste,
4) Use of radioactive reactions to generate energy (nuclear power plants),
5) Use of radiation in medicine (e.g. X-Rays) and research.
~5. 23~
Microwaves, cell phones, radio transmitters, wireless devices, computers, and other
common commodities of today‘s life are also the sources of various types of radiations.
Radioactive radiations are however believed to be the most harmful radiations. Radioactive
substances are present in nature. They undergo natural radioactive decay in which unstable
isotopes spontaneously give out fast moving particles, high energy radiations or both, at a fixed
rate until a new stable isotope is formed. The isotopes release energy either in the form of (high
energy electromagnetic radiation) or ionization particles i.e. alpha particles and beta particle.
The alpha particles are fast moving positively charged particles whereas beta particles are
high speed negatively charged electrons. These ionization radiations have variable penetration
power. Alpha particles can be interrupted by a sheet of paper while beta particles can he blocked
by a piece of wood or a few millimeters of aluminium sheet. The gamma rays can pass through
paper and wood but can be stopped by concrete wall, lead slabs or water.
5.2.1 Meaning:
Nuclear hazards are threat posed by the invisible and odourless contamination of the environment
by the presence of radioactive materials such as radio-nuclides in air water or soil. These radio-
nuclides emit high energy particles (alpha and beta rays) and electromagnetic radiations (gamma
rays). Radio nuclides are elements, such as uranium 235, uranium 283, thorium 232, potassium
40, radium 226, carbon 14 etc., with unstable atomic nuclei and release ionizing radiations in the
form of alpha, beta and gamma rays. The spontaneous emission of particles and rays by an
unstable nucleus is called Radioactivity and contamination of environment with these radiations
is called as Radioactive or Nuclear pollution. Thus, Radioactive or Nuclear pollution can be
defined as the release of radioactive substances or high energy particles into the air water, or
earth mostly as a result of human activity, either by accident or by design. Sometimes natural
sources of radioactivity, such as radon gas emitted from beneath the ground, are considered
pollutants when they become a threat to human health.
5.2.2 Sources of Nuclear Hazards:

The sources of nuclear pollution include both natural and manmade sources.. The human
environment has always been radioactive and accounts for up to 85% of the annual human
radiation dose. Radiation arising from human activities typically accounts for up to 15% of the
public's exposure every year.
1) Natural Sources:
Most radiation exposure is from natural sources. These include: radioactivity in rocks and
soil of the Earth's crust; radon, a radioactive gas given out by many volcanic rocks and
uranium ore, cosmic radiations etc.
a) Cosmic rays from outer space. The quantity depends on altitude and latitude; it is more at
higher latitudes and high altitudes.
~5. 24~
b) Emissions from radioactive materials in the Earth Crust i.e. Rocks, Marine sediments etc.
2) Man-Made Sources:
These sources involve any process that emanates radiation in the environment. While there
are many causes of radiation pollution such as including research and medical procedures
and wastes, nuclear power plants etc.
a) Nuclear Waste Handling and Disposal:
It may generate low to medium radiation over long period of times. The radioactivity may
contaminate and propagate through air, water, and soil as well. Thus, their effects may not be
easily distinguishable and are hard to predict. The main issue with the radiation waste is the
fact that it cannot be degraded or treated chemically or biologically. Thus, the only options
are to contain the waste by storing it in tightly closed containers shielded with radiation-
protective materials (such as Pb) or, if containing is not possible, to dilute it. The waste may
also be contained by storage in remote areas with little or no life (such as remote caves or
abandoned salt mines). However, in time, the shields (natural or artificial) may be damaged.
Additionally, the past waste disposal practices may not have used appropriate measures to
isolate the radiation. Thus, such areas need to be carefully identified and access restrictions
promptly imposed.
b) Use of Radioactive Materials in Defense Weapon Production:
Nuclear weapon production may also release radiations from the handled radioactive
materials (usually of high health risks). However, unless accident occurs, the current
standards will not allow the release of any significant amount of radiation.
c) Nuclear Explosions and Detonations of Nuclear Weapons:
The highest amounts of human induced radiation pollution have been generated probably in
the mid twenty century through various experimental or combat nuclear detonations that
ended the Second World War.
d) Mining and Processing of Radioactive Ores:
It involves the crushing and processing of radioactive ores and generate radioactive by-
products. Mining of other ores may also generate radioactive wastes (such as mining of
phosphate ores).
e) Nuclear Accidents:
Explosion at Three Mile Island 1979 and Chernobyl 1986 nuclear-power plant accidents are
the classic examples of radiation pollution from this type of source. Even accidents from
handling medical nuclear materials/wastes could have radiation health effects on workers.
f) Use of Radioactive Isotopes in Medical, Industrial and Research Applications:
The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnostic use of X-rays, radioactive
isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.
5.2.3 Human Risks in Nuclear Hazards:
~5. 25~
Human risks in nuclear hazards are as follows:
1) Effects of Nuclear Hazards:
Radioactive substances when released into the environment are either dispersed or become
concentrated in living organisms through the food chain. Other than naturally occurring
radioisotopes, significant amounts are generated by human activity, including the operation
of nuclear power plants, the manufacture of nuclear weapons, and atomic bomb testing.
Typically these effects can be of two types:
a) Somatic Effects:
Somatic affects the function of cells and organs of the individual exposed. It causes damages
to cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell
division, growth and death.
b) Genetic Effects:
Radiations can cause mutations, which are changes in genetic makeup of cells and effects the
future generations also. These effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules.
People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to higher doses around 100 to
1000 roentgens.
2) Initial or Residual Effects:
Initial effects occur in the immediate area of explosion and are hazardous immediately after
the explosion. The principal initial effects are blast and radiation. Blast causes damage to
lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and causes immediate death or injury. Thermal
Radiation is the heat and light radiation, which a nuclear explosion‘s fireball emits producing
extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness. Nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma
rays and neutrons produced during the first minute after the explosion. This radiation causes
extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation damage may cause headaches,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and even death, depending on the radiation dose received.
Whereas the residual effects can last for days or years and may lead to death.
All organisms are affected from radiation pollution, and the effects can vary from mild to
extremely dangerous depending upon the various factors such as dose, duration and type of
radiation. Some of the possible human health effects are listed as under:
a) Effects on DNA and Mutations:
Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells and cause mutations. This
affects the genetic make-up and control mechanisms. The effects can be instantaneous,
prolonged or delayed types. Even it could be carried to future generations.
b) General Physiological Effects:
Exposure at low doses of radiations (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to suffer from
fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.
c) Effects on Immunity:
Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are
reduced, natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails to clot,
and the irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding.
~5. 26~
Effects on Tissues of Vital Organs:
Higher radiation doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of heart,
brain, etc. Hypothyroidism may also be a radiation cause due to the destruction of thyroid
gland by radioactive accumulated iodine.
d) Occupational Diseases:
Few occupations that involve radioactive exposures are uranium mineworkers, radium watch
dial painters, technical staff at nuclear power plants, etc. Exposure to radioactive and nuclear
hazards has been clinically proven to cause cancer, mutations and teratogenesis
(Teratogenesis is a prenatal toxicity characterized by structural or functional defects in the
developing embryo or foetus).
e) Effects through Bio magnifications:
Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are experienced by man. E.g. Strontium 90
behaves like calcium and is easily deposited and replaces calcium in the bone tissues. It could
be passed to human beings through ingestion of strontium-contaminated milk.
f) Cancers:
Cancer generation is the most typical health effect of radiation exposure, especially when
high or moderate amounts of radiation are involved (in general regardless of the exposure
period). Lung cancer is a typical example of the effect of exposure to radon, which is the
second leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S. Many years of monitoring of radiation effects
from detonation of nuclear bombs in Japan in 1940‘s, showed that cancers may develop
immediately following the exposure to radiation or after shorter or longer periods (up to 30
years from the exposure) of time since the exposure occurred.
5.2.4 Control of Nuclear Hazards:

Control Measures of Nuclear Hazards/ pollution are as follows:
1) Vitrification:
Vitrification is a proven technique in the disposal and long-term storage of nuclear waste or
other hazardous wastes. Waste is mixed with glass-forming chemicals in a melter to form
molten glass that then solidifies in canisters, immobilizing the waste.
2) Treatment of final waste:
The final waste form resembles obsidian and is a non-leaching, durable material that
effectively traps the waste inside. The waste can be stored for relatively long periods in this
form without concern for air or groundwater contamination. Nuclear reprocessing technology
was developed to chemically separate and recover fissionable plutonium from irradiated
nuclear fuel. Reprocessing serves multiple purposes, whose relative importance has changed
over time.
3) Reprocessing:
Originally reprocessing was used solely to extract plutonium for producing nuclear weapons.
With the commercialization of nuclear power, the reprocessed plutonium was recycled back
~5. 27~
into MOX nuclear fuel for thermal reactors. The reprocessed uranium, which constitutes the
bulk of the spent fuel material, can in principle also be re-used as fuel, but that is only
economic when uranium prices are high. Finally, the breeder reactor can employ not only the
recycled plutonium and uranium in spent fuel, but all the actinides, closing the nuclear fuel
cycle and potentially multiplying the energy extracted from natural uranium by more than 60
times.
5.3 Solid Waste Management :

Solid waste is discarded solid materials comes from various household activities such as
vegetable waste, food waste, yard waste, product packaging, old cloths, rubber, shoes and
plastic like useless material collected as municipal solid waste (MSW), agricultural waste
includes weed, crop residue after harvesting and solid waste material from various industries like
chemical production, food processing, packaging firm, paper, timber, plastic, furniture, metal and
fabrication industries etc. Solid waste management is very crucial activity to avoid pollution of
soil, water, air including human health. Solid waste disposal problem mostly found in urban
areas. Management of Solid Waste is a plan to manage the problem causes due to solid waste,
primarily to reduce solid wastage itself by higher standards of living thus, the problem can be
minimize by promoting efficient utilization and reuse, recycling of solid waste of non-
biodegradable component such as plastic, glass, paper, metal, etc. can be reuse to produce other
useful items thus saving raw materials and also reducing solid waste.
If not possible it should dispose of with scientific techniques such as land filling,
incineration, pulverization to minimize its hazards to ecosystem and human.
5.3.1 Sources of Solid Waste:

Following are the sources of solid waste:
1) Domestic Sources:
Domestic / Household solid waste includes variety of waste such as food wastes, paper,
cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, etc.
2) Industrial Waste:
Solid waste resulting from industries typically includes rubbish, ashes, sludge from paper
industries, fruit and vegetable waste, metal grinding, cutting and fabrication waste.
3) Agricultural Solid Waste:
Agricultural wastes obtain after harvesting or cultivation practices such as stem, leaves,
fruits, non-useful straw and sugarcane trash, hazardous wastes such as pesticides and
insecticides.
4) Construction and Demolition Activities:
Construction, renovation of sites, and demolition of buildings generates solid waste like
wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.
~5. 28~
5) Community Services Source:
Community services include street cleaning, landscaping, recreational activities, waste water
treatment plant solid waste.
5.3.2 Nature of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):

Municipal solid waste is mostly release in urban areas in two forms such as:
1) Refuse
2) Trash
1) Refuse:
It includes food wastes, yard wastes, containers and product packaging, paper cardboard,
plastics, textiles, leather, etc. Refuse contain two components such as:
a) Garbage:
It includes waste such as vegetables, meats, food wastes and other degradable organic wastes
b) Rubbish:
Rubbish consists of the non-degradable waste material such as glass, rubber, metals, plastics,
2) Trash:
It includes TV, refrigeration goods, broken furniture, slowly degradable material such as
paper products, textiles etc.
5.3.3 Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:

Following are the effects of solid waste pollution:
1) Ecosystems:
Biotic and abiotic components of ecosystem are disturbed by various type of solid waste such
as hazardous chemical from industrial waste, inhibits the microbes in soil. These microbes
help to break down organic matter in soil and help to aerate the soil and nutrient availability
to the plant for growth, ultimately disturbed the food chain ,food wed, energy
transformation, mineral cycles (Biogeochemical cycles
2) Water Sources:
The main source of fresh water is rains. Rain water washes the surfaces of polluted lands and
runs off to nearby water reservoirs such as river lake, pond. These harmful chemicals, litter
(small pieces of plant, animal debris, and plastic glass) are washed in to ware body. It makes
water unsafe for drinking as well as it change bio- physiological properties of water, affects
aquatic animals and plants
3) Vegetation:
Vegetation plays a very important role in water purification, climate control climate control,
food, shelter. The household activities, mining, industry, landfills create destructive effects
on vegetation and avoids the benefits that vegetation provides.
4) Health:
~5. 29~
There are many pollutants in soils which creates harmful effects to man when exposed to
polluted environment due to solid waste causes various disease such as diarrhea, malaria and
dysentery, dengue. Rotting garbage release foul, unpleasant smell in surrounding
environment.
5.3.4 Control Measures of Urban and Industrial Waste:

Reduction, Reuse and Recycling of solid waste is best principal (3-R) in controlling the solid
waste material. It is famous and commonly used by all countries in the world is the best.
Following are the control measures as :
1) Reduction:
It is first famous principal of 3-R, following are the recommendation for reduction of solid
waste in urban Reduce, Reuse, Recycles (3-R) policy.
a) Reduce
i) Take reusable bags to the grocery store instead of single-use plastic bags.
ii) Select items with limited or no packaging.
iii) Use a refillable container for water in place of bottled water.
iv) Avoid printing material form internet or use both side of paper for printing.
v) Avoid excess preparation of food in canteen, mess, restaurant, hotels to reduce waste food, if
it is leftover, donate it at the end of the day to hostels.
vi) Use Paperless technology for sending message, quotation, draft etc. like Email, SMS, What
up, Instagram through computer and mobile.
vii) Avoid printing or print on both side of paper.
b) Reuse:
i) Select reusable packaging material viz. packaging waste paper can reuse for preparation of
handmade paper or paper bags or decorative articles.
ii) Use cloth handkerchief, napkin and metal plates instead of, tissue paper, paper plates, and tea
cup.
iii) Use cloth bag or reusable bag for grocery purchase from store, instead of single use plastic
bags.
iv) Purchase or select items with or no packaging.
v) Avoid use of plastic bottle for water.
vi) Establish vermicomposting unit and composting pits in house yard, canteen and hotel
premises for scientific disposal of organic waste like waste foods, vegetable, fruits waste and
maintenance of beautiful ecofriendly garden.
vii) Mulching- Use of plant debris ( leaf, stem root waste) to cover garden beds, or farm beds,
furrows as mulch to retain moisture, regulate soil temperature, weed growth and to add
nutrients back to the soil.
viii) Sale e-waste to the authorize vendor for scientific disposal, reuse and recycling
~5. 30~
ix) Donate old cloth, toys, books, cycle, old furniture, hardware to local NGO organization for
reuse.
x) Use web site www.OLX.com for selling old useful items viz. Furniture, electronic devices,
vehicles etc.
c) Recycling:
Collection, separation and transportation are the three important initiatives in recycling of
solid waste, solid waste management and control measures of solid waste. All these are
laborious job, requires expenses, hence minimum release of solid waste is the best practice.
After collection, separation of solid waste in two categories, such as biodegradable and non-
biodegradable.
i) Recycling of Nutrients:
Biodegradable solid waste includes organic waste such as food waste, vegetable and fruit
waste, agricultural and food industries waste. This waste can be reused for production of
biogas, compost fertilizer, vermicomposting for recycling of nutrients, instead of burning,
creates air pollution.
ii) Recycling of Rubbish and Trash:
Recycling of rubbish and trash type of non-degradable solid waste material such as glass,
rubber, metals, plastics, TV, refrigeration goods, broken furniture, slowly degradable
material such as paper products, textiles reduce solid waste cause‘s hazards effect on
environment.
iii) Recycling of Non-biodegradable Solid Waste:
Recycling of Non-biodegradable solid waste such as plastic scrap is use for plastic molds for
production of useful plastic items.
iv) Recycling Non-biodegradable Metal Industry:
Recycling non-biodegradable metal industry solid waste component such as metal dust, slag,
scrap, muck, debris, sheet pieces, foils etc. is also decreases solid waste.
v) Recycling of old newspaper and cardboard, note books solid waste can use for making low
grade paper, card board requires less energy and sulphur for production.
vi) Selling old appliances, electronic devices, e-waste to local repair shops and authorize vendor
for reuse of spare parts and components and scientific disposal.
vii) Awareness and education for SWM
2) Adoption and enforcement of local waste management policies.
5.4 Pollution Case Studies:

Case studies on pollution are as follows:
Case on Pollution Effect on Tajmahal

A new Indian government survey has revealed that the Taj Mahal, the nation's best-known
monument, is again facing a major threat from pollution.
~5. 31~
The report, compiled by India's National Environment Engineering Research Institute, shows
that measures taken after previous scares that the 17th-century tomb was being irreparably
damaged by air and water pollution are failing.
The survey, commissioned by the Ministry of Environment, found that pollution levels in the
city of Agra, where the Taj Mahal is located, had risen significantly over recent years as a result
of growth in industry, traffic and population.
The £90m government programme, launched between 1998 and 2000 after the monument's
famous white marble was seen to be turning yellow, has had some impact, the report says, but not
enough to keep up with pollution around the site.
When launched, the programme received global attention, with President Bill Clinton saying
that pollution had done "what 350 years of wars, invasions and natural disasters have failed to do
[and] begun to mar the magnificent walls of the Taj Mahal".
Vehicles are now banned from within 500 meters of the monument and an LED display gives
a running count of air pollution.
But the new report found that emissions of nitrogen oxide and particulates, for example, had
reached levels higher than those that prompted a Supreme Court intervention to force authorities
to act a decade ago.
Environmental campaigners in Agra, a bustling manufacturing centre in the populous and
poor northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, said that the Taj Mahal was also threatened by
dropping water tables and pollution from the river Yamuna, which runs alongside the structure.
"The levels are much lower than they were when it was built and there is a serious risk that the
whole construction will be destabilised as its foundations are made of wood and need to be kept
moist to avoid subsiding," said Ashwina Kumar Mishra, a local activist.
"It is the most beautiful place in India and it will be a tragedy if something bad happens to
it." Government archeologists working at the Taj Mahal dismissed the claims of activists as
"rumours". "These stories keep coming up without facts," said ID Diwedi, a senior archeologist
at the site. However, the report confirmed that an increasing demand for water in Agra had meant
a drop in the underground water level by four metres over recent years. The water is heavily
polluted due to the continuing discharge of effluents from industry and to rubbish clogging drains
around the monument, it said.
The effects of the pollution have led to repeated attempts to use a clay pack treatment to
maintain the shimmering, pristine appearance of the marble. The report added that measures such
as a natural gas pipeline laid to supply clean fuel to industries in Agra, street-widening projects,
the construction of a bypass, the replacement of diesel-run rickshaws by cleaner vehicles, heavy
investment in a refinery to reduce emissions and an improved power supply that has meant less
reliance on dirty diesel generators have had a positive impact, but could only mitigate the threat.
Agra lies downstream of Delhi, and water from the Yamuna river reaches the city heavily
contaminated by chemical and human waste. A recent £30m effort to clean the Yamuna has
largely failed. In Agra, untreated sewage and solid waste is discharged directly into the river, the
report said, while an upstream barrage has dramatically reduced its flow.
~5. 32~
Each year hundreds of thousands of foreigners pay around £10 each to view the Taj Mahal,
built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who
died having the couple's 14th child.
DK Joshi, a member of a court-appointed committee created to monitor environmental
threats to the Taj Mahal, told the Guardian that "collusion between a land mafia and dishonest
bureaucrats" had meant the misuse of much of the money designated to protect the site and its
surroundings.
Case on Ganga River

The Ganga (Ganges) basin extends over more than 1 million km2 and encompasses parts of India
(about 80% of the total basin area), Nepal, China and Bangladesh. The length of the main
channel is some 2,525km, while altitude ranges from 8,848m in the high Himalayas, to sea level
in the coastal deltas of India and Bangladesh. The basin occupies a quarter of India‘s land mass.
Although the river‘s annual flow regime is subject to local variations, the predominant
pattern is for a low-flow dry season from January to May and a wet season from July to
November, with peak flows usually occurring in August. The waters of the Ganga carry one of
the highest sediment loads anywhere in the world, with a mean annual total of 1.6 billion tones,
compared to 0.4 billion tones for the Amazon. Socio-economic importance The Ganga basin is
one of the most populous regions on Earth, home to 450 million people at an average density of
over 550 individuals per square kilometer. In the delta zone this rises to over 900 per km2. As a
result, there is strong demand and competition for natural resources, especially water for
domestic use and irrigation, and most of the basin tributaries are regulated by barrages. Fisheries
along the river are of considerable economic value and their output makes a major contribution to
regional nutritional needs. There are some 30 cities, 70 towns, and thousands of villages along
the banks of the Ganga. Nearly all of the sewage from these population centers – over 1.3 billion
liters per day – passes directly into the river, along with thousands of animal carcasses, mainly
cattle. Another 260 million liters of industrial wastewater, also largely untreated, are discharged
by hundreds of factories, while other major Pollution inputs include runoff from the more than 6
million tons of chemical fertilizers and 9,000 tons of pesticides applied annually within the basin.
According to Hindu mythology, the Ganga River came down to Earth from the heavens.
Today, the river symbolizes purification to millions of Hindus who believe that drinking or
bathing in its waters will lead to moksha, or salvation. Many Hindus keep water from the Ganga
in glass bottles as a sacred relic, or for use in religious ceremonies. The river becomes the final
resting place for thousands of Hindus, whose cremated ashes or partially burnt corpses are placed
in the river for spiritual rebirth.
Q.1. Find out the reasons on problems of pollution of Ganga River from this case.
Q.2. What will be your opinions to solve these problems?
~5. 33~
Multiple Choice Questions
1) Which of the following facts are incorrect?

a) Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of the earth‘s climate system
b) Eutrophication is observed in water bodies
c) The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon
d) Ozone is harmless to breathe
2) Measuring BOD (biological oxygen demand) is primarily used for-----------
a) Estimating the types of microbes
b) Determine the level of dissolved oxygen
c) Estimating the quantity of organic matter in sewage water
d) None of the above
3) Depletion of the ozone layer is damaging to human health. Negative effects include-------
---
a) Skin cancers
b) Osteoporosis
c) Dyspepsia
4) What is the residence time (average time a particle is active in a given system) of carbon
monoxide?
a) 11-15 years
b) 0.1-0.3 years
c) 0.5 years
d) Few minutes
5) Which of the following gases has the highest affinity for blood haemoglobin?
a) Carbon dioxide
b) Oxygen
c) Carbon monoxide
d) Nitrogen
6) Which of the following river is called the world’s most polluted river?
a) Ganga River
b) Chenab River
c) Cauvery River
d) Yamuna River
7) Which of the following are the primary causes of water pollution?
a) Plants
b) Animals
c) Human activities
d) None of these
~5. 34~
8) Which of the following techniques is used for reducing the total dissolved solids (TDS)
in the water?
a) Osmosis
b) Ion exchange
c) Distillation
d) Both b and c
9) Which of the following statements are true about CNG -Compressed natural gas?
a) It is a clean fuel
b) It is a harmful fuel
c) It is a polluting fuel
d) All of the above
10) Which of the following salts is the main cause of permanent hardness of water?
a) Magnesium sulphate
b) Magnesium bicarbonate
c) Magnesium carbonate
11) Which of the following is mainly responsible for the causes of water pollution?
a) Afforestation
b) Oil refineries
c) Paper factories
d) Both b and c
12) Which of the following techniques is used to determine the concentration of odour
compounds in the given water sample?
a) Settling
b) Flushing
c) Stripping
d) Chlorination
13) Which of the following serves as an indicator of atmospheric pollution?
a) Fern
b) Liverworts
c) Hornworts
d) Epiphytic lichens
14) In 1984, the Bhopal gas tragedy took place because methyl isocyanate------------
a) Reacted with ammonia
b) Reacted with water
c) Reacted with DDT
d) Reacted with CO2
~5. 35~
15) Negative soil pollution is---------
a) Reduction in soil productivity due to erosion and overuse
b) Reduction in soil productivity due to addition of pesticides and industrial wastes
c) Converting fertile land into harden land by dumping ash, sludge and garbage
16) Air pollution that occurs in sunlight -----------------
a) Reducing smog
b) Acid rain
c) Oxidizing smog
d) Fog
17) What is called when an industry removes water from a source and then returns the
heated water to its source?
a) Water pollution
b) Soil pollution
c) Air pollution
d) Thermal pollution
18) Which one of the following can cause thermal pollution?
a) Residential houses
b) Power plants
c) Death of marine organisms
d) Oil spill
19) What is the effect of warmer temperature to the fishes?
a) Increase the metabolism
b) Decrease the metabolism
c) Stabilize the metabolism
d) Increase the solubility of oxygen
20) Which one of the following cause thermal pollution?
a) Release of cold water
b) Organic manures
c) Purified water
d) More number of trees
21) How does soil erosion cause thermal pollution?
a) By making natural water bodies to hold in its normal level
b) By polluting the water bodies
c) By avoiding sunlight to fall on the water bodies
d) By making natural water bodies to rise beyond their normal level
22) What is a thermal shock?
a) Sudden rises of temperature to abnormal level
b) Sudden cooling of temperature to abnormal level
~5. 36~
c) Temperature don‘t change
d) Temperature change only due to environmental factors
23) Which of the following is the main reason for thermal pollution?
a) Bio fuels
b) Organic farming
c) Eco friendly vehicles
d) Power plants
24) How does an artificial lake help in solving thermal pollution?
a) It stores heated water
b) It gives a good aesthetic view
c) It helps to breed fishes
d) It is used during the summer season where water scarcity cause
25) Main sources of noise pollution are----------
a) Transportation equipment only
b) Heavy machinery only
c) Musical instruments
d) Transportation equipment and heavy machinery
26) The sounds which are pleasant to our ears are called------------
a) Noise
b) Musical sounds
c) Frequency
d) Amplitude
27) Sound which has Jarring effect on ears is--------------
a) Noise
b) Music
c) Pleasant sound
d) Soul music
28) The level of noise recommended in most countries is------------
a) 30-40 dB
b) 95-100 dB
c) 85-90 dB
d) 75-80 dB
29) Which is the most input of waste causing marine pollution?
a) Pesticides
b) Pipes directly discharge waste into the sea
c) Death of aquatic organisms
d) Climatic conditions
30) Why ship accidents cause marine pollution?
~5. 37~
a) Because if the ship carrying passengers to collapse it results in the death of many people
b) Because ship is very huge in its size
c) Dredged material which carries heavy metals cause marine pollution
d) Ship materials stuck inside the marine organisms
31) Which of the following is the greatest volume of waste discharge to water?
a) Spillage from oil pipelines
b) Sewage
c) Nuclear waste
d) Spillage from tankers
32) Which of the following way is used to reduce the pollution load on marine water?
a) Manual cleaning of pollutants
b) Damping the pollutants during winter
c) Introducing sewage treatment plants
d) Ban the license of industries which are near to the sea
33) What are the sources of radioactive wastes in the marine?

a) Discharge from nuclear power stations
b) Reprocessing plants
c) Military Wastes
d) All of them
34) What are the sauces of sediments in causing marine pollution?

a) Deforestation
b) Soil erosion
c) Mining & Farming
d) All of them
35) What are the sources of pathogenic organism on marine pollution?
a) Sewage
b) Livestock Waste
c) Both A & B
d) None of them
36) Waste removal system was established in which of the following cities for the first time?
a) Athens
b) Lahore
c) Paris
d) London
37) Which of the following solid wastes describes the term ‘Municipal Solid Waste’?
a) Toxic
b) Hazardous
c) Non-toxic
~5. 38~
d) Non-hazardous
38) Why is it difficult to recycle plastics?
a) It is very hard
b) It comes in different sizes
c) It is adhesive
d) It contains different types of polymer resins
39) Which of the following is done on an individual level?

a) Burning
b) Disposal
c) Recycling
d) Source reduction
40) Which of the following plans is used as a waste management plan?

a) Plan for reuse
b) The integrated plan
c) Plan for recycling
d) Plan for reducing
41) The organic material of the solid waste will decompose--------------

a) By the flow of water
b) By the soil particles
c) By the action of microorganisms
d) By oxidation
42) Which of the following wastes is called the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)?
a) Food wastes
b) Wood pieces
c) Plastic cans
d) All of the above
43) Which of the following methods is better for the solid waste problem?
a) Recycling
b) Landfilling
c) Both a and b
44) Which of the following statements is true about zero waste management?
a) Separate collection of each kind of waste
b) Segregation of garbage at the source
c) Community involvement
d) All of the above
~5. 39~
Answers: 1) d, 2) c, 3) a, 4) b, 5) c, 6) a, 7) c, 8) d, 9) a, 10) a, 11) d, 12) c, 13) d, 14) b, 15) a,

16) c, 17) d, 18) b, 19) a, 20) a, 21) d, 22) a, 23) d, 24) a, 25) d, 26) b, 27) a, 28) c,
29) b ,30) c, 31) b, 32) c,33) d, 34) d, 35) c, 36) a,37) d,38) d,39) d, 40) b,41) c, 42)
d, 43) a,44) d
Review Questions
Q.1. What do you mean by Environmental Pollution? Explain the Types of Environmental
Pollution.
Q.2. Explain the Causes and Effects of Air Pollution.
Q.3. Explain the Control Measures of Air Pollution and Air Pollution Source.
Q.4. Explain the Types and Causes of Water Pollution.
Q.5. Explain the Effects and Control Measures of Water Pollution.
Q.6. Explain the Control /Remedial Measures for Water Pollution (Control) in detail.
Q.7. What do you mean by Soil Pollution? Explain the Types of Soil Pollution.
Q.8. Explain the Causes and Effects of Soil Pollution.
Q.9. Explain the Control Measures of Soil Pollution.
Q.10. Explain the Causes and Effects of Marine Pollution.
Q.11. Explain the Control Measures of Marine Pollution.
Q.12. Explain the Sources of Noise Pollution.
Q.13. Discuss in detail about the Causes and Effects of Noise Pollution.
Q.14. Explain the Causes and Effects of the Thermal Pollution.
Q.15. Explain the Control Measures of Thermal Pollution in detail.
Q.16. Explain the Causes and Effects of Nuclear Pollution.
Q.17. Discuss in detail about the Role of an individual in prevention of pollution.
Q.18. Discuss in detail about the Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks.
Q.19. Explain the Sources of Solid Waste in detail.
Q.20. Explain the Nature of Municipal Solid Waste in detail.
Q.21. Discuss in detail about the Effects of Solid waste Pollution.
Q.22. Discuss in detail about the Control Measures of Urban and Industrial Waste.
~5. 40~
Environmental Policies and

Practices 6
5.5 Climate Change
5.6 Global Warming
5.7 Ozone Layer Depletion
5.8 Acid Rain
5.9 Environmental Laws
5.10 International Agreements
5.11 Nature Reserves
Introduction:
Environmental policy is that it comprises two major terms: environment and policy. Environment
refers to the physical ecosystems, but can also take into consideration the social issues i.e.quality
of life, health and economic issues i.e. resource management, biodiversity. Policy can be defined
as a "course of action or principle proposed by a government, party, business or individual".
Thus, environmental policy tends to focus on problems arising from human impact on the
environment, which is important to human society by having an impact on human values. Such
human values are often labeled as good health or the 'clean and green' environment. In practice,
policy analysts provide a wide variety of types of information to the public decision making
process. Environmental issues typically addressed by environmental policy includes air and
water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, biodiversity protection, the
protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species, and the management of these
natural resources for future generations. Relatively recently, environmental policy has also
attended to the communication of environmental issues. In contrast to environmental policy,
ecological policy addresses issues that focus on achieving benefits from the non-human
ecological world. Broadly included in ecological policy are natural resource management
fisheries, forestry, wildlife, range, biodiversity, and at-risk species. This specialized area of
policy possesses its own distinctive features. The situation was worse between 1947 through
1995. According to data collection and environment assessment studies of World Bank experts,
between 1995 through 2010, India has made one of the fastest progresses in the world, in
addressing its environmental issues and improving its environmental quality.
6.1 Climate Change:
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Since the formation of earth the climate and atmosphere has faced lot of changes. Climate affects
the living things and vegetation on the earth. Man is a very important factor for controlling
climate. It will not be wrong to say that man is responsible for the climate in modern times.
Maximum climatic changes are taking place due to the activities of human beings as well as due
to some natural happenings. Many kinds of theories have been proposed about climatic changes.
The solar system of which earth forms a pan is believed to have originated from a supernova
explosion in the Milky Way galaxy.
6.1.1 Factors/ Causes for Climatic Changes:

Following are the factors responsible for climatic change:
1) Human Development:
Man started many kinds of occupation for his own development. For Animal husbandry,
agricultural farming and setting up of factories trees have been cut on a large scale. This has
led to many climatic changes.
2) Industrialization:
Many kinds of industries have been set up in big cities. Many kinds of chemicals have been
used in these industries. Since these industries release many kinds of toxic gases and
pollutants in the air, it is creating an adverse effect on climate. It is increasing the
temperature especially in cities.
3) Acidity of Climatic Conditions:
Acidity depends mainly upon compounds of Sulphur and nitrogen when rainfall water
becomes significantly acidic due to absorption of Sulphur dioxide,Nitrogen oxides and some
other pollutants from the air; it gets mixed with sulphuric acid and nitric acids mainly. This
rain is known as acid rain.
4) Urban Environment:
Due to concrete and turmac, the areas surrounding the cities become warmer. This heat is
released during nights. This compels one of air conditioners. The cities modify the climate
and create micro climates. Rainfall increases in cities due to thermally induced upward
movement of air and condensation. The cities are cloudier, have more thunder and
comparatively more wet than the surrounding areas.
5) Desertification:
In this process, arid lands are converted into deserts. Deforestation leads gradually towards
the hazard of desertification. Improper farming practices cause the erosion of the soil and
loss of vegetation growth. This arid land becomes plantless. This process is called
desertification process.
The improper agricultural use of semi-arid lands makes the soil loose and its erosion
takes place. The unplanned and intensive farming fails to reestablishment of natural grass and
shrubs. The plantless soil starts moving when rainfall starts. The soil quality and moisture
content becomes less. The productive semi—arid land gets converted into unproductive dry
land. This leads to formation of lifeless deserts. Deforestation and desertification have bad
~5. 42~
effects on behaviour of climate. The advancement of desertification results into decline of
rainfall.
6) Sunspots:
During the maxima of sunspot Cyke every 11 years drastic climatic changes and floods on
the earth‘s surface. Storms and cyclones are called climatic devils. The frontal attack of
cyclones brings serious damages. On the water bodies, cyclones stir the water, cause lofty
tides and upset marine life. Tornado and jet streams change the air pressure and cause serious
damage to the climate.
7) Droughts:
Droughts imply annual rainfall less than 8 cms. Droughts are related to water cycle,
meteorology, atmospheric circulation, pressure belts land and water conditions and forest
cover. Intensive deforestation leads to change in temperature, evaporation, humidity, water
vapour and rainfall. Upper air atmospheric circulation like jet streams, depletion of ozone
layer, supersonic jet planes and space laboratories are constantly increasing due to scientific
advancement. This keeps and exerts influence on lower atmospheric phenomena like
condensation rainfall, humidity and wind circulation.
8) Earthquakes:
Earthquakes occur due to chemical explosions and recrystalisation of mineral in the interior
of the earth. The changes in atomic arrangements of the interior rocks deep in the interior
results into earthquake.Earthquake disturbances in isostatic of the crust. The slit load
deposition and water percolation into underground compartments also lead to earthquakes.
These earthquakes bring about serious changes in climate.
9) Tsunamis:
Tsunamis are the high tides caused in the sea due to earthquakes. It brings change in the
climate.
10) Volcanic hazards:
The volcanic eruptions bring torrential rainfall which is mixed with volcanic ash, water
vapour and volcanic gases. It forms the mudflows which rides on the rainwater and slips
down the volcanic conewell in the surrounding areas. With volcanic eruptions black clouds,
darkness, polluted air blankets, floods, mudflows and stormy weather are associated. The
material includes poisonous elements and gases that pollute the air and water on large scale.
The poisonous gas emitted through volcanoes includes SO2, S2O5, CO, H2SO4 and
hydrochloric acid which have an adverse effect on climate. Earthquake shocks, geysers and
hot springs also bring atmospheric changes.
11) Landslide:
Landslides are caused due to tectonic changes. They bring interruptions into Eco balance.
12) Greenhouse Effect:
The greenhouse is caused due to increase in absorption of solar energy due to buildup of
carbon dioxide in atmosphere. It leads to progressive gradual warming of the earth's
atmosphere. It disturbs the way earth's climate is maintained.
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13) Ozone Depletion:
The presence of CFCs in the atmosphere is responsible for the depletion of ozone
layerproducing a hole in it. Its depletion allows the UV rays directly strike the human body
which causes skin diseases and skin cancer, etc.
6.1.2 Effects of Climatic Change:

Climate change is already having a significant impact on ecosystems, economies and
communities.
1) Effects of Change in Temperature:
Rising average temperatures do not simply mean balmier winters. Some regions will
experience more extreme heat while others may cool slightly. Flooding, drought and intense
summer heat could result. Violent storms and other extreme weather events could also result
from the increased energy stored in our warming atmosphere.
2) Effects on Water Resources:
One of the most serious impacts of climate change is how it will affect water resources
around the world. Water is intimately tied to other resource and social issues such as food
supply, health, industry, transportation and ecosystem integrity.
3) Effects on Forest:
The impacts of climate change are already being observed across diverse geographic regions.
Forests are expected to be among the most vulnerable in the world to climate change.
4) Effects on Health:
Climate change also threatens the health of our children and grandchildren through increased
disease, freshwater shortages, worsened smog and more. These impacts also pose
incalculable economic risks that far outweigh the economic risks of taking action today.
6.2 Global Warming:

Global Warming is an increase in the earth‗s temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and other
industrial processes leading to a build-up of ―greenhouse gases‖ in the atmosphere. Scientists
have discovered that concentrations of minor greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly
carbon dioxide are rising. These gases could trap more heat in the atmosphere leading to a
gradual warming of the earth‘s atmosphere. Global warming could be harmful to the environment
and to human health. It has emerged as the most serious environmental threat of the 21st century.
Global climate has large natural variability at all times. Climate change is greatest environmental
challenge which is facing mankind on earth. This climate change is rapid, continuous and
irreversible. It is called 'Global Warming'.
6.2.1 Causes of Global Warming:

Following are the causes of global warming:
1) Greenhouse Gases:
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The main cause of global warming is greenhouse gases. These are carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, chlorofluoro carbon and ozone. Generally, these gases are present in rather
small amounts but play the major role in the heat balance of atmosphere due to their capacity
of absorb infrared radiations. By preventing long wave, thermal radiation from radiation out
of the atmosphere thus, increases considerably. The naturally occupying greenhouse gases
keep the earth warm enough to be habitable. Prior to the industrial revolution, the amount of
these gases remained constant over thousands of years. But amount of these gases is
increasing due to increased industry and agriculture. A major factor of greenhouse gases is
their longevity in the atmosphere. Once they are emitted into atmosphere, they will persist for
several decades. In case of CFC's and nitrous oxide, it takes over a century for them to
degrade.
2) Ozone Depletion:
Another main cause of global warming is ozone depletion in outer atmosphere. Ozone layer
protects biosphere from life damaging high-energy ultraviolet radiation. Ozone layer is
depleting by gases such as CFC's. CFC's are commonly used in spray cans, refrigerators, air
conditioners, foam producing equipment, etc. Deforestation is also major problem.
6.2.2 Effects of Global Warming:

Following are the effects of global warming:
1) Global Warming Causes Stratospheric Cooling:
There will be a warming of the earth‘s surface and lower atmosphere and cooling of
stratosphere.
2) Increase the Temperature on Earth:
The warming trend over the earth‘s surface is varied. It will increase the temperature on
earth.
3) Changed in Precipitation Patterns:
Precipitation patterns will be changed. Some areas will become wetter and some areas dryer.
4) Changed in Seasonal Patterns:
Seasonal patterns will change due to the changing of temperature and precipitation patterns.
5) Changed in Soil Moisture Regimes:
Soil moisture regimes will be changed due to the changes in evaporation and precipitation.
6) Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change:
With the decrease in cloud cover over Eurasia in summer will enhance the solar heating of
the surface and increase the land-sea temperature contrast. Tropical; monsoons will be driven
with more severity and intensity.
7) Changed in Wind Direction and Wind Stress Over the Sea Surface:
Wind direction and wind stress over the sea surface will be changed which will alter ocean
currents and cause change in nutrient mixing zones and productivity of the oceans.
8) Absence of Efforts to Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
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In the absence of efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions, sea levels will rise between 10 and
30 cm by the year 2030 and 30 to 100 cm by the end of the next century.
9) Currently Forested Areas Get Affected:
Forests are highly sensitive to climatic change. One third of currently forested areas could be
affected in some way.
10) Displacement of People:
Worldwide, hundreds of millions of people would be displaced by the inundation of low-
lying coastal plains, deltas and islands in the next century if efforts to reduce greenhouse gas
accumulation in the atmosphere were unsuccessful.
11) Impact on Health of Climate Extreme:
Temperature change may have an impact of several major categories of disease including
cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and respiratory diseases.
6.3 Ozone Layer Depletion:

Ozone is highly reactive pole blue gas with a penetrating odour. It is an allotrope of oxygen made
up of three atoms of oxygen. It is formed when the molecule of the stable for oxygen is split by
ultraviolet radiation or electrical discharge. At ground level, ozone can cause asthma attacks,
stunted growth in plants and corrosion of certain materials. In the upper atmosphere, ozone has a
beneficial effect. It shields life on earth from ultraviolet rays which is a cause of skin cancers.
Ozone is a powerful oxidising agent and is used industrially in bleaching and air-conditioning. As
a pollutant at ground level, ozone is so dangerous that the US Environment Protection Agency
recommends that people should not be exposed for more than one hour a day to ozone levels of
120 parts per billion (ppb). It is known that even at levels of 60 ppb, ozone causes respiratory
problems, and may cause the yields of some crops to fall.Ozone depleter is a chemical that
destroys the ozone in the stratosphere. Most ozone depleters are chemically stable compounds
containing chlorine or bromine which remains unchanged for long enough to drift up to the upper
atmosphere. Once in the upper atmosphere, they are broken by the intense solar radiation and
form a cocktail of more active substances which then react with ozone causing its depletion.
Chlorofluoro carbon is one of them. Others are halons methyl chloroform and carbon
tetrachloride. Chlorofluoro carbon is the killer of ozone. They generate radicals that attack and
destroy ozone molecules. CFC‘s are important compounds in industry and domestic uses. This
renders the depletion of ozone layer severe.
Now a region of low ozone concentration which is commonly called the ‗hole' is situated
over Antarctica and the Arctic region. The aeroplanes flying from height releases nitrogen oxide
in the stratosphere. This gas causes depletion of ozone. In the use of chemical fertiliser‘s nitrous
oxide gas is created which goes high in atmosphere and causes ozone depletion. At the time of
atomic explosion, nitrous oxide is released in the air which causes ozone depletion.
6.3.1 Causes of Ozone Depletion:
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Following are the causes of Ozone depletion:
1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
They are compounds formed by chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They are often used as
refrigerants, solvents, and for the manufacture of spongy plastics. The most common are
CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114, and CFC-115 which respectively have an ozone
depletion potential of 1, 1, 0.8, 1, and 0.6. Chlorofluocarbons, the chemicals used as the
propellant for aerosol cans and Bromofluocarbons, Halon, are destroying the earth‘s Ozone
layer. These chemicals were used in Freon and for fighting fires. Manufactures thought the
chemicals were inert and not harmful to the environment.
When the chemicals reached the earth‘s stratosphere, they reacted with Ultraviolet
radiation, which caused them to break down and release Chlorine and Bromine into the
earth‘s ozone layer. The Ozone layer protects the earth from UV-B Rays. The chemicals
caused a reaction, which made the ozone layer break down into pure oxygen. The layer lost
its shielding effect from the suns UV rays. The Bromine and Chlorine kept interacting with
the ozone molecules until they eventually left the ozone layer to bond with other compounds.
2) Hydro Chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs):
Compounds formed by H, Cl, F and C. They are being used as substitutes for CFCs because
many of their properties are similar and are less harmful to ozone by having a shorter half-
life and releasing fewer Cl atoms. Decreases are between 0.01 and 0.1. But as they remain
harmful to the ozone layer, they are considered only a temporary solution and their use has
been banned in developed countries since the year 1930.
3) Halons:
They are compounds formed by Br, F and C. Because of their ability to put out fires are used
in fire extinguishers, although their manufacture and use is prohibited in many countries
because of their ozone-depleting action. Their ability to harm the ozone layer is very high
because they contain Br which is a much more effective atom destroying ozone than the Cl.
Thus, halon 1301 and halon 1211 have ozone depletion potentials of 13 and 4 respectively.
4) Methyl Bromide (CH3Br):
It is a very effective pesticide that is used to fumigate soils and in many crops. Given its
content in Br damages the ozone layer and has an ozone depletion potential of 0.6. In many
countries dates have been set around 2000, from which it will be banned.
5) Carbon Tetra-chloride (CCl4):
It is a compound that has been widely used as a raw material in many industries, for example,
to manufacture CFCs and as a solvent. It was no longer used as a solvent when it was found
to be carcinogenic. It is also used as catalysts in certain processes where chlorine ions need to
be released. Its ozone depletion potential is 1.2.
6.3.2 Effects of Ozone Depletion:
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Following are the effects of Ozone depletion:
1) Increase in Global Temperature:
Ozone layer in the stratosphere filters out 99% of dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the
sun. The thinning of the ozone layer may increase the temperature of earth that melts the ice
caps at the poles. If this happens, the Sea level will rise from a few centimeters to a few
meters. The low lying areas will become underwater. It is an ecological disaster. The
economic centres are always located along the coast. Hence, flooding can lead to great
economical loss.
2) Loss of Some Animal Species:
If the proportion of ultraviolet rays is increased there will be endanger to the life of some
animals in water.
3) Loss of Crops:
Due to the ozone depletion, the ultraviolet rays will be increased which may result in
decrease in the yield of crops. The expense in medical cure and economical loss in food is
uncountable.
4) Effects on Human Health:
The thinning of the ozone layer may lead to an increase of skin cancer and eye contract. The
presence of ‗ozone hole' over Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere has introduced
incidence of increasing victims of skin cancer.
6.4 Acid Rain:

Acid rain is the rain which has become more acidic than the normal by the presence of dissolved
pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These acidic oxides arise from the
emissions released from the burning of fossil fuels. These gases are also emitted from natural
resources like volcanoes. Acid rains contain mainly nitric and sulphuric acids that are formed by
the dissolution of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide in the air.
6.4.1 Causes of Acid Rain:

Acid rain is the rain which has become more acidic than the normal by the presence of dissolved
pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These acidic oxides arise from the
emissions released from the burning of fossil fuels. These gases are also emitted from natural
resources like volcanoes. Acid rains contain mainly nitric and sulphuric acids that are formed by
the dissolution of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide in the air.
The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with the wet
components of rain. Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with water are found in two
ways either man-made i.e as the emissions are given out from industries or by natural causes like
how a lightning strike in the atmosphere releases nitrogen ions and sulphur is released from
volcanic eruptions.
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According to the Royal Society of Chemistry, which considers him the ―father of acid rain,‖
the word acid rain was invented in 1852 by Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith. Smith decided
on the word while studying rainwater chemistry near industrial towns in England and Scotland.
The regular clean rain we experience, even though it is not clean i.e water and carbon dioxide
react together to form weak carbonic acid which essentially by itself is not extremely harmful.
The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature. The oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur are blown away by the wind along with the dust particles. They settle on the
earth‘s surface after coming down in the form of precipitation. Acid rain is essentially a
byproduct of human activities which emit oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the atmosphere.
Example, the burning of fossil fuels, unethical waste emission disposal techniques.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide undergo oxidation, and then they react with water
resulting in the formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. The following reaction
will clarify the acid formation reaction:
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
6.4.2 Effects of Acid Rain:

Following are the effects of acid rain:
1) Acid Rains Effects Building:
Acid rains corrode buildings and statues.
2) Acid Rains Damages Plants:
It damages plants by destroying their leaves, pigments, lowering chlorophyll, etc.
3) Cause Harm to Soil, Water Resources, Forests and Human Health:
Acid rains cause extensive harm to soil, water resources, forests and human health.
4) Contaminated Lakes and Streams:
Lakes and streams get contaminated because of acid rains.
5) Cause Disappearance of Some Species:
It may cause disappearance of some species of fish.
6) Extensive Damage to Forests, Wild Life and Other Forms of Life:
It does extensive damage to forests, wild life and other forms of life.
7) Drop The PH Of Water:
Acid rains drop the PH of water which is dangerous for most of the animals living in water
habital. When PH lowers more than 4 units, it causes damage to fishes, zoophankton flora
and fauna. Thus, food availability from aquatic animals is lowered by higher acidity from
acid rains.
8) Causes Adverse Effect on the Healthy Ecosystem:
The eqililbrium among plants and animals of the ecosystem is disturbed because of acid rain.
It is so badly disturbed that any kind of recovery, rebalance becomes impossible. So the
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chemical balance of the ecosystem gets disturbed. It causes adverse effect on the healthy
ecosystem as well.
9) Produce Toxic Contaminants:
Acid rains also dissolve metallic air pollutants in the air which produce toxic contaminants to
affect the plants, animals, soil and organism. Acid rains upset nutrients availability in the
suffering air due to acid rain.
10) Material Damage to the Buildings, Vehicles, Steel Etc:
The Sulphuric acid in the acid rainwater is highly corrosive and reactive. It brings material
damage to the buildings, vehicles, steel, paper, textiles, rubber, paper and leather. Due to acid
rain limestone, marble, slate and dolomite surfaces become weaker. Acidic water reacts with
water insoluble carbonates first and then water Soluble Sulphates are produced. They can get
easily removed from the building structures or surfaces of monuments. As a result, enormous
pits are produced in the surface structures.
6.5 Environmental Laws :

Protection and conservation of the environment and sustainable use of natural resources and its
need is reflected in the constitutional framework of India as well as India‘s international
commitments like its Nationally Determined Contribution targets. Under Part IVA of the
Constitution (Article 51A- Fundamental Duties), the Constitution casts a duty on every citizen to
improve and protect the nature and have compassion for all living beings. Furthermore, the
Constitution under Part IV (Article 48A- Directive Principles of State Policies) stipulates that the
State shall try to improve and protect the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife of the
country.
6.5.1 Environment Protection Act:

The United Nations Organization has organized international human environment Conference at
Stockholm In 1972 where, 130 Nations took part in this conference. The Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 was passed to fulfill obligation under the Stockholm Declaration of 1972.
According to the Stockholm Declaration, every member country has to pass Act for the
protection of Environment. Accordingly, Act has been passed for the protection of flora and
fauna, non-renewable resources, wildlife and human health by Central Government of India. The
main Objectives of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1981 were as under:
1) To implement the Stockholm Declaration.
2) To establish co-ordination in various Acts made for Environment
3) To provide remedial system for the depletion of Environment.
4) To establish Authorities and Bodies for the planning, study and protection of Environment.
5) To prevent the factors responsible for Environment depletion and to help Environment
protection.
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Power of the Central Government Protect Environment:
The Central Government has many powers to protect and improve Environment. The Central
Government protects the Environment by making following remedial actions:
1) Co-Ordination of Actions:
Co-ordination of actions by State Government Officers and other authorities:
a) Under this Act or Rules made under the Environment (Protection) Act.
b) Under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this Act.
2) Plan to Execution of a Nationwide Programme:
To plan an execution of a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution.
3) Lay Down of Standards:
To lay down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects.
4) Standards for Emission for Discharge of Environmental Pollutants:
To determine the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from
various sources.
5) Safeguards for the Prevention of Accidents:
To decide procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents in factory this may
cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents.
6) To Impose Restrictions on the Areas:
To impose restrictions on the areas where any industries, operations or processes or class of
industries shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
7) Examination of Manufacturing Process:
To make examination of manufacturing process, materials, substances. These are likely to
cause environmental pollution.
8) Inspection of Industries:
To make inspection at any premises, machinery plant, manufacturing Process or other
process, equipment, material or substance and giving by order, of such directions to such
authorities, officers or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention,
control and abatement of environmental pollution.
9) Carrying Sponsoring Investigation:
To carry out any sponsoring investigation and research relating to the problems of
environmental pollutions.
10) Collection and Dissemination of Information:
To make collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to
environmental pollution.
11) Recognize Environmental Laboratories:
To establish or to recognize environmental laboratories and institutions for carrying out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutions under this act.
12) Preparation of Guidelines:
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To prepare manuals, codes and guides relating to the precaution, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
13) Implementation of Act:
Any other matter as the Central Government deems necessary for the purpose of securing the
effective Implementation of the provisions of this Act.
6.5.2 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981:
At the conference of UNO held in June 1972 at Stockholm on the subject of human environment,
it was decided to preserve the natural resources. It was decided to keep the quality of air to
control the pollution. For this purpose, Central Government has passed The Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The main objectives of this Act are as follows:
a) To prevent the air pollution.
b) To control the air pollution.
c) To make provisions for the establishment of Board for controlling air pollution.
d) To confer on and assign to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters
connected therewith.
e) To preserve the quality of air and control of air pollution.
A) Measures that are taken to Control Air Pollution:
1) Powers of State Government regarding Control of Air Pollution:
State Government has the following powers in respect of control of air pollution under the
sections of 19, 20, and 29.
a) Pollution Control Act:
According to section 19 of the Act, the State Government has power to declare any area as
air pollution control area with the consultancy of state pollution Control Board.
b) Power to Give Suggestions:
The State Government has power to give suggestions regarding the standards of pollutants
releasing from vehicles.
c) Power to Establish Laboratory:
It has power to establish laboratory for checking the air pollution in the State.
d) Power to Appoint Government Analyst:
The State has power to appoint Government Analyst in the lab for deciding the various
factors in the air.
2) Powers of the State Pollution Control Board to prevent and control air pollution.
B) Prevention and Control of Air Pollution:
The Act has provided following powers to the State Pollution Control Board for prevention,
control of air pollution.
1) Operate Industrial Plant:
The State Pollution Control Board has power to give permission to operate industrial plant in
―air pollution control area‖.
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2) Restraining Persons Causing Air Pollution:
The State Pollution Control Board has power to make application to the court for restraining
persons causing Air pollution.
3) Power to Incur Expenses:
The State Pollution Control Board has power to take remedial measures on receiving
information of emission at air pollutants. The State Board has power to incur expenses in
taking remedial measures and recover these expenses from the persons concerned as arrears
of land revenue.
4) Right to Enter:
Any person empowered by State Pollution Control Board in this behalf shall have a right to
enter at all reasonable time and with such assistance as he considers necessary in any factory
or industry.
5) Information Regarding the Type of Pollutants Discharged:
The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981 empowers the State Pollution Control
Board and its officers to call for information from the occupier or any other person carrying
on any industry, operation, etc. Such information includes the information regarding the type
of pollutants discharged in the air and the land of such pollutants in the air.
6) Samples of Air or Emission for Analysis:
The Act also empowers the State Pollution Control Board to take samples of air or emission
for the purpose of analysis from any chimney, flue or duct or any other outlet in the
prescribed manner.
7) State Pollution Control Board:
The State Pollution Control Board or analyst appointed under this act shall analyze the
sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of such analysis in triplicate to the State
Government and to the occupier or his agents.
8) Directions of State Pollution Control Board:
The State Pollution Control Board may issue any directions in writing to any person, officer
or authority related to the pollution of Air.
a) The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process or
b) The stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity water or any other service.
6.5.3 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974:

The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution )Act ,1974wasadopted by the Indian parliament
with the aim of prevention and control of water pollution in India.The main function of the
Central Pollution Control Board shall be to promote cleanliness of rivers, streams and wells in
different areas of the stale. The Central Pollution Control Board may perform all or any of the
following functions:
1) Advise to Central Government:
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Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of
water pollution.
2) Central Pollution Control Board:
Co-ordinate the activities of the State Pollution Control Board and resolve dispute among
them. Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Pollution Control Board. Lay
down, modify or cancel in consultation with the State Government concerned, the standard
for a stream or well.
3) Water Prevention and Control of Pollution:
To carry out and sponsor investigation and research relating to the problems of water
pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution. Planning and organization
of the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention,
control or abatement of water pollution. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical
data and information relating to water pollution and the measures devised for its effective
prevention and control.
4) Organization of Comprehensive Programme:
Organize through mass media comprehensive programme prevention and control of water
pollution. Perform such of the functions of any State Pollution Control Board as directed by
the Central Government. Plan and implement or execute a nationwide programme for the
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.
5) Preparation of Information Boucher:
Prepare manuals, codes and guides relating to the treatment and disposal of sewage and trade
effluents and disseminate information connected therewith.
6.5.4 Wild Life Protection Act, 1972:

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the India enacted for protection of plants and
animal species. Before 1972, India only had five designated national parks. Among other
reforms, the Act established schedules of protected plant and animal species; hunting or
harvesting these species was largely outlawed.
A) The objectives of the Wild Life Act:
The Indian Parliament passed a comprehensive National Law named as 'The wild life
(protection) Act, 1974 with the aim of protecting wild life. The main objectives of the Act are
as follows:
1) To protect wild life;
2) To prevent hunting of wild animals;
3) To control and stop the trade in wildlife product;
4) To create protected areas for wild life;
5) To protect and improve wildlife.
The Act has made a provision for establishment of national parks and game sanctuaries
to ensure greater protection to wildlife.
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B) Functions of the Board:
The Board gives the advice to the state in the following matters:
1) The selection and management of areas to be declared as protected areas.
2) Formulation policy for protection and conservation of the wildlife and vegetation.
3) Any subject specified in the schedule.
4) To create coordination and' communication in the tribal communities and inhabitants in the
region for the preservation of wildlife.
5) Any other functions Imposed by the Government.
6.5.5 Forest Act, 1878:

Forest policy and management was introduced in India by the British Government by setting up a
Forest Department and enacting relevant legislation in the 19th Century. The stated assumption
of such a move was that local communities were incapable of scientific management, and that
only a trained, centrally organised cadre of officers could properly manage forests. ln 1878 the
then British Government in India enacted the Indian Forest Act, 1878 (7 of 1878) relating to
forests in British India. Later it was amended several times. By the passage of time it was found
that the provisions of the said Act were not adequate. It order to consolidate the law relating to
forests, the transit of forest-produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest-produce the
Indian Forest Bill was introduced in the Legislature.
A) Statement of Objects and Reasons:
The general law relating to forests in British India is contained in the Indian Forest Act, 1878
and it‘s amending Acts. The present Bill brings the law together within the scope of one
enactment. The Bill is a straightforward consolidating Bill but the original Act having been
passed before the General Clauses Act of 1897 (10 of 1897), it has been possible to shorten
the language of the Bill by taking advantage of that Act. The ambiguous language of the
second paragraph of section 42 of Act 7 of 1878 has been altered in clause 42(2) so as to
bring it into confirmity with what appears to have been the original intention of the law. The
only other point which calls for further notice is the extent clause. The original Act extended
to the Province of Assam, but by Regulation 7 of 1891 the Indian Forest Act, 1878 was
repealed as far as it relates to Assam. The Bill accordingly omits Assam from the extent
clause.
B) Working under the Acts:
1) Use of Forest:
Every user agency, who wants to use any forest land for non-forestry purposes shall make his
proposal in the appropriate Form appended to these rules, i.e. Form ‗A‘ for proposals seeking
first time approval under the Act and Form ‗B‘ for proposals seeking renewal of leases where
approval of the Central Government under the Act had already been obtained earlier, to the
Nodal officer of the concerned State Government or the Union Territory Administration, as
the case may be, along with requisite information and documents complete in all respects.
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2) Submission of Copy of the Proposal to Regional Office:
The user agency shall endorse a copy of the proposal along with a copy of the receipt
obtained from the office of the Nodal Officer, to the concerned Divisional Forest Officer or
the Conservator of Forests, Regional Office as well as the Monitoring Cell of the Forest
Conservation Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
3) Processing of Proposal Given By User:
a) After having received the proposals, the State Govt. or the Union Territory Administration as
the case may be shall process and forward it to the Central Govt. within a period of two
hundred and ten days of the receipt of the proposal including the transit period.
b) The Nodal Officer of the State Government or as the case may be, the Union Territory
Administration, after having received the proposal under Sub-rule (1) and on being satisfied
that the proposal is complete in all respects and requires prior approval under section 2 of the
act, shall send the concerned D.F.O. within a period of 10 days of the receipt of the
proposals. Provided that on the determination regarding completeness of the proposals or the
expiry of ten days whichever is earlier, the question of completeness or otherwise of the
proposals shall not be raised.
c) If the Nodal Officer of the State Govt. or the Union Territory Administration, as the case may
be, finds that the proposal is incomplete, he shall return it within the period of ten days as
specified under Clause to the User Agency and this time period shall not be counted for any
future reference.
d) The Divisional Forest Officer or the Conservator of Forests shall examine the factual details
and feasibility of the proposal, certify the maps, carry out site- inspection and enumeration of
the trees and forward his findings in the format specified in this regard to the Nodal Officer
within a period of ninety days of the receipt of such proposal from him.
e)
i) The Nodal Officer, through the Principal Chief Conservator of Forest, shall forward the
proposal to the State Govt. or the Union Territory Administration, as the case may be, along
with his recommendations, within a period of 90 days of the receipt of such proposals from
the Divisional Forest Officer for the Conservator of Forests.
ii) The State Govt. or the Union Territory Administration, as the case may be shall forward the
complete proposals, along with its recommendations to the regional office or the ministry of
environment and forests. Provided that all proposals involving clearing of naturally grown
trees on the forest land or a portion thereof for the purpose of using it for reforestation shall
be sent in the form of Working Plan or Management Plan.
f) Provided further that the concerned State Government or as the case may be, the Union
Territory Administration, shall simultaneously send the intimation to the User Agency about
forwarding of the proposal, along with its recommendations, to the regional office for the
Ministry of Environment of Forest, as the case may be.
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g) If the proposals along with the recommendations, is not received from the concerned State
Govt. or the Union Territory Administration, as the case may be, till fifteen days of the
expiry of the time limit as specified under Clause (a), it shall be construed that the concerned
State Government or as the case may be, the Union Territory Administration, has rejected the
proposal and the concerned State Government or the Union Territory Administration shall
inform the User Agency accordingly.
h) Provided that in case the State Government or the Union Territory Administration, as the
case may be, subsequently forward the proposal, along with its recommendations, to the
regional office or the Ministry of Environment of Forest, as the case may be, the proposal
shall not be considered by the Central Govt. unless an explanation for the delay to
satisfaction of the Central Govt. is furnished, together with action taken against any
individual held to be responsible for the delay.
4) Further Processing of Proposal:
The proposal referred to in clause (e)(ii) of sub rule (3), involving forest land up to 40
hectares shall be forwarded by the concerned State Govt. or as the case may be, the Union
Territory Administration, along with its recommendations, to the Chief Conservator of
Forests or the Conservator of Forests of the concerned Regional Office of the Ministry of
Environment & Forest, Govt. of India, who shall within a period of 45 days of the receipt of
the proposal from the concerned State Govt. or the Union Territory Administration, as the
case may be (a) decide the diversion proposal up to five hectares other than the proposal
relating to mining and encroachments, and (b) process, scrutinize and forward diversion
proposal of more than five hectares and up to forty hectares including all proposals relating
to mining and encroachments up to forty hectares, along with recommendations, if any to the
ministry of Environment and Forest.
5) Decision of Regional Empowered Committee:
The Regional Empowered Committee shall decide the proposal involving diversion forest
land up to forty hectares other than the proposal relating to mining and encroachment, within
45 days of the receipt of such proposal from the State Govt. or the Union Territory
Administration, as the case may be: Provided that the Central Govt. may, if consider it
necessary, enhance or reduce the limit of the area of the forest land. The proposal referred to
in clause (e) (ii) of sub-rule (3), involving forests land of more than forty hectares shall be
forwarded by the concerned State Govt. or as the case may be, the Union Territory
Administration, along with its recommendations to the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
6.6 International Agreements:
International environmental agreements reflect key government policies on important
environmental issues, and Canadians should know what has, or has not, been achieved as a result
of these agreements. We looked at five international environmental agreements to determine if
the responsible federal departments know to what extent specific objectives of the agreements are
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being achieved. We noted that the departments have varying degrees of information on whether
they are achieving the environmental objectives and results of their respective agreements.
6.6.1 Montreal Protocol:

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (the Montreal Protocol) is an
international agreement made in 1987. It was designed to stop the production and import of
ozone depleting substances and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to help protect the
earth's ozone layer.
The Montreal Protocol sits under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer (the Vienna Convention). The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 following
international discussion of scientific discoveries in the 1970s and 1980s highlighting the adverse
effect of human activity on ozone levels in the stratosphere and the discovery of the ‗ozone hole‘.
Its objectives are to promote cooperation on the adverse effects of human activities on the ozone
layer.
The Montreal Protocol is widely considered as the most successful environment protection
agreement. It sets out a mandatory timetable for the phase out of ozone depleting substances.
This timetable has been reviewed regularly, with phase out dates accelerated in accordance with
scientific understanding and technological advances
The Montreal Protocol sets binding progressive phase out obligations for developed and
developing countries for all the major ozone depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), halons and less damaging transitional chemicals such as hydro chlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs). The Montreal Protocol targets 96 ozone depleting chemicals in thousands of
applications across more than 240 industrial sectors. In 2016 the Montreal Protocol also became
responsible for setting binding progressive phase down obligations for the 18 main
hydroflurocarbons (HFCs).
A) History:
In 1973, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, who were then at the
University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's
atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the
atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally
(after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet
radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine
atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the
stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J.
Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the
destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski,
Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could
catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of
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chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry
for their work on this problem.
The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone
absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet,
depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV-B radiation at the
surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and
to marine phytoplankton.
But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the
aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying
that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense".
Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first
practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about
Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)
After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a
hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant
funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial
findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that
confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to
publish assessments of related science for the next decade.
Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jon
Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near
the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the
atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and
significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings.
The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual
representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal,
Canada to take the issue seriously.
Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna
Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on
ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone wholeby SAGE 2 it only took
18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal, Canada.
But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for
Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont)
was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont
testified before the US Congress that "We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands
unilateral regulation."[38] And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert
would write in a letter to the United States Senate, "we will not produce a product unless it
can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety,
health and environmental quality criteria. At the moment, scientific evidence does not point
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to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions. There is no available measure of the
contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change..."
B) Terms and Purposes:
The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete
stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal
Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm
the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the
Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) for a table of ozone-depleting substances
controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:
For each group of ODSs, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those
substances must be shot out and eventually eliminated. This included a 10-year phase-in for
developing countries identified in Article 5 of the treaty.
1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan:
The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states:
a) Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and
otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on
human health and the environment. Determination to protect the ozone layer by taking
precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete
it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific
knowledge,
b) Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries
who shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including from 1991
to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of
Annex A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of
those substances in 1986;from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the
controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent
of its calculated level of consumption and production in 1986.From 1996 its calculated level
of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not
exceed zero percent of its calculated levels in 1986.
There was a faster phase-out of halon-1211, -2402, -1301, There was a slower phase-out
(to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.) and
some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1, 1, 1-
trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less damaging HCFCs only began in 1996 and will
go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030.
There were a few exceptions for "essential uses" where no acceptable substitutes were
initially found (for example, in the past metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma
and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were exempt) or Halon fire suppression systems
used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).The substances in Group I of
Annex A are:
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i) CFCl3 (CFC-11)
ii)CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)
iii)
C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)
iv)C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)
v) C2F5Cl (CFC-115)
The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol
base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic
information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities.
To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in understanding on these
topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled
Scientific assessment of ozone depletion, by the Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP).
In 1990 a Technology and Economic Assessment Panel was also established as the
technology and economics advisory body to the Montreal Protocol Parties. The Technology
and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) provides, at the request of Parties, technical
information related to the alternative technologies that have been investigated and employed
to make it possible to virtually eliminate use of Ozone Depleting Substances (such as CFCs
and Halons), that harm the ozone layer. The TEAP is also tasked by the Parties every year to
assess and evaluate various technical issues including evaluating nominations for essential
use exemptions for CFCs and halons, and nominations for critical use exemptions for methyl
bromide. TEAP's annual reports are a basis for the Parties‘ informed decision-making.
Numerous reports have been published by various inter-governmental, governmental and
non-governmental organizations to catalogue and assess alternatives to the ozone depleting
substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in
refrigeration, air conditioning, flexible and rigid foam, fire protection, aerospace, and
electronics, agriculture, and laboratory measurements.
2) Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP):
Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially
Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to
set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs for developing
countries. For developed countries, reduction of HCFC consumption and production began in
2004 and 2010, respectively, with 100% reduction set for 2020. Developing countries agreed
to start reducing its consumption and production of HCFCs by 2015, with 100% reduction set
for 2030.
Hydro chlorofluorocarbons, commonly known as HCFCs, are a group of man-made
compounds containing hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They are not found anywhere
in nature. HCFC production began to take off after countries agreed to phase out the use of
CFCs in the 1980s, which were found to be destroying the ozone layer. Like CFCs, HCFCs
are used for refrigeration, aerosol propellants, foam manufacture and air conditioning. Unlike
the CFCs, however, most HCFCs are broken down in the lowest part of the atmosphere and
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pose a much smaller risk to the ozone layer. Nevertheless, HCFCs are very potent
greenhouse gases, despite their very low atmospheric concentrations, measured in parts per
trillion (million million).
The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing
agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of ozone depletion
potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs have lower
ODPs (0.01 – 0.5). In terms of global warming potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that
have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76 – 2,270).
3) Hydroflurocarbons (HFCs):
On January 1, 2019 the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol came into force. Under
the Kigali Amendment countries promised to reduce the use of hydroflurocarbons (HFCs) by
more than 80% over the next 30 years.By December 27, 2018, 65 countries had ratified the
Amendment.
Produced mostly in developed countries, hydroflurocarbons (HFCs) replaced CFCs and
HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do
not contain chlorine. They are, however, greenhouse gases, with a high global warming
potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs. In 2009, a study calculated that a
fast phasedown of high-GWP HFCs could potentially prevent the equivalent of up to 8.8 Gt
CO2-eq per year in emissions by 2050. A proposed phasedown of HFCs was hence projected
to avoid up to 0.5C of warming by 2100 under the high-HFC growth scenario, and up to
0.35C under the low-HFC growth scenario. Recognizing the opportunity presented for fast
and effective phasing down of HFCs through the Montreal Protocol, starting in 2009 the
Federated States of Micronesia proposed an amendment to phase down high-GWP HFCs,
with the U.S., Canada, and Mexico following with a similar proposal in 2010.
After seven years of negotiations, in October 2016 at the 28th Meeting of the Parties to
the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali
Amendment whereby the Parties agreed to phase down HFCs under the Montreal Protocol.
The amendment to the legally-binding Montreal Protocol will ensure that industrialised
countries bring down their HFC production and consumption by at least 85 per cent
compared to their annual average values in the period 2011–2013. A group of developing
countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by
85 per cent of their average value in 2020-22 by the year 2045. India and some other
developing countries Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and some oil economies like Saudi Arabia and
Kuwait will cut down their HFCs by 85 per cent of their values in 2024-26 by the year 2047.
On 17 November 2017, ahead of the 29th Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal
Protocol, Sweden became the 20th Party to ratify the Kigali Amendment, pushing the
Amendment over its ratification threshold ensuring that the Amendment would enter into
force 1 January 2019.
C) Multilateral Fund:
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The main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol
is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita
consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to
comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the
Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries).
It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to
protect and manage the global commons.
The Fund is managed by an Executive Committee with an equal representation of seven
industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the
Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. The
work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four
Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the Executive Committee:
1) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), through its OzoneAction Programme.
2) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
3) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
4) World Bank.
Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered
through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities.
The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amounted to US$3.1
billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion
of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new
technologies, and establish national ozone offices. As of December 2019, the fund stood at
just over US$4.1 billion in income and US$3.8 billion in disbursements.
D) Parties:
As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue as
well as the European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol, with South Sudan
being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197. These countries have
also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments.
6.6.2 Kyoto Protocol:

The Kyoto Protocol is a byproduct of the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992. This agreement was
signed in December 1997 in the city of Kyoto in Japan. Over 160 nations gathered in Kyoto, to
negotiate agreements binding on the developed countries for the control of emission of
greenhouse gases. The negotiations were centered on the creation of a legal framework and the
establishment of goals for the mitigation of global warming through the reduction in greenhouse
gas emissions identified in the Berlin Mandate. Berlin was the place where the nation states
agreed to prepare and negotiate international commitments that would provide specific values
and timelines for the reduction of greenhouse gases. So Berlin provided the groundwork for
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Kyoto Protocol. Two weeks of intense and lengthy negotiation produced the Kyoto Protocol, an
agreement that is seen by some as the most important international environmental agreement yet
signed and by others as the precursor of a major economic disaster.
The protocol requires the nation states to commit themselves to reduce their emissions of
carbon dioxide and give other greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol is signed by more than 160
countries. The agreement divides the nation states into two categories. Developed countries are
referred to as Annex 1 countries and developing countries are referred to as Annex 2 countries.
A) Emission Reduction Targets:
The Protocol sets binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community
(also known as Annex I countries). The aim is to reduce GHG emissions to an average of 5%
compared to the 1990 level. The reduction must be achieved over the 2008-12 period. Given
that the developed industrialised economies are also the biggest emitters and have since
industrialisation was the primary cause of the accumulation of GHG emissions, the Protocol
sets a heavier burden on the developed economies on the principle of ‗common but
differentiated responsibilities.‘
Also, the developed countries are expected to provide additional financial resources to
advance the implementation of commitments by developing countries. Both Annex I and
non-Annex I Parties must co-operate in the areas of: (a) the development, application and
diffusion of climate friendly technologies; (b) research on and systematic observation of the
climate system; (c) education, training and public awareness of climate changes; and (d) the
improvement of methodologies and data for greenhouse gas inventories (Kyoto Protocol
Reference Manual on Accounting of Emissions and Assigned Amounts, 2007).
B) Kyoto Mechanism:
The central feature of the Kyoto protocol is its requirement that countries limit or reduce
their greenhouse gas emissions. By setting such targets, emission reductions took on
economic value.
To help countries meet their emission targets, and to encourage the private sector and
developing countries to contribute to emission reduction efforts, negotiators of the protocol
included three market-based mechanisms - emissions trading, the clean development
mechanism and joint implementation.
In the Kyoto Protocol there are three mechanisms that aim to support developed
countries in achieving their emission reductions. The so-called Kyoto mechanisms, or
flexible mechanisms, enable developed countries to meet part of their emission reduction
commitments abroad.
1) Emissions Trading:
The most well-known of these three instruments is emissions trading, which enables trade in
emission units between developed countries. This works as follows: Each country is assigned
a certain amount of emission units. The volume of these units allocated to each country is
such that a country uses up its entire allocation if it precisely complies with its national
Kyoto emission reduction target. If a country achieves a greater reduction than called for in
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the Kyoto Protocol, it can sell surplus emission units in the form of licenses to another
country. A country that does not succeed in reaching its Kyoto target can purchase these
units and credit them to its own emission reduction. The licenses are sold internationally to
the highest bidder in other words, the market determines the price. The other two Kyoto
mechanisms the clean development mechanism and joint implementation are project-based
mechanisms.
2) Joint Implementation (JI):
Projects carried out jointly by two developed countries that have both committed to an
emission reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol fall within the scope of joint
implementation. If a developed country carries out or finances a climate project in another
developed country, it can credit the resulting emission reductions in the form of emission
reduction units to its target. The host country of course cannot credit these units and must
reduce its own units by the amount that was exported. Joint implementation projects can
contribute to emission reductions first being implemented where it is most convenient.
3) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):
The clean development mechanism works in a similar way to joint implementation. The main
difference, however, is that CDM projects are carried out in a developing country that has no
reduction obligation. The emission savings that are achieved through a CDM project are
certified and these certified emission reductions (CERs) can be credited to the developed
country's account.
Developed countries obtain access to these CERs either by directly participating in a
CDM project or by purchasing them. The goal of the CDM is not only as with the first two
mechanisms to make emission reductions more cost effective. It also serves to assist
developing countries, for example through technology transfer, to achieve sustainable
development.
The specific conditions of the CDM were laid down in the Marrakesh Accords.
According to these, all CDM projects have to be reviewed and approved by a body in
advance before they can be credited. Furthermore, the Parties also adopted regulations in
Marrakesh on the type of projects that cannot be considered for CDM: the construction of
nuclear power plants is not recommended, sink projects, for example afforestation measures,
may only be credited to a limited degree. In order to use the Kyoto mechanisms, countries
must;
a) Have ratified the Kyoto Protocol
b) Have taken on emission reduction targets, in other words be Annex B countries
c) Have calculated a national emissions budget and established a national data collection system
for drawing up greenhouse gas inventories and for transactions involving emission units.
One point of contention during many climate negotiations was the percentage of
emission reductions that should be permitted through the Kyoto mechanisms, in other words
abroad. The Kyoto Protocol itself is rather vague on this: the use of the Kyoto mechanisms
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must be "additional" to national reduction measures. This wording implies that no country
may comply with its reduction commitments exclusively through the use of the Kyoto
mechanisms. The Parties were unable, however, to agree on a more precise regulation.
4) Detailed Eligibility Requirements:
Detailed eligibility requirements can be found under the respective decisions agreed by the
CMP, as follows:
a) CDM eligibility requirements are reflected in section F of the Modalities and procedures for
a clean development mechanism (decision 3/CMP.1).
b) JI eligibility requirements are reflected in section D of the Guidelines for implementation of
Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol (decision 9/CMP.1).
c) ET eligibility requirements are reflected in in the Modalities, rules and guidelines for
emissions trading under Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol (decision 11/CMP.1).
C) Limitations of Kyoto Protocol:
There is also criticism over the true impact of the Kyoto Protocol in the long run on reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions because it is questioned how much developed countries can
offset their emissions while developing countries continue to emit these greenhouse gases.
1) It only requires Wealthy Nations to Cut Emissions:
Interestingly, developing nations such as China and India refused to be included inthe Kyoto
Protocol. At that time the Protocol was being discussed, it probably made sense for them to
not include themselves in the conversation.
But that is so much more different today where developing countries are major sources
of carbon emissions. And by excluding them, the aim of the Protocol just doesn‘t make much
sense.
Interestingly, the US agreed to the Protocol, but it wasn‘t ratified. In essence, we have
one of the world‘s largest emitters of greenhouse gases and they aren‘t even participating in a
Protocol that aims to curb those emissions. To add more trivia, it took until 2005 for Russia
to agree into participating in the Kyoto Protocol.
Also saddening was the withdrawal of Canada from the Protocol in 2012 because they
couldn‘t meet targets.
Late in 2014, a UN climate deal conference in Lima, Peru was held. The intention was to
agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would require all major polluters to pay for
carbon dioxide emissions. Representatives from 196 countries agreed to a deal that would
require them to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Then again, the Lima deal might seem flawed as well because the content of each
country‘s plan is voluntary. Meaning, participating countries can choose to cut their
emissions as much or as little as they like. They may or may not provide a timetable as well.
The plans that will be submitted will be the agenda of a major new climate agreement
that will be negotiated in Paris at the end of 2015 and would take effect by 2020. The thing
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is, the Paris agreement doesn‘t seem legally binding either, which just means that countries
won‘t face any consequences if they don‘t follow through on their promises.
2) None of the Limits Imposed on Participating Countries Resulted in a Reduction of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
Yes, participating countries reported that they have indeed lessened their release of harmful
gases into the atmosphere. However, data shows otherwise. All we are hearing about these
days is how everything is getting warmer and that global emissions are actually going up and
at a frightening rate.
6.6.3 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity
Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The convention has three main goals: the conservation of
biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. Its objective is to develop national
strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and it is often seen as
the key document regarding sustainable development.
The convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June
1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. It has two supplementary agreements, the
Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an
international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting
from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 as a
supplementary agreement to the CBD and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity is
another supplementary agreement to the CBD. It provides a transparent legal framework for the
effective implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing
of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol was adopted
on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan and entered into force on 12 October 2014.
2010 was also the International Year of Biodiversity, and the Secretariat of the CBD was its
focal point. Following a recommendation of CBD signatories at Nagoya, the UN declared 2011
to 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity in December 2010. The convention's
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, created in 2010, include the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets.
The meetings of the parties to the convention are known as Conferences of the Parties (COP),
with the first one (COP 1) held in Nassau, Bahamas in 1994 and the most recent one (COP 14)
held in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt.
A) Meaning:
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, informally known as the
Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty opened for signature at the Earth Summit in
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Rio De Janeiro in 1992. It is a key document regarding sustainable development. It comes
under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
B) Goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity:
The goals of the Convention are listed below:
1) Conservation of Biological Diversity
2) Sustainable use of the components of the Biodiversity
3) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the genetic resources
The idea of CBD is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity. In order to implement that, the convention does the following:
a) Asserting intrinsic value of biodiversity.
b) Affirming conservation of biodiversity as a common concern of population.
c) Taking responsibility to conserve biodiversity in the State and that the state uses this
biodiversity sustainably.
d) Affirming the State to put the biological resources as the Sovereign Rights of the State.
e) Taking a precautionary approach towards conservation of biodiversity.
f) Highlighting the vital role of local communities and women.
g) Supporting access to technologies for developing countries and searching for provisions for
new and additional financial resources to address the biodiversity loss in the region.
C) Origin and Scope of CBD:
The notion of an international convention on bio-diversity was conceived at a United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological
Diversity in November 1988. The subsequent year, the Ad Hoc Working Group of Technical
and Legal Experts was established for the drafting of a legal text which addressed the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, as well as the sharing of benefits
arising from their utilization with sovereign states and local communities. In 1991, an
intergovernmental negotiating committee was established, tasked with finalizing the
convention's text.
A Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological
Diversity was held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1992, and its conclusions were distilled in the
Nairobi Final Act. The convention's text was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth Summit"). By
its closing date, 4 June 1993, the convention had received 168 signatures. It entered into
force on 29 December 1993.
The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of
biodiversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development
process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links
traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources
sustainably. It sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the
use of genetic resources, notably those destined for commercial use. It also covers the rapidly
expanding field of biotechnology through its Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, addressing
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technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues. Importantly, the
convention is legally binding; countries that join it ('Parties') are obliged to implement its
provisions.
The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets
out a philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting
particular species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes
must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate
that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity.
The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary
principle which demands that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of
biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for
postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat. The Convention acknowledges that
substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity. It argues, however, that
conservation will bring us significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return.
The Convention on Biological Diversity of 2010 banned some forms of geoengineering.
D) International Bodies Established:
Following international bodies are established by CBD:
1) Conference of the Parties (COP)
The convention's governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP), consisting of all
governments (and regional economic integration organizations) that have ratified the treaty.
This ultimate authority reviews progress under the convention, identifies new priorities, and
sets work plans for members. The COP can also make amendments to the convention, create
expert advisory bodies, review progress reports by member nations, and collaborate with
other international organizations and agreements.
The Conference of the Parties uses expertise and support from several other bodies that
are established by the convention. In addition to committees or mechanisms established on an
ad hoc basis, the main organs are:
2) CBD Secretariat:
The CBD Secretariat, based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, operates under UNEP, the United
Nations Environment Programme. Its main functions are to organize meetings, draft
documents, assist member governments in the implementation of the programme of work,
coordinate with other international organizations, and collect and disseminate information.
3) Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA):
The SBSTTA is a committee composed of experts from member governments competent in
relevant fields. It plays a key role in making recommendations to the COP on scientific and
technical issues. It provides assessments of the status of biological diversity and of various
measures taken in accordance with Convention, and also gives recommendations to the
Conference of the Parties, which may be endorsed in whole, in part or in modified form by
the COPs. As of 2020 SBSTTA had met 23 times, with a 24th meeting scheduled to take
place in Canada in 2021.
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4) Subsidiary Body on Implementation (SBI):
In 2014, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity established
the Subsidiary Body on Implementation (SBI) to replace the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working
Group on Review of Implementation of the convention. The four functions and core areas of
work of SBI are: (a) review of progress in implementation; (b) strategic actions to enhance
implementation; (c) strengthening means of implementation; and (d) operations of the
convention and the Protocols. The first meeting of the SBI was held on 2–6 May 2016 and
the second meeting was held on 9–13 July 2018, both in Montreal, Canada. The third
meeting of the SBI will be held on 25–29 May 2020 in Montreal, Canada.[needs update] The
Bureau of the Conference of the Parties serves as the Bureau of the SBI. The current chair of
the SBI is Ms. Charlotta Sörqvist of Sweden.
E) Parties:
As of 2016, the convention has 196 parties, which includes 195 states and the European
Union. All UN member states with the exception of the United States have ratified the treaty.
Non-UN member states that have ratified are the Cook Islands, Niue, and the State of
Palestine. The Holy See and the states with limited recognition are non-parties. The US has
signed but not ratified the treaty, and has not announced plans to ratify it.
The European Union created the Cartagena Protocol in 2000 to enhance biosafety
regulation and propagate the "precautionary principle" over the "sound science principle"
defended by the United States. Whereas the impact of the Cartagena Protocol on domestic
regulations has been substantial, its impact on international trade law remains uncertain. In
2006, the World Trade Organization (WTO) ruled that the European Union had violated
international trade law between 1999 and 2003 by imposing a moratorium on the approval of
genetically modified organisms (GMO) imports. Disappointing the United States, the panel
nevertheless "decided not to decide" by not invalidating the stringent European biosafety
regulations.
Implementation by the parties to the convention is achieved using two means:
1) National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP):
National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP) are the principal instruments for
implementing the Convention at the national level. The Convention requires that countries
prepare a national biodiversity strategy and to ensure that this strategy is included in planning
for activities in all sectors where diversity may be impacted. As of early 2012, 173 Parties
had developed NBSAPs.
The United Kingdom, New Zealand and Tanzania carried out elaborate responses to conserve
individual species and specific habitats. The United States of America, a signatory who had
not yet ratified the treaty by 2010, produced one of the most thorough implementation
programs through species recovery programs and other mechanisms long in place in the US
for species conservation.
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Singapore established a detailed National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. The
National Biodiversity Centre of Singapore represents Singapore in the Convention for
Biological Diversity.
2) National Reports:
In accordance with Article 26 of the convention, parties prepare national reports on the status
of implementation of the convention.
F) Protocols and Plans Developed by CBD:
Following protocols and plans are developed by CBD:
1) Cartagena Protocol (2000):
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, also known as the Biosafety Protocol, was adopted in
January 2000, after a CBD Open-ended Ad Hoc Working Group on Biosafety had met six
times between July 1996 and February 1999. The Working Group submitted a draft text of
the Protocol, for consideration by Conference of the Parties at its first extraordinary meeting,
which was convened for the express purpose of adopting a protocol on biosafety to the
Convention on Biological Diversity. After a few delays, the Cartagena Protocol was
eventually adopted on 29 January 2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological
diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology.
The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based
on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against
economic benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of a genetically modified
organism if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence the product is safe and requires
exporters to label shipments containing genetically modified commodities such as corn or
cotton.
The required number of 50 instruments of ratification / accession/ approval/ acceptance
by countries was reached in May 2003. In accordance with the provisions of its Article 37,
the protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003.
2) Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (2002):
In April 2002, the parties of the UN CBD adopted the recommendations of theGran Canaria
Declaration Calling for a Global Plant Conservation Strategy, andadopted a 16-point plan
aiming to slow the rate of plant extinctions around theworld by 2010.
3) Nagoya Protocol (2010):
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity was
adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, at the tenth meeting of the
Conference of the Parties, and entered into force on 12 October 2014. The protocol is a
supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity, and provides a
transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three objectives of
the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources. It thereby contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
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4) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020:
Also at the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held from 18 to 29 October 2010
in Nagoya, a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, 2011-2020 was agreed and
published. This document included the "Aichi Biodiversity Targets", comprising 20 targets
which address each of five strategic goals defined in the Strategic Plan. The strategic plan
includes the following strategic goals:
a) Strategic Goal A:
Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across
government and society.
b) Strategic Goal B:
Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
c) Strategic Goal C:
To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic
diversity.
d) Strategic Goal D:
Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
e) Strategic Goal E:
Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and
capacity building.
6.7 Nature Reserves:

Charles Waterton established the first nature reserve in 1821.Cultural practices that roughly
equate to the establishment and maintenance of reserved areas for animals date back to antiquity,
with King Tisaa of Ceylon establishing one of the world's earliest wildlife sanctuaries in the 3rd
century BC. Early reservations often had a religious underpinning, such as the 'evil forest' areas
of West Africa which were forbidden to humans, who were threatened with spiritual attack if
they went there. Sacred areas taboo from human entry to fishing and hunting are known by many
ancient cultures worldwide.
The world's first modern nature reserve was established in 1821 by the naturalist and explorer
Charles Waterton around his estate in Walton Hall,West Yorkshire. He c constructed a three-mile
long, 9 ft. tall wall to enclose his park against poachers. He tried to encourage bird life by
planting trees and hollowing out trunks for owels to nest in. Drachenfels was protected as the first
state-designated nature reserve in modern-day Germany; the site was bought by the Prussian
State in 1836 to protect it from further quarrying. The first major nature reserve was Yellowstone
National Park in Wyoming, United States, followed by the Royal national Park near Sydney,
Australia and the Barguzin Nature Reserve of Imperial Russia, the first of zapovedniks set up by
a federal government entirely for the scientific study of nature.
A nature reserve also known as a natural reserve, wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary,
biosphere reserve or bio reserve, natural or nature preserve, or nature conservation area, is a
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protected area of importance for flora, fauna or features of geological or other special interest,
which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities
for study or research. Nature reserves are created a shelter for threatened species or as mean of
preserving one or more ecosystems. Mostly nature reserves are intended to preserve the
biodiversity of an area, though they may also be used recreation and tourism. It is important to
setup reserve to minimize extinctions and maximize biodiversity. The first requirement is for the
reserve to be a large enough area to hold viable populations of the species it is trying to conserve.
They may be designated by government institutions in some countries, or by private landowners,
such as charities and research institutions. Nature reserves fall into different IUCN categories
depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws. Normally it is more strictly protected
than a nature park. Various jurisdictions may use other terminology, such as ecological protection
area or private protected area in legislation and in official titles of the reserves. Waterton
invented artificial nest boxes to house starlings, jackdaws and sand martins, and unsuccessfully
attempted to introduce little owls from Italy. Waterton allowed local people access to his reserve.
6.7.1 Tribal Populations and Rights:

The word ‗Tribe‘ denotes a group of people living in primitive and ruthless conditions and in a
fixed territory having no specialized functions. The people living in these social groups are
known as tribal people. Tribes also have several sub groups and collectively they are known as
‗Tribal Society‘. Tribes are the inhabitants of forests since prehistory and even in this modern
world this trend is followed by many people. Tribes constitute around 8.6 percent of the total
Indian population, and of the total tribal population around 80 percent are found in Central India.
India has the second largest tribal population in the world. In India, Scheduled Tribes are
mainly spread across the forests and hilly regions of India. Tribes in India are mainly
characterized by their geographical location and distinct culture. In India, tribes are treated very
low, are execrated and are even treated as untouchables by the prevailing adherence to social
norms and caste system. The tribal people were compelled to perform duties which were
considered inferior because of their economic backwardness and illiteracy. Since, these people
were ill-treated and were not enjoying equal status with other people which are guaranteed to all
the citizens of India by Article 14 of The Constitution of India. The State shall not deny to any
person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India, so
there was a need to provide these tribal people some rights for their welfare and development. In
earlier times, Mahatma Gandhi fought for the rights of the tribal people and recognized them as
Girijans or the Children of the Forest God and after Independence in 1947, the Government of
India spent lot of resources to improve the standard of living of tribal people and also helped
them through legislations and developmental programmes and in safeguarding their rights.
Article 15 of the Indian Constitution states that the state shall not discriminate any citizen on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. Article 19(5) [13] of the
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Constitution of India guarantees the tribal people right to own property and enjoy it in any part of
the country.
India has the second largest tribal population mainly in forests and hilly regions, spread
across various parts of the country. Geographical location, distinct culture, economic
backwardness and aloneness from the society are characteristics of these communities.
Article 366(25) refers to Scheduled Tribes as tribal communities or groups. It is given in
Article 14 of the Indian Constitution: ―The State shall not avoid to any person equality before the
law within the territory of India.‖ In India, since these people are not treated well, the
Constitution of India provides several rights to these people. There are a number of social
problems which are associated with these people like untouchability, illiteracy etc. Article 17 of
the Constitution of India states:Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is not
allowed.
Various other provisions are also made by the Constitution of India to improve the life of the
Scheduled Tribes. This paper explores the concept of rights available to the scheduled tribes in
India and also carries out the analysis of these rights and the social activists who helped in
improving the condition of Scheduled Tribes and safeguarding their rights
A) Historical Background
In fact, the tribal people were self-governing first nations. These tribal groups were forced by
the people belonging to upper castes to perform non skilled jobs like small household works,
sweeping, cleaning of excreta, leather works, removal of dead bodies etc. The tribal people
were considered untouchables and they were not even allowed to sit along with the people of
upper caste. Their sovereign existence outside the mainstream led to the preservation of their
socio-religious and cultural practices as there were no interference by the mainstream
society.
The tribal people were considered unclean by most of the people of Indian society and they
were socially distanced and often used to face violence from the society. Apart from the
encounter of the tribes with the various civilizations, there was also the influence of the
foreign missionaries in the past and of the dominant society through the fundamentalist
forces in the recent past. In the past, there were several human rights violations and brutality,
particularly on tribal women. Tribal communities also used to face isolation and social
discrimination from the mainstream society which always used to oppress them.
Initially the demand for the rights of tribes and equal status in society in India was started by
Mahatma Gandhi. He considered these people as Girijans or the Children of God and treated
them equally in the society. Gandhi started working with these people who were seen as
untouchables by the mainstream society and when it was seen by the other people it became a
revolt but situation did not change much.
After Independence in 1947, Government of India passed various resolutions and a ministry
was made to safeguard the rights of tribal people. Even in the Constitution special rights are
guaranteed to the people belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
B) Problems Related to Scheduled Tribes
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The most common problems relate to the tribal people living in peninsular India and the
north-eastern tribes. The separate systems were approved by the Constituent Assembly
formed at the time of independence after receiving recommendations that the distinct
‗community structures‘ and ‗attitudes‘ of the tribes in the two regions could be treated in a
common law. Under the 2006 Forest Rights Act, providing land rights to forest-dwelling
communities of the country, only 15 lakh complainants out of the 39,56,262 cases filed; were
given the legal recognition to their property. The tribes have their own social problems. They
are traditional and bound by customs. Due to lack of education and development they are
superstitious and believe in outmoded and meaningless practices which can be harmful to
them.
Child marriage, infanticide, homicide, animal sacrifice, exchange of wives, black magic
and other detrimental practices are still prevalent among them. They believe in supernatural
powers and have a keen desire to maintain these practices. They don‘t want to change their
significant tribal character and hence it‘s said that tribes are the tribesmen first, the tribesmen
last, and the tribesmen all the time.
1) Geographical Separation:
The tribes are of special concern in Indian society in view of their general economic
backwardness, low technological development and complex problems of socio-cultural
adjustment to distinctive cultural identity. As the tribal communities are spread in different
areas of India, the development of tribal people is very challenging for the Government of
India. Most of the tribal people living in India are geographically separated from the rest of
the population. It becomes very difficult for them to establish relations as some of them live
in remote areas like dense forests, mountains, hills, deep valleys etc. and hence they cannot
correlate with the modern society. This kind of social as well as physical separation or
seclusion has declined the tribal development. The welfare schemes, programmes and
projects undertaken by the Government, sometimes do not even reach these people because
of this isolation. So, the tribal people must be protected from leading an isolated and
segregated life away from the mainstream society living in cities, towns and villages.
2) Land Alienation
Rights of tribals over forests are an inalienable and irrefutable historical fact. But the
problem of alienation of land from the tribal to non-tribal is there from the time of British
colonialism in India when the Britishers started interfering in the tribal region to exploit the
rich tribal resources. Along with Britishers, money lenders, zamindars and traders started
encroachments on tribal lands. As the tribal people had no legal rights over their land, it
became easier for non-tribal people to acquire their land.
Forest policy of Britishers was inclined towards commercial purposes and was not for the
tribal people, so it led to displacement of tribal people from forests. Britishers even reserved
some forests with rich natural resources where only Government officials and authorized
contractors were allowed to cut the timber which was used by the Britishers and the tribal
people were kept isolated even in their own habitat.
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Tribal people are mainly dependent upon the forest products for their livelihood and
many tribes including their women are involved in agriculture, hunting and food gathering.
But when outsiders or non-tribes start interfering and exploiting the natural resources, the life
cycle of tribal life is greatly disturbed. The tribes have gradually lost control over community
resources such as forests. Tribal lands in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh revealed a nexus
between traditionally influential nontribal landowners and corrupt government officials. The
latter exercised their discretionary powers to favour non-tribes by transferring lands over
which tribal communities may have had a valid claim. Even in a tribal majority state like
Jharkhand in the north, the tribes are the worst affected in the entire population since the state
government‘s mining operations and hydroelectric power projects exploit natural resources in
the resource-rich tribal areas, thus making the tribes outsiders in their own land.
Many people have tried to acquire the tribal lands by marrying the tribal women and
there are ample proves that these people were non-tribal and belonged to upper caste and
ruling class of coastal Andhra.
The tribal people have been living and cultivating on these land from ages and suddenly
they are deprived of their land displaced. In Attappady, Kerala alone, over 10,796.19 acres
land had been alienated from tribes between 1960 and 1980. Often law declares these
unregistered lands as national parks, sanctuaries or reserved forests. In some forests the tribal
people are not given access to forest produce and grazing of cattle is rendered illegal by the
Government. These people live under the continuous threat of being ousted from their
homes. They do not have any legal right and the only legal protection they have is the due
process of law. Their demands for their rights are often subdued by the forest authorities and
whenever they try to protest for their demands they are trampled to the extent that their right
to life is taken away.
3) Cultural Problems:
The culture of the Tribal communities is entirely different from the civilized society. The
customs, practices and traditions followed by the civilized people are not understood by the
tribal people and they become suspicious of the civilized people. Different religions are
trying to influence these tribal people by their religion and this is being done from the British
colonial period. Some foreign Christian missionaries in British rule attempted to proliferate
their religion in some of the Tribal areas. In several tribal areas, mass conversion to
Christianity had taken place during the British period. While the missionaries have been the
pioneers in education and opened hospitals in tribal areas, they have also been responsible for
alienating the tribes from their culture. Christian missionaries have many a time instigated
the tribes to revolt against the Indian government. On the other hand, R.S.S., Vishwa Hindu
Parishad, The Ramakrishna mission has tried to spread their ideology of Hinduism in many
parts of tribal regions of India. The tribal leaders have also started popularizing their tribal
religion and culture. These different ideologies and propagandas have created a huge
confusion and even conflicts between the tribal people. The cultural gap between tribal
people and civilized people is widening day by day and this gap can only be filled by the
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joint efforts of Central Government, State Government and leaders of tribal region. This gap
is coming in way of integration of the tribal people and the mainstream society of India.
4) Educational Problems:
Literacy rate among tribes is 58.96% (2011 census). While in 1961, it was 18.53 per cent, in
1991 it increased to 29.60 per cent which compared to general literacy rate of 52.21 per cent
in the country is very low (1991 census), because while the growth of literacy rate in the past
three decades in the country was 28.21 per cent, among the STs it was only 11.7 percent.
Though tribal literacy rate in Mizoram is 82.71 per cent and in Nagaland, Sikkim and Kerala
it is between 57 per cent and 61 per cent, lack of literacy among tribal people has been
identified as a major development problem.
The exploitation of the tribal people by the Government, money lenders, and landlords
can mainly be related to the illiteracy and their ignorance towards education. Obtainment of
literacy is very difficult for the tribal people who speak only their mother tongue and live in
their familiar areas because it is coupled with learning of a new language. The main problem
is that when some teachers are appointed by the Government to teach the tribal people, there
is a communication gap between them because most tribal people do not know any other
language except their mother tongue so there should be some literate tribes in the tribal
communities who can interact with the teachers and the Government officials.
Another main problem is that the tribal people do not consider education as necessary,
since tribal people are poor and live in a remote place, they are not very aware of education.
Education appears to be a luxury for them and they do not feel any urge to educate their
children also. These people are far away from the influence of the modern society and do not
have any faith in formal education. They do not consider it a primary responsibility to give
education to their children and want them to work either in field or at home.
Another main problem is that the curriculum of education is not suited to the tribal
people and do not have any relevance to them. So, the Government should take some
initiative to teach them and make them able to lead a prosperous life. Education is the only
way out by which the tribal people can be made aware of their rights otherwise they would
be of no use, so the main focus of the Government should be to provide them education.
5) Economic Problems:
The tribal people are economically one of the most backward communities in the country.
According to the reports of Lakdawala committee and Tendulkar committee for the year
2004-2005, 27.5% and 37.2% of scheduled tribes population respectively comes under below
poverty line. The British policies exploited the tribes to the core by benefitting the zamindars,
money lenders, forest contractors and revenue officials. The literacy rate of tribes in India is
quite less and has led to the under development of these groups. The people are either
unemployed or underemployed. They are in search of jobs which can keep them employed
throughout the year. They need to be helped in developing secondary source of income.
Due to the lack of banking facilities in the tribal areas tribes have to depend on money
lenders who exploit them by charging high rate of interest on the loans they provide to the
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tribal people. The tribes suffer indebtedness due to exorbitantly high rate of interest and often
it leads to dispossession of land. Land alienation is the major cause of indebtedness, also
family income and social compulsions lead to it.
The poverty-stricken tribes due to the lack of employment opportunities agree to work as
bonded labourers in agriculture sector, brick kilns, stone queries, power looms and hand
looms. They are irregularly paid and are made bonded without workplace protection.
The tribes have been involved in the agriculture of the crudest type since ages. Their
participation in tertiary and secondary sector is negligible. Due to the lack of resources and
uneconomical land holdings this practice has proved to be futile for them. Many times, their
land holdings are transferred to the non-tribal people and despite their continuous demand for
the return of their land they are left empty handed. The demands of the tribes are suppressed
by the authorities and they have to lead a life of poverty.
6) Health and Sanitation Problems:
Health and sanitation are becoming a huge problem for tribal people because of illiteracy and
ignorance and they are not ready to welcome the modern concepts of health and sanitation.
Tribal people have another problem that they still believe in superstitions and super natural
powers and believe that diseases are caused by these super natural powers. They do not even
appreciate the modern ways of diagnosis and have their own traditional means of cure.
Alcoholism is one of the major problems existing in tribal regions. Brewing of alcohol
from traditional methods like from rice, fruits, millets and flowers are practiced on daily
basis and consequently they get cheap alcohol. This not only affects their health but also
increases crime rate. Blood bore diseases like Hepatitis B virus infection is likely to be high
in the tribal population because of the common social practice of tattooing. This together
with alcoholism may result in increased number of chronic active hepatitis and cirrhosis of
liver cases.
The modifications in the environment and the ecological aspects of the habitat increase
the risk of communicable diseases. Some of them get transferred through direct contact like
the venereal diseases whereas diseases like tuberculosis get transferred through indirect
contact. The communicable diseases prevalent among tribes are dysentery, diarrhea,
filariasis, sexually transmitted diseases, etc.
The non-communicable diseases like liver cirrhosis, cancer, hypertension, chronic
respiratory diseases, hypertension and malnutrition are common in the Indian tribes. The high
infant and child mortality are a result of lack of literacy and poor sanitation facilities. This
can be curbed by educating the illiterate mothers. The genetic disorders like sickle cell
anemia and glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme deficiency affect the human health
adversely and act as silent killers.
The lack of knowledge and proper sanitation has made the tribes vulnerable to these
diseases. Moreover, the dearth of medical facilities and the reluctance of the doctors to work
in rural areas have aggravated the situation.
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There is a need to open up medical units in the areas inhabited by tribes. Regular medical
awareness camps need to be organized and regular medical checkups should be there. The
tribes should be provided with economic and social support to combat the communicable and
non-communicable diseases.
Water borne diseases are also very prevalent in tribal regions as there is no such proper
facility of drinking water. Sometimes due to scarcity of water in remote tribal regions, people
are forced to drink contaminated water giving rise to a number of diseases like amoebiasis,
helminthiasis, giardiasis and diarrhoea. These water borne diseases have claimed many lives
of Tribal people in various places like Odisha, Chhattisgarh where ladies have to travel long
distances holding pots in their hand to get water. Government has made hand pumps and
wells but either they are not working or the water is contaminated.
It is observed that the Thodas of Niligiri hills have been suffering from some modern
diseases like venereal diseases, diabetes, blood pressure, etc. after coming in touch with
British who made Niligiri hills one of their summer resorts. These diseases take a heavy toll
on tribal life. Suspicion of tribal people and lack of faith in modern doctors have made them
not to avail themselves of the modern medical facilities. So the problem of Health and
Sanitation is a very serious issue and steps should be taken by the Government in tribal
regions for spreading awareness on healthy environment in tribal areas.
C) Welfare Programmes and Projects for Tribal People:
Tribal population consists of 8.6% percent of the total population of India (2020 census). It is
the duty of Government to take care of their interests and ensure them equal rights in the
society. In India not only the Central Government, State Government or authorities are
helping the tribes to ensure their rights but other voluntary organizations like The Bhil
SevaMandal, The Indian Red Cross Society, The Vishwa Hindu Parishad, The
BharatiyaAdimJatiSevakSangh, The RashtreeyaSwayamSevakSangh, The
VanavasiKalyanasharam, The Ramakrishna Mission and other various independent
organizations are also working in this regard and have undertaken various steps.
D) Rights to Tribal People:
The Constitution of India has provided special provisions to the tribal people to safeguard
their interests.
1) Article 15 of the Indian Constitution states that the state shall not discriminate any citizen on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. This explains that every
citizen of India is provided equal rights and opportunities without any discrimination.
2) Government of India has made reservation for the tribes in employment under Article 16(4)
of the Constitution of India
3) The Government of India has reserved seats in Lok Sabha and The State Legislative
Assemblies under Article 330 and 332 of the Constitution of India.
4) Article 19(5) of the Constitution of India guarantees the tribal people right to own property
and enjoy it in any part of the country.
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5) Article 338 of the Constitution of India grants the right to appoint a Commissioner to look
after welfare activities of tribes.
6) Article 46 of the Constitution of India states that, The State shall promote with special care
the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular,
the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice
and all forms of exploitation.
7) Under Article 275(i) of the Constitution of India the Centre Government is required to give
grants-in-aid to the State Government for approved Tribal Welfare Schemes.
E) Land Rights to Tribals:
With regard to the protection of the tribal rights over community forests and other lands,
following the central legislation introduced in 1996, the Gram Sabha in the tribal areas has
been given responsibility to protect the community rights over community land and forest.
The Environment Ministry of India has also tried various measures to control the problem of
encroachments. In the guidelines issued by the Environment Ministry on September 18,
1990, State Governments were asked to evict all ineligible categories of pre 1980 settlers and
encroachers after October 25, 1980. The Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest
Dwellers Act in 2006 recognizes the ownership rights of tribes and other forest dwellers who
are living or cultivating a specific land for a very long period of time. UNDP (United Nations
Development Programme) in partnership with the Ministry of Law and Justice, Government
of India, is helping the poor and marginalized to access justice and demand and access
entitlements. In 2011, a forty year old man NaranMajhi applied for the regularization of the
Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act in 2006 on his land to be
recognized legally as the owner of the land which his family used to farm for over 200 years.
The Government of India also ensures equal land rights to the tribal women as tribal men
have.
Schedule 5 of the Constitution of India and other state laws prohibits any transfer of
property belonging to tribal communities or the land which is being cultivated by these
people for a long time. Rights of tribes over Forest are not to be removed and cannot prove
wrong historical fact. But in the colonial rule the tribal people were deprived of their land
rights and many people started occupy lands of the tribal people but occupation on
forestlands was made an offence under the Indian Forest Act, 1927. After Independence, the
forest department revised the right of tribal people to the forest land and passed the Forest
Conservation Act, 1980 which regularized the occupation of forest lands.
F) The 20 Point Programme:
The point 11 (b) of 20-point programme is to provide economic assistance to the scheduled
tribe families to enable them to rise above poverty line. The ST families are assisted through
various schemes implemented by Departments of Agriculture, Rural Development,
Horticulture, Animal husbandry, Sericulture, Forestry, Small cottage industries, etc. The
ministry fixes the targets for 22-states/union territories and also monitors the progress of
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achievements on monthly basis. The officers of the ministry inspected more than 75 projects
in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
G) Formation of PESA (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996:
PESA Act is a law enacted by the Government of India to enable the Gram Sabhas of the
tribal regions to self-govern and protect their natural resources. PESA was made applicable
to 9 states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Rajasthan and not to other Scheduled Areas
including those in Manipur. PESA make decision for restriction on the State Legislature and
decentralized more power in the hands of the Gram Sabha or Panchayat. It may be observed
that the powers that can be exercised by the Gram Sabha under this Act relate to the tribes‘
customs, traditions, and religion, land and mineral resources. The act made the Gram Sabhas
independent and competent to preserve and safeguard the customs and the traditions of the
people and community resources.
The act gave the power to the Gram Sabhas to commend the programmes, plans and
projects made for the development of the tribal people and they should be consulted before
making any acquisition of land in Scheduled Tribe areas for the development programmes.
Overall this act provided the people the right to preserve their land and natural resources and
recommendation of the Gram Sabha at appropriate levels for any developmental programme
in the tribal area.

1) Which one of the following cause global warming?
a) Carbon dioxide
b) Oxygen
c) Nitrogen
d) Hydrogen
2) How many percent of carbon dioxide increased in the atmosphere since pre-industrial
times?
a) About 10%
b) About 20%
c) About 30%
d) About 40%
3) What is the full form of UNFCC with respect to global warming convention?
a) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
b) United Nations Federation Convention on Climate Change
c) United Nations Framework Center on Climate Change
d) United Nations Federation Center on Climate Change
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4) Who measures the global warming rate?
a) Astrologers
b) Physicist
c) Philosopher
d) Climatologist
5) Which one of the following result takes place due to global warming?
a) Maintaining steady temperature
b) Changes in the rainfall
c) Pleasant environment
d) Causing less pollution
6) Which one of the following cause global warming?
a) Radioactive forcing
b) Earth gravitation force
c) Oxygen
d) Centripetal force
7) How human activity has influenced global warming?
a) By planting more trees
b) By causing changing in gravitational force
c) By changing the radioactive balance governing the Earth
d) By protecting environment
8) Which one of the following is the anthropogenic radioactive forcing of climate?
a) Aerosols
b) Cement
c) Paper
d) Glass
9) Which one of the following land use causes global warming?
a) Increase in the fertility of soil
b) Surface reflectance
c) Forestation
d) Adopting organic farming
10) Changes in the composition of the atmosphere is an example of--------------
a) Internal forcing
b) External forcing
c) Mid forcing
d) Gravitational forcing
11) What is the main reason for melting of ice sheets?
a) Increase in the oxygen content
b) Global warming
c) Decrease in carbon dioxide content
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d) Noise pollution
12) Which one of the following is the effect of global warming?
a) Maintaining sea level
b) Proper rainfall
c) Desertification
d) Afforestation
13) Mainly, Ozonosphere is depleted by-----------
a) CFCs
b) excess CO2
c) ozone
d) excess CO
14) Correct descending order of relative contribution of various greenhouse gases to total
global warming is----------------
a) Carbon dioxide; methane; CFCs; nitrous oxide
b) Carbon dioxide; methane; nitrous oxide; CFCs
c) Carbon dioxide; CFCs; nitrous oxide; methane
d) Carbon dioxide; CFCs; methane; nitrous oxide
15) The provisions for environmental protection in the constitution were made in--
a) 1976
b) 1950
c) 1982
d) 1960
16) The provisions of environmental protection in the constitution were made under----------
--
a) Article 5-A
b) Article 21-B
c) Article 27-B (h)
d) Article 48-A and Article 51-A (g)
17) The first of the major environmental protection act to be promulgated in India was------
----------
a) Water Act
b) Air Act
c) Environmental Act
d) Noise Pollution Rule
18) The Forest (Conservation) Act was enacted in the year-------------
a) 1986
b) 1974
c) 1980
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d) 1972
19) The Forest (Conservation) Act extends to the whole of India except---------
a) Uttar Pardesh
b) Karnataka
c) Jammu and Kashmir
d) Haryana
20) The Wildlife (Protection) Act was enacted in the year--------------
a) 1986
b) 1974
c) 1994
d) 1972
21) The Air Act contains---------------
a) 5 Chapters
b) 6 Chapters
c) 7 Chapters
d) 8 Chapters
22) In the Water Act the entire National Capital Territory of Delhi has been declared as
water pollution prevention control area under-------------
a) Section 21
b) Section 23
c) Section 19
d) Section 24
23) The Air Act have------------
a) 56 Section
b) 54 Section
c) 58 Section
d) 62 Section
24) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC)
is also known as---------------
a) Kyoto protocol
b) Vienna convention
c) Earth summit
d) None of these
25) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC)
is held in--------------
a) 1992
b) 1995
c) 1989
d) 1990
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26) The basic objectives of The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC or FCCC) is-----------------
a) To stabilize the melting ice of Antarctic Ocean
b) To "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."
c) Reduce the carbon emission upto the level of 1992
d) Stabilize the ozone layer depletion.
27) When & where the first UNFCCC Conference of Parties (COP) was took place?
a) April 1995 in Berlin, Germany
b) June 1992 in Paris, France
c) August 1997 in Kyoto, Japan
d) Dec 1995 in Zeneva, Switzerland
28) Till date how many conference of parties (COPs) have taken place?
a) 22
b) 23
c) 24
d) 25
29) For what production and consumption phase out schedules the Montreal Protocol has
established?
a) Greenhouse emitting gases
b) Global warming emitting gases
c) Ozone layer depleting substances
d) Water level increasing substances
30) When did the Kyoto Protocol entered into force?
a) 1997
b) 2000
c) 2005
d) 2009
31) When is the first commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol expired?
a) 2007
b) 2010
c) 2012
d) 2015
32) When did the Montreal Protocol entered into force?
a) 1984
b) 1986
c) 1989
d) 1994
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33) What are the substances present in the ozone layer depleting substances controlled by
the Montreal Protocol?
a) Either chlorine or bromine
b) Either carbon or nitrogen
c) Either chlorine or carbon
d) Either carbon or bromine
34) Which Amendment was agreed to phase down HFCs under the Montreal Protocol?
a) Paris Amendment
b) New York Amendment
c) Delhi Amendment
d) Kigali Amendment
35) Which one of the following is the objective of Kyoto Protocol?
a) Stabilization and reconstruction of greenhouse gases
b) Protecting the ozone layer from depletion
c) Reducing the CFCs and HFCs usage
d) Increasing the greenhouse gases
Answers:1)a, 2) c, 3) a, 4) d, 5) b, 6) a, 7) c, 8) a, 9) b, 10) b, 11) b, 12) c, 13) a, 14) a, 15) a,
16)d,17)a, 18)c, 19) c, 20) d,21)c, 22)c, 23)b, 24)c, 25)a, 26)b, 27)a, 28)d, 29)c, 30)c,
31)c, 32)c, 33)d, 34)d, 35) a
Review Questions
Q.23. Explain the Factors/ Causes and Effects of Climatic Change.

Q.24. Explain the Causes and Effects of Global Warming.
Q.25. Discuss in detail about the Causes and Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion.
Q.26. Explain the Causes and Effects of Acid Rain in detail.
Q.27. Discuss in detail about theEnvironment Protection Act.
Q.28. Explain in detail about the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act.
Q.29. Discuss in detail about the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974
Q.30. Write in detail about the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974.
Q.31. Discuss in detail about the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
Q.32. Explain the Forest Act, 1878 in detail.
Q.33. Discuss in detail about the Montreal protocol.
Q.34. Discuss in detail about the Kyoto Protocol.
Q.35. Explain in detail about the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Q.36. Explain the Tribal Population and Rights in detail.
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Human Communities and

Environment 7
5.12 Human Population Growth
5.13 Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Project affected Persons
5.14 Disaster Management
5.15 Environmental Movements
5.16 Environmental Ethics
5.17 Environmental Communication and Public Awareness
Introduction:
"Humanity's impact on the earth has increased extinction rates to levels rivaling the five mass
extinction of past geologic history, transformed nearly half of Earth's land and created 50 dead
zones in the world's oceans" Environment News Service. Human Population is a factor in any
society, which has the potential to lay its impact strongly on all other systems in the society. In
this unit, you will be learning the growth of population, how it varies with different nations, the
impact of population explosion on the welfare of the families, how the population affects the
environment and human health along with the role of Information Technology in environment
and human health. Our global human population, 6 billion at present, will cross the 7 billion mark
by 2015. The needs of this huge number of human beings cannot be supported by the Earth‘s
natural resources, without degrading the quality of human life. In the near future, fossil fuel from
oil fields will run dry. It will be impossible to meet the demands for food from existing agro
systems. Pastures will be overgrazed by domestic animals and industrial growth will create ever-
greater problems due to pollution of soil, water and air. Seas will not have enough fish. Larger
ozone holes will develop due to the discharge of industrial chemicals into the atmosphere, which
will affect human health. Global warming due to industrial gases will lead to a rise in sea levels
and flood all low-lying areas, submerging coastal agriculture as well as towns and cities. Water
‗famines‘ due to the depletion of fresh water will create unrest and eventually make countries go
to war. The control over regional biological diversity, which is vital for producing new medicinal
and industrial products, will lead to grave economic conflicts between biotechnologically
advanced nations and the bio rich countries. Degradation of ecosystems will lead to extinction of
thousands of species, destabilizing natural ecosystems of great value. These are only some of the
environmental problems related to an increasing human population and more intensive use of
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resources that we are likely to face in future. These effects can be averted by creating a mass
environmental awareness movement that will bring about a change in people‘s way of life.
7.1 Human Population Growth:

For a long time it has been recognized that there is a very close interrelationship between man,
his environment and his habitat. The study of man and his visual imprints upon the physical
landscape in the process of occupancy has been the core of interest of the Geographers for ages.
Human Population is the total number of inhabitants constituting a particular race, class, or group
in a specified area at a particular time. It is a summation of all the organisms of the same group or
species, which live in the same geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. And
"environment" is most commonly used describing "natural" environment and means the sum of
all living and non-living things that surround an organism, or group of organisms. Environment
includes all elements, factors, and conditions that have some impact on growth and development
of certain organism. Environment includes both biotic and a biotic factors that have influence on
observed organism.
Population explosion is the rapid increase of a population. Most developing countries have
contributed to the drastic population increase over the past hundred years. India and the other
developing countries are facing the problem of population explosion. These countries fail to
control the growth of population due to poverty and illiteracy. In the same way, in many
countries, the economic development rate is lower than the rate of population growth. So if there
is economic development in these countries then it cannot be seen because of the huge population
growth. This economic development rate is failed to fulfill various needs of the growing
population. In other words, population growth rate has become an obstacle in the economic
development of these countries. To improve the economic development and poverty of these
countries, they have to control the growth of population.
7.1.1 Meaning:
The term, ‗population growth' refers to the sudden and dramatic increase in the number of human
beings. Population explosion means tremendous growth in the population of a particular region
which results in the shortfall of facilities and increase in the poverty and unemployment.
According to Malthusian, population is an uncontrolled problem in the underdeveloped countries
and its reason is rising up of progeny capacity of human being, According to some economists,
population explosion is the second state of population transition. Its main cause is no decrease
in the death rate due to economic development. But there are no decreases in the birth rate.
According to some economist there are three stages of population.
7.1.2 Stages of Population Growth:
Frank Notestein has used the concept/term Population transaction for the first time. According to
population transition theory, there are three Stages of population growth:
1) Pre-transition or Primary Stage:
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In this stage, both the birth and death rates are high. It is due to the lack of family planning
facilities, misunderstanding, and lack of sufficient health services, death rate, and the way of
thinking of people. In the same way, death rate is high because of under-nutrition. Poverty,
superstitious beliefs and illiteracy are the characteristics of such population. In this stage,
there is neither growth in the population nor the problems of increased population.
2) Transition or Population Growth Stage:
In this stage, there is decrease in death rate but birth rate is not decrease in that proportion.
Population increases rapidly. The standard of living is high facilities such as education,
health, medical facilities are developed. So decrease in death rate. But the birth rate is not
decreased. So population increases rapidly and, hence, large number of population is living
under the line of poverty. This population situation is called as population explosion. The
population in India since last decade is an example of such population explosion.
3) After-transition or Population Debilitation Stage:
The birth rate is decreased in this stage. There is development in family planning facilities.
There is increase in industrialization, urbanization and education. It results in the decrease of
population growth. Due to urbanization, people have to think about a small family. There is
development in employment due to industrialization. Importance to female education is given
and this is the way to happy life. To maintain high standard of living, people try to keep their
family limited. It results in small family. So the population growth becomes low and
population problems are less. It helps in stabilization of population.
7.1.3 Human Population Growth: Impacts on Environment:

Following are the problems which create due to over population and their impact on
environment:
1) Man and Land Ratio:
With the excessive growth of population, the load of population goes on increasing on the
available land. Especially, when the land is limited and population which depends upon such
land is excessive, the land is used for more production again and again, Crops are taken
continuously. Due to the repeated use it causes soil pollution and productivity of land is
lowered down. To increase productivity, chemical fertilizer are used which causes soil
pollution.
2) Deforestation:
Due to the growth of population, forests are chopped down for making the land for
inhabitation and for farming purpose, in the same way; there is continuous need for wood and
other things which result in deforestation. Due to the unemployment, people chopped down
the trees because of the deforestation on a large scale, the equilibrium of environment is not
maintained. The proportion of carbon dioxide increases in the air. It results in global
warming. It has ill-effects on the biodiversity. Due to the deforestation, the rainfall comes
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down. There is soil erosion on a large scale. There is possibility of destruction of animal
species and rare plant species. ;
3) Loss of Underground Water resources:
With the growth of population, the need for water increases. Water is needed in new
settlements and industries on a large scale. The water from lake, river, and dams is used
excessively. The underground sources of water start decreasing, as the level of water comes
down the animal‘s species in the water are destructed. The forests on the coasts of rivers and
lakes are degraded. The rainfall is short and we have to face the problem of draughts. `
4) Excessive Use of Mineral Resources:
Many types of minerals are declining due to the excessive use by human being. After some
years, the energy resources such as mineral oils may or is likely to come to an end. With the
growth of population the need for mineral oils goes on increasing. Fuel for vehicles is used
on a large scale every day. The mineral oil resources may come to an end. In the same way,
the use of this mineral oil in the vehicle and industrial process many poisonous gases releases
are getting mixed in the air which causes air population. Land is dug out for getting more and
more minerals. It endangers land ecosystems in the region. The balance between various
factors is disturbed. The digging process pollutes the air on large scale whereas the
machinery and fuel for running this machinery cause noise and air pollution.
5) Decrease in Per Capita Income:
Due to the over population, there is decrease in per capita income. It results in the poverty,
malnutrition.
6) Urban Problems:
Due to over population, the civilization and urbanization speed is high. As the income
sources in rural areas are not adequate, people migrate to the cities It result in unplanned a
large scale development of cities in the countries like India.
7.1.4 Human Health and Welfare:

Health is a complete physical, emotional and social wellbeing and not just the absence of disease;
the environment impacts on all of these aspects. Clean air and water are essential for better
health, but physical activity, transportation, urban design; community participation, food supply
and nutrition also shows impact on health and are directly related to both the environment and
wellbeing. When ecosystems are maintained in good condition they provide direct health
benefits. The ill effect or damage to health associated with environmental pollution is likely to be
far less than that caused by lifestyle factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise and alcohol,
tobacco consumption. To minimize future risks and capture benefits to health, protection of high-
quality environment is vital.
Relationship of Human Health to the Environment:
A healthy environment tends to lead to healthier people, although we would hasten to add that
none of us are medical professionals. Also many health problems can't be attributed directly or
indirectly to the environment. Both genetics and lifestyle choices (the buzz word now for thinks
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like whether anybody exercise or are sedentary, diet, use of tobacco, alcohol, or other substances)
are very important to human health.
1) Improvement of Human Health through a Lesser Incidence:
Cleaner air, resulting from fewer emissions from cars, buses, industrial processes, and so
forth, improves human health through a lesser incidence of lung disease, asthma, and allergy-
like symptoms.
2) Importance of Clean Water:
Clean drinking water, and reasonably clean water for bathing, is very important in preventing
certain diseases and symptoms such as chronic diarrhea. In this context, "clean" means
lacking in obvious pollutants, such as human or animal waste, but also free of heavy metals
and other chemicals detrimental to human health. A low count of bacteria also is very
important.
3) Importance of Health Environment:
If the environment is healthy in the sense of promoting active transportation, such as
walking, bicycling, or rollerblading for transportation, people will get more exercise than
they will if they ride in a motorized vehicle.
4) Conservation of More Energy:
More energy conservation helps to produce healthier humans because the most common
forms of energy production also produce major pollution. For example, coal-fired electrical
generation creates a considerable amount of air pollution.
5) Effect of Air Pollution:
Air pollution is thought to lead to both ozone depletion and global warming. Each of these
can harm human health if no adaptations are made.
7.2 Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Project affected Persons:

The World Bank turned into the first multilateral lending organization to undertake a coverage
for Resettlement and Rehabilitation Development tasks that displace people involuntarily
normally give rise to severe economic, social and environmental troubles: manufacturing
structures are dismantled; effective belongings and profits sources are lost; humans are relocated
to environments in which their productive talents can be less relevant and the opposition for
sources greater; community structures and social networks are weakened; relatives agencies are
dispersed; and the capability for mutual help are faded. Involuntary resettlement may additionally
purpose intense long-time period hardship and environmental harm unless suitable measures are
carefully planned and achieved.
7.2.1 Resettlement Issues Emphasizes following Needs:

Reasons for displacement of people
1) Natural disasters like earthquake, tsunamis, prolonged droughts conditions, floods, accidents
etc.
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2) Developmental projects like:
3) Construction of dams, irrigation canals, reservoirs etc.
4) Infrastructural projects like flyovers, bridges, roads etc.
5) Agricultural projects
6) Projects related with the conservation of wildlife like national parks, sanctuaries and
biosphere reserves.
7) Involving both resettles and hosts in resettlement activities.
Man-made disasters like industrial accidents (e.g. Bhopal gas tragedy), nuclear
Minimizing involuntary resettlement; Providing humans displaced by using a task with the means
to enhance, or at least restore their former residing standards and production ranges; A time-sure
resettlement plan; and Valuation and repayment concepts for land and different belongings laid
low with the task.
The objective of the resettlement policy is to make sure that the populace displaced by means
of a venture receives blessings from it. Involuntary resettlement is a vital a part of project layout
and ought to be treated from the earliest levels of task instruction, thinking of the subsequent
coverage issues. Involuntary resettlement should be prevented or minimized in which viable,
exploring all feasible opportunity undertaking designs. For instance, realignment of roads or to
minimize dam height may additionally extensively reduce resettlement needs. Displaced humans
need to be compensated for their losses at full replacement fee previous to the real move; assisted
with the flow and supported at some point of the transition period inside the resettlement site; and
assisted in their efforts to improve their former dwelling standards, profits incomes ability, and
production stages or as a minimum to repair them. Resettles need to be integrated socially and
economically into host communities in order that adverse influences on host communities are
minimized.
Community participation in planning and implementing resettlement ought to be endorsed.
Appropriate patterns of social organization have to be set up, and existing social and cultural
institutions of resettles and their hosts have to be supported and used to the best feasible.
Depending on the value of displacement and other elements, the resettlement plan will normally
incorporate an announcement of goals and policies, an government precise, a budget, a timetable
coordinated with the physical works of the main funding mission, and provision for
Organizational obligations; Legal framework; Alternative sites and selection; Land tenure,
acquisition, and so on.
7.2.2 Case Study:

Village to be affected by the Indira Sagar Pariyojana
Indira Sagar Pariyojana (ISP) has been under making plans and construction in view that many
years. Work on the project has received momentum in the final decade. Since then, the
development has been on and off relying on the availability of finances. On 24 April, 2002, a
declaration changed into posted in Dainik Bhaskar mentioning that the village Jabgaon might be
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inundated with water in the coming monsoons due to the boom inside the height of the dam. The
village became being asked to evacuate the vicinity with the aid of 20 May, 2002. In March
2002, with the discharge of budget from the Center to the Narmada Hydro Development
Corporation, a selection becomes taken to boom the height of the dam to 212 m by means of June
2002. In fact in view that October 2001, there has been an unexpected spurt in bulletins of the
Section 4 notices of land acquisition inside the local Hindi newspapers making it glaring that the
project could quickly be underway again. Meanwhile there had also been reports within the press
that the rehabilitation has been lagging at the back of.
Manthan Adhyayan Kendra, which was following the activities within the records of the
construction of this dam, determined to try to bring to fore the ground realities concerning the
fame of resettlement and rehabilitation of villages laid low with this project. It turned into
thought that the state of affairs could be analyzed at three factors in time: pre-monsoon, monsoon
and put up-monsoon. Accordingly, 2 visits to this village have been undertaken: the primary
within the first week of May and the second inside the third week of August. There had been
much less than regular monsoons this year and consequently whilst the village has not been
submerged, a few farms have been flooded. The Kendra is a center installation to display,
examine and studies water and energy associated troubles, with a special consciousness on the
today's developments on account of the liberalization, globalization and privatization of the
financial system. The Centre is positioned at Badwani, a district town in Madhya Pradesh five
kilometers from the banks of Narmada. While the focal point of the paintings is on water and
electricity issues, this may be within the large context of equitable, just and sustainable
development.
7.3 Disaster Management:

A disaster refers to surprising critical disruption of everyday functioning of a society, related to
big damages to existence, property and environment, beyond its capacity to deal with its own
assets. It may be natural or man-made A natural catastrophe is a natural procedure or
phenomenon that can reason loss of lifestyles, harm or different health influences, assets harm,
loss of livelihoods and offerings, social and monetary disruption, or environmental damage. e.g.
Earthquakes, emergency diseases (pandemic), floods, tropical storms, landslides & debris flow,
thunderstorms, tornadoes, tsunamis, wildfire etc.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an agency of the Ministry of Home
Affairs and is responsible for framing policies, laying down guidelines and coordinating with the
State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach to
disaster management. NDMA was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by
the Government of India in May 30, 2005. The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairperson of it.
India has been traditionally prone to the natural disasters at the account of its particular geo-
climatic conditions. About 60% of the landmass is at risk of earthquakes of various intensities;
over 40 million hectares is vulnerable to floods and about 60-70% of the place is prone to
drought.
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7.3.1 Phases of Disaster Management:

Following are the phases of disaster management:
1) Mitigation:
Preventing future emergencies or minimizing their effects which include any activities that
could prevent or reduce the threat of incidence of an emergency, or lessen the damaging
consequences of unavoidable emergencies. Mitigation activities take place before and after
emergencies.
2) Preparedness:
Preparing to deal with an emergency consists of plans or preparations for catastrophe and to
assist reaction and rescue operations, Evacuation plans and stocking food and water are each
examples of preparedness.
3) Response:
Responding correctly to an emergency includes actions which can be to be taken to keep
lives and prevent similarly property harm. Response is putting your preparedness plans into
motion. Seeking safe shelter from a turning off gas valves in an earthquake are each reaction
response.
4) Recovery:
Recovery activities take place after a disaster. Recovering from an emergency includes
moves need to be taken to go back to an everyday or an even more secure state of affairs
following an emergency and one have to also do not forget matters which could mitigate the
effects of future failures. Recovery includes getting financial assistance to assist pay for the
maintenance.
7.2.3 Floods:
Floods arise while land that is commonly dry is submerged with the aid of big amounts of water.
Sudden submergence or inundation of land place with water is referred to as flood. The
prevalence of floods may be due to both natural and human causes.
A) Natural Causes of Floods:
Following are the natural causes of floods:
1) Excessive rainfall:
Floods occur while rainwater isn't always capable of seep into the ground quickly enough or
rivers overflow their banks.
2) Storm Surges:
It takes place at the same time as strong winds increase the waves within the ocean to
exceptionally excessive tiers, inflicting them to crash into the coast and flood the land.
3) Melting Snow:
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Melting of snow in spring releases huge quantity of water into the rivers, causing them to
overflow their banks.
4) Earthquakes:
Earthquakes can result in landslides or cause tsunamis. Tsunamis added on with the aid of
sturdy undersea earthquakes can flood and devastate coastal settlements.
B) Due to Human Activity:
1) Various human activities ensuing in accelerated greenhouse impact and inflicting
international warming are leading to various climate modifications inclusive of higher
rainfall in short duration, melting of more ice and so forth.
2) Clearing of forests and absence of flora cover to keep the soil together on slopes reasons
erosion and deposition in river beds making them shallow, flooding happens when those
rivers overflow.
3) The clearing of land for improvement of residential and commercial complexes have rapidly
elevated built-up regions. These concrete pavements and roads prevent infiltration of
rainwater into the ground coupled with lack of flora covers to intercept the rain water effects
in increased runoff flowing into the rivers resulting in flooding. All these have led to
multiplied incidences of floods.
C) Impact of Floods:
Following are the impact of flood:
1) Loss of life:
Floods primarily strike people unprepared, leading to loss of lives in drowning.
2) Damage to Infrastructure and Belongings:
Flood motive massive losses to houses, roads, strength deliver and so forth.
3) Spread of Diseases:
After flood water recedes, shallow stagnant water may additionally cowl regions over a
significant period of times. This may additionally bring about outbreak of water borne
diseases.
4) Loss of Natural Habitat:
Trees, plants and different herbal habitats can also get destroyed leading to lack of
biodiversity.
D) Mitigation of Floods:
Floods can be mitigated by using water manage and non-structural measures along with:
1) Structural techniques include constructing dams, reservoirs, and retarding basins, channel
management and embankments.
2) Water control strategies: consist of growing woodland and vegetation cover, watershed
management, flood proofing and catchment adjustments.
3) Schemes of drainage and flood safety.
4) Flood forecasting, flood warning and emergency preparedness systems, flood insurance,
public information and education, and flood relief.
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7.2.4 Earthquake:
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, with unexpected launch of power within
the shape of seismic waves at the floor of the earth. The factor within the crust wherein the
pressure is released is called the focus. The factor on the Earth's floor above the focal point is
known as the epicenter. When earthquake takes place under the sea it causes tsunami. The study
of earthquakes is referred to as seismology and the device used to measure seismic waves is
referred to as seismometer or seismograph. The magnitude of earthquake is measured by Richter
scale.
A) Causes of Earthquake:
According to the theory of tectonics plate, Earth consists of many person plates that move
and have interaction, continuously changing and reshaping Earth's outer layer. Plates do now
not usually pass smoothly towards each different and once in a while get stuck. This builds
up pressure. When this pressure is sooner or later released, an earthquake has a tendency to
occur. Volcanoes and earthquakes both result from the movement of tectonic plates.
Volcanoes, tides can also trigger seismicity. Underground nuclear checking out and dams
also can reason seismic waves.
B) Effects of Earthquake:
Following are the effects of earthquake:
1) Soil Liquefaction:
Due to earthquakes granular fabric (which includes sand) briefly loses its electricity and
transforms from a stable to a liquid (Soil liquefaction). This causes rigid systems, like
buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
2) Landslides and Avalanche:
Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides and avalanche.
3) Tsunamis:
When earthquakes arise under sea it causes tsunami. Most unfavorable tsunamis are because
of earthquakes of value 7.5 or greater.
4) Floods:
These are secondary results of earthquakes, as they'll occur if dams are damaged.
5) Fires:
Earthquakes can reason fires by way of adverse electrical power or gas traces.
6) Destabilization:
It destabilizes ecological and social structure of nation. Essential services additionally were
given disrupted.
7) Loss of Life and Belongings:
An earthquake can also cause injury and loss of existence, preferred assets harm and
disintegrate or destabilization of homes.
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The aftermath may additionally convey disease, loss of simple necessities, intellectual
results together with panic assaults and depression to survivors etc.
C) Management and Mitigation Methods:
Earthquakes cannot be stopped or predicted accurately however certain control strategies will
be observed to limit its effect:
1) Construction of buildings that may tolerate earthquakes. This may be executed by using: To
hold pads or floats underneath homes, Wooden house to be preferred in earthquake inclined
region.
2) Soil checking out need to be done so that balance of building is assured.
3) Seismic retrofitting is the change of present systems to lead them to extra proof against
seismic activity, soil failure due to earthquakes.
4) Preparedness and secure building creation can reduce volume of harm and loss.
5) Establishment of GPS station in the earthquake inclined area to assess destiny crustal actions.
7.2.5 Cyclones:
Cyclone refers to any spinning typhoon that rotates round a low-pressure center. The low-stress
center is likewise known as the 'eye' of the typhoon. It is accompanied via effective winds
blowing anticlockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere. They are
acknowledged by way of one of kind names in special international locations. Typhoons in
northwest pacific ocean, hurricanes in north Atlantic ocean and northeast and south pacific ocean,
Tropical cyclones in southwest pacific ocean, southeast and southwest Indian ocean and many
others.
Indian cyclones: The lengthy coastline of India is internationally most cyclone affected stretch.
Around 8% of the overall land region in India is liable to cyclones. West Bengal, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa and Kerala are the most cyclone affected states of India.
A) Effects of Cyclones:
Following are the effects of cyclones:
1) Floods:
Heavy and persevered rains because of cyclones might also motive floods and submergence
of low mendacity areas ensuing in lack of lifestyles and assets.
2) Strong Winds:
Very robust winds may additionally harm infrastructure, dwellings, conversation structures,
bushes and many others.
3) Crop:
It damages crops, which can cause inflation.
4) Decline in Tourist:
Tourist will no longer come to a cyclone affected region, thereby affecting livelihood of
humans.
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5) Psychological Effect:
Disaster of any type has long lasting fear on minds of peoples. They have witness big wide
variety of deaths, crumble of infrastructure and plenty of sorrows.
B) Management and Mitigation of Cyclones:
Management and mitigation of cyclones are as follows:
1) Coastal Plantation:
The degraded forests land have to be planted as plantation will act as inexperienced wall for
cyclones and water glide reduction in typhoon surges. Mangrove forests shall be managed.
2) Effective Weather Monitoring:
Cyclones can be predicted several days‘ earlier than. So, effective climate tracking and
forecast can help in minimizing the losses due to cyclones.
3) Insurance Cover:
Comprehensive state insurance cover desires to be provided for individuals, their houses and
livestock.
4) Preparedness:
Coastal areas need to have good enough preparedness in opposition to cyclones. Wide roads
for brief evacuation, disaster resilient buildings, refuge houses and many others.
5) Awareness:
Focused awareness activities are required to boom public recognition of storm surge,
flooding and rainfall associated with cyclone.
7.2.6 Landslides:
A landslide is often an aggregate of numerous geological procedures that include earth actions
like tremendous slope failure, rocks falling, and debris flow below the motion of gravity.
Landslides arise while gravitational and different kinds of shear stresses within a slope exceed
the sheer power of the materials that shape the slope.
A) Causes of Landslides:
Following are the causes of landslides:
1) Extensive Rainfall:
Prolonged and heavy depth rainfall triggers landslide. If rain length and pore pressure are
excessive, moderate rainfall also can trigger landslide.
2) Melting of Snow:
In numerous cold mountain places, for the duration of snowmelt the water produced
infiltrates into the earth .This increases pore water pressures, inflicting the initiation of the
landslide method.
3) Rivers:
Rivers can harm the slopes, particularly all through the floods triggering a landslide.
4) Deforestation:
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Roots of plants maintain soil debris firmly thereby keeping off soil erosion. But elimination
of vegetation makes rocks susceptible to landslides.
5) Developmental Activities:
Excavation for minerals, tunnels and many others. And street creation can too cause
landslide.
B) Effects of Landslides:
Following are the effects of landslides:
1) Landslides blocks streams with particles and stones, leading to overflowing.
2) It disrupts vehicular motion, damages plants, roads, conversation networks and homes.
3) It also consequences in accidents. Overall it acts as a threat to life.
C) Management and mitigation methods:
Management and mitigation methods are as follows:
1) Afforestation:
Degraded areas need to be afforested and existing patches ought to be preserved.
2) Wired Stone Blocks:
Stone ridge is strapped with cord mesh to defend towards landslides.
3) Retaining Wall:
Construction of concrete keeping partitions to save you slippage from slope.
4) Surface Drainage:
Draining of floor and subsurface rivers to allow smooth drift of water.
5) Landslide Warning Techniques:
Sensors were advanced which are used for the landslide caution and detection early warning
structures can disseminate records to hundreds on time, hereby saving many lives.
6) Public Awareness:
An aware and vigilant community can reduce the impact of impending landslides.
7.4 Environmental Movements:

An environmental movement may be defined as a social or political movement for the
conservation of environment or for the improvement of the kingdom of the environment. The
terms ‗green movement‘ or ‗conservation movement‘ are rather used to denote the identical. The
environmental moves favor the sustainable control of herbal resources. The moves frequently
pressure the protection of the surroundings via adjustments in public policy. Many movements
are centered on ecology, fitness and human rights. Environmental moves range from the notably
prepared and officially institutionalized ones to the appreciably casual activities. The spatial
scope of various environmental movements stages from being nearby to the nearly worldwide.
1) Bishnoi Movement:
This movement occurred at Khejarli and Marwar region of Rajasthan. Amrita Devi, a woman
villager couldn't bear to witness the destruction of both her religion and the village‘s sacred
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tree plants. She hugged the tree plant and encouraged others to do the same. About 363
Bishnoi villagers had been killed on this movement. The Bishnoi tree martyrs had been
prompted by way of the teachings of Guru Maharaj Jambaji, who based the Bishnoi faith in
1485 and set forth principles forbidding damage to trees and animals. The king who got here
to recognize about those events rushed to the village and apologized, ordering the soldiers to
stop logging operations. Soon afterwards, the maharajah special the Bishnoi country as a
protected area, forbidding harm to bushes and animals. This regulation nevertheless exists
these days in the location.
2) Chipko Movement:
Chipko movement noticed at Chamoli district and subsequently at Tehri-Garhwal district of
Uttarakhand during the year 1973. The objective of this movement was to protect Himalayan
tree of forest Mr. Bahuguna enlightened the villagers with the aid of conveying the
significance of treesin the surroundings which reduces the erosion of soil, motive rains and
gives pure air. The women of Advani village of Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred thread round
trunks of trees and that they hugged the trees; consequently it became called ‗Chipko
Movement‘ or ‗hug the tree movement‘. The predominant demand of the people in those
protests was that the blessings of the forests need to visit neighborhood humans. The Chipko
movement accrued momentum in 1978 whilst the girls faced police firings and other tortures.
The then Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna set up a committee to look at the
matter, which finally ruled in desire of the villagers. This became a turning point within the
history of eco-development struggles within the location and around the sector.
3) Save Silent Valley Movement:
This movement occurred at Silent Valley of Palakkad district of Kerala state. The main
objective of this movement was to protect the Silent Valley because the evergreen forest of
this region was destroyed by electricity board. The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB)
proposed a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River that runs thru Silent Valley. In
February 1973, the Planning Commission authorized the mission at a cost of about Rs 25
crores. Many feared that the task could submerge 8.3 sq.km of untouched wet evergreen
forest. Several NGOs strongly adverse the challenge and advised the authorities to abandon
it. In January 1981, bowing to unrelenting public strain, Indira Gandhi declared that Silent
Valley can be protected. In June 1983 the Center re-tested the difficulty via a commission
chaired by way of Prof. M.G.K. Menon. In November 1983 the Silent Valley Hydroelectric
Project becomes referred to as off. In 1985, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi officially
inaugurated the Silent Valley National Park.
7.5 Environmental Ethics:

Environmental ethics is the look at of ethical questions raised by means of human relationships
with the nonhuman environment. Ethical questions are those approximately what we must do,
and moral claims are prescriptive, in place of descriptive or predictive. An instance of a
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prescriptive claim is as follows: People should reduce the ecological influences in their lifestyles.
This claim can be authentic, even though life are currently unsustainable and future exchange is
not likely.Principal to environmental ethics are the tasks of determining what things within the
nonhuman environment are precious; how and why they're treasured; and the way we should bear
in mind these values in deliberations approximately principles, actions, practices, and legal
guidelines.
The desires and techniques of specific environmental guidelines, surroundings management
techniques, and practices of environmental activism, among other things, can then be assessed in
phrases of the way responsive they are to what's precious within the environment and the way
well they encompass the concepts that those values justify. Many environmental troubles, e.g.
endangered species protection, sustainable aid management, genetically changed crop use,
greenhouse gasoline mitigation, populace growth, and chemical contamination are as a great deal
moral problems as they may be monetary troubles. It is therefore important to evaluate the
guidelines and practices regarding them in terms of what's proper and correct, further to what's
efficient or expedient. Environmental ethics emerged as a wonderful field of philosophy
throughout the 1970s, and its scope has due to the fact improved significantly.
To carry out a rigorous and thorough overview, consequently, we've, of necessity, limited the
regions we talk. First, we awareness in particular on environmental ethics, not on environmental
philosophy more extensively construed, e.g. environmental epistemology, metaphysics and
aesthetics. Second, we give attention to the secular, Western traditions currently dominant in
environmental ethics within what's commonly referred to as an analytic philosophical culture. We
omit discussion of religious procedures to environmental ethics; non-Western traditions, which
includes indigenous and Asian approaches to environmental ethics; and Continental
philosophical traditions, which includes those rising from phenomenology. By narrowing our
consciousness in this way, we do no longer intend to imply that those procedures aren't
extraordinarily crucial. Because of period regulations, we cannot include the critical and cautious
attention that these approaches deserve.
7.5.1 Meaning:
Environmental ethics is a branch of applied philosophy that studies the conceptual foundations of
environmental values as well as more concrete issues surrounding societal attitudes, actions, and
policies to protect and sustain biodiversity and ecological systems. As we will see, there are
many different environmental ethics one could hold, running the gamut from human-centered (or
"anthropocentric") views to more nature-centered (or "non-anthropocentric") perspectives. Non-
anthropocentrists argue for the promotion of nature's intrinsic, rather than instrumental or use
value to humans. For some ethicists and scientists, this attitude of respecting species and
ecosystems for their own sakes is a consequence of embracing an ecological worldview; it flows
out of an understanding of the structure and function of ecological and evolutionary systems and
processes. We will consider how newer scientific fields devoted to environmental protection such
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as conservation biology and sustainability science are thus often described as "normative"
sciences that carry a commitment to the protection of species and ecosystems; again, either
because of their intrinsic value or for their contribution to human wellbeing over the long run.
The relationship between environmental ethics and the environmental sciences, however, is a
complex and often contested one. For example, debates over whether ecologists and conservation
biologists should also be advocates for environmental protection a role that goes beyond the
traditional profile of the "objective" scientist have received much attention in these fields.
Likewise, we will see that issues such as the place of animal welfare concerns in wildlife
management, the valuation and control of non-native species, and the adoption of a more
interventionist approach to conservation and ecological protection (including proposals to
relocate wild species and to geoengineering earth systems to avoid the worst effects of global
climate change) frequently divide environmental scientists and conservationists. This split often
has as much to do with different ethical convictions and values regarding our responsibility to
species and ecosystems as it does with scientific disagreements over the interpretation of data or
the predicted outcomes of societal actions and policies.
7.5.2 Role of Indian Culture in Environment Conservation:

Environmental conservation" is the broad term for something that furthers the purpose of making
life greater sustainable for the planet. Ultimately, people want to assist the planet survive clearly
and with no bad impact from the human race. Helping hold the planet safe and healthful is called
"conservation."
1) Indian Culture helps Conservation of wildlife
Bisnois of Rajasthan have a lifestyle of protecting flora and fauna consisting of Black Buck
and Khejri trees given since 1451 or so. Garuda, lion, peacock, and snake are a part of our
cultural ethos from time immemorial.
2) Indian Culture Worships Nature
We, as Indians, take pride in our sturdy cultural heritage. Religion protects and nurtures
nature. If we check Hinduism, we worship the sun, wind, land, trees, plant life, and water
that's the very base of human survival.
3) Indian Culture Saving Trees
Indian Culture tells humans to worship tree plants and subsequently saving bushes from
being cut. Moreover bushes are taken into consideration sacred in India. Indian Culture helps
Conservation of water- We worship Ganga River and other rivers, the kund at
Trayambkeshwar is considered to be the starting place of the sacred Godawari River and so
on.
4) Sacred Groves
One of the best examples of traditional practices in India based on religious faith which has
made a profound contribution to nature conservation has been the maintenance of sure
patches of land or forests as "sacred groves' committed to a deity or a village God, protected,
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and worshiped. India is complete of cultures and these cultures have their value system and
ethics, which even allows the conservation of environment.
7.5.3 Role of Other Religions in Environment Conservation:

Almost all religions address the issue of the creation of the universe, or universes, in different
forms and with varying degrees of clarity or detail. However, all religions agree that the creation
is an act of God and should be treated as such. Religion plays out its role in environmental
conservation and protection by its beliefs and teachings; it guides the relationship between man
and nature, it offers moral framework. The major religions; Christianity, Islam, Judaism,
Buddhism and Hinduism have adopted similar approaches or traditions that are geared towards
environmental conservation. These are: dominion: humans at the top of Creation and using
natural resources as needed. Stewardship: humans having a delegate dominion over Creation and
being responsible and accountable for their use of natural resources, empathy: nature is affected
by human misbehavior and God and worship: nature gives glory to God and nature is sacred.
These approaches correlate and they all complement each other.
1) Hinduism:
Hinduism also practices ecosystem protection beliefs and a good example is Mahatma
Gandhi who promoted peace and coexistence with fellow humans and nature too, his
teachings are extensive and all work towards environmental care. Hinduism is a religion
deeply rooted in nature. The sacred text (Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Epics) has
many references of divinity related to nature, such as rivers, mountains, trees, animals, and
the earth. To protect them, Hinduism encourages environmental protection and there are
organizations that promote sustainable development and support the protection of the
environment through awareness campaigns and actions (Green Faith, 2010).
2) Islam:
Islam promotes environmental care through the belief of nature‘s divinity and humanity‘s
responsibility to look after creation/nature also supported through the teachings of Quran that
refer to nature as beautiful and sacred. Hundreds of Qur‘an verses support the protection of
the environment. Many some Islamic organizations promote the relation between Islam and
sustainability. Islam also approaches environment from a stewardship perspective. The earth
is God‘s creation, and as humans, we have been entrusted to preserve it as we found. The
responsibility of humanity is to protect and ensure the unity (Tawheed) of the God‘s creation.
Moreover, Islam prohibits the excessive consumption of resources the planet provides to the
humanity (Qur‘an 7:31, 6:141, 17:26-27, 40:34). In fact, Qur‘an mentions wasteful
consumption (Isrāf) as the thirty-second greatest sin. In 2015, the Islamic Climate Change
Symposium adopted the Islamic Declaration on Global Climate Change.
3) Jainism:
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Judaism also, through its teachings, plays a role in ensuring a proper environment. Nature is a
central and since God is the owner, we should leave it as we found it. Judaism also
discourages unnecessary destruction and destructive human activities.
Originated from India, the main teaching from Jainism is Ahimsa, the non-violence, in all
parts of life. Verbally, physically and mentally, Jainism doctrines focus on a peaceful and
disciplined life. Kindness to animals, vegetarianism and self-restraint with the avoidance of
waste are parts of Jains life. In addition, in 1990, The Jain Declaration on Nature was written
to mark the entry of the Jain faith into the WWF Network on Conservation and Religion (The
Jain Declaration on Nature, 1990).
4) Judaism:
In tradition, the land and environment are properties of God, and it is the duty of humankind
to take care of it. The book of genesis, as an example, proposes that the garden in Eden was
initially the chosen territory chosen by God for human to live.
5) Sikhism:
Sikhism is a native Indian religion appeared in the late 15th century founded by the first
guru, Guru Nanak Dev Ji. The sacred text is written by the foundational scripture Guru
Granth Sahib where there are several teachings on environment. The Sikh holy site is
managed by Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (S.G.P.C.), and this organization
makes decisions for the global Sikh community, especially on environment.
6) Buddhism:
The Buddhists believe in oneness and between humanity and nature. If you harm the
environment, you harm yourself too; hence taking care of nature is taking care of yourself.
Another practice is that of peace and compassion to everyone and everything and ultimately
ensuring a balance between human practices and conservation. The notion of karma alone,
being an important part of Buddha's lessons, conveys the values of conservation and
responsibility for the future. It is said that the morality of our actions in the present will shape
our character for the future, an idea close of sustainable development.
7) Christianity:
Christianity, through bible teachings, promotes environmental care through the belief of
nature‘s divinity and humanity‘s responsibility to look after creation/nature. There are
approximately hundred verses in the bible that talk about protection of the environment.
Christians therefore have environmental responsibility and encourage behavioural change for
the good of the future (Bible).
8) Confucianism:
For more than 2500 years, Confucianism influenced culture, society, economy and politics of
China mainly, but also Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Some sociologists called Confucianism as
a civil religion or diffused religion (Center for Global Education, 2018). Also, Confucianism
was part of the Chinese social fabric and way of life. To Confucians, everyday life was the
arena of religion. In the Analects of Confucius there is a very little about relation of and
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nature, but some principles followed in Confucianism humanism are related in nature
protection and ecology.
9) Baha’i Faith:
The Baha‘i faith is based upon the world citizenship and it proclaims the unity of humankind.
In this order of idea, it defends the environment so that the whole humanity (including future
generation) can live happily in harmony with nature (ARC, n.d.). Many religious groups are
engaged it restoration and environmental protection activities. This has also led to the
development of a new field of study/specialization; Eco-theology, which incorporates the
concept of ecosystem management in religious teachings.
However, the role of religion and all these efforts and teachings seem to be currently
fruitless due to our individual behaviors, it all boils down to your practices and activities, as
it is always said, change begins with you
7.6 Environmental Communication and Public Awareness:

In the best terms, environmental communication is conversation about environmental affairs.
This consists of all of the numerous kinds of interpersonal, organization, public, organizational,
and mediated conversation that make up the social debate about environmental troubles and our
relationship to the relaxation of nature. Anyone who is taking part in those discussions is enticing
inside the pastime of environmental communication. That consists of anybody from the
maximum passionate environmental advocates, to the fiercest warring parties of ecological
protections. Environmental communication is likewise an interdisciplinary subject of observe that
examines the function, strategies, and influence of verbal exchange in environmental affairs.
Basically, it studies the activity and in doing so, it attracts its principle and strategies more often
than not from verbal exchange, environmental studies, psychology and sociology. Work on this
area is involved with numerous interconnected dimensions of the communiqué.
These are most easily explained close to the standard questions of who, what, wherein, while
and the way. In each of these dimensions, we may additionally ask why and so what? What are
the aspects of the environmental problems which can be being mentioned? Why are a few
emphasized over others? What are the consequences? Among the important thing aspects that
might be mentioned are the technology, costs, risks, hassle, viable responses, values,
organization, future visions, and ideas approximately nature, in addition to the patterns of those
discussions called discourses.
Case Study: CNG Vehicles in New Delhi.
We must admit that the air pollution levels in Delhi – the capital city of India were dangerously
high enough for it to be listed amongst the world‘s most polluted cities. Vehicular emissions,
which accounted for 70% of the air pollution, would morph into deadly smog during the foggy
winters resulting in an increase in respiratory illnesses, with children and senior citizens being the
worst affected. With the economy shifting gears around the same time amidst increasing middle
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class aspirations, with about 500 new vehicles being added every day, a turnaround seemed
highly improbable.
Ever since then, Delhi has won the US Department of Energy‘s first ‗Clean Cities
International Partner of the Year‘ award in 2003 for ‗‗bold efforts to curb air pollution and
support alternative fuel initiatives‘‘. In a unique display of judicial activism, the Supreme Court
of India ordered the responsible government to switch its public-transit system to a cleaner-
burning fuel in response to citizens‘ concerns about air pollution.
Buoyed by the public pressure, the government of New Delhi reluctantly as is typical of a
developing nation, complied and enforced regulations to convert its entire fleet of diesel and
gasoline dependent public transport system to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) by 2002. It‘s
funny to note that the court actually slapped a fine of about $450 on the Union government, for
repeatedly seeking a modification in the order.
To its credit, once the government set about preparing a comprehensive action plan by
passing the desired legislation and setting up the infrastructure necessary for such a transition, it
earned the recognition of drafting one amongst the top 12 best policies in the world, as per a
study conducted by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and E3G.
Between 2000 and 2008, the Carbon emissions plummeted by 72%, while the SO2 emissions
decreased by 57% on account of 3500 CNG buses, 12000 taxis, 65000 auto rickshaws (tuk-tuks)
and 5000 mini buses plying on CNG. CNG is mainly comprised of methane, which upon
combustion mainly emits CO2 and H2O and being lighter disperses very quickly, whereas
gasoline and diesel being more complex, emit more harmful emissions such as NOX and SOX.
Owing to the recent volatility in the oil prices and continued patronage of CNG by the
government by way of subsidies, the general public has begun to increasingly incorporate CNG
kits in their private vehicles, which facilitates them to run on dual fuel mode. Encouraged by the
public response, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has set about an ambition plan of
bringing 200 cities under the supply network of CNG and Piped Natural Gas (PNG) by 2015.
The Indian City of Delhi is part of the national capital region (NCR) with about 14.3 million
inhabitants. Due to the rapid increase in vehicle kilometers driven and the poor technical
conditions of the vehicles, the load of ambient air with automobile pollutants is extremely high.
The Central Pollution Control Board estimates that city traffic added as much as 2,000 tons of
pollutants a day in 2000. The permissible standard of 240 micrograms for suspended particulates
(annual average) and 240 micrograms per cubic meter (24 hour standard) are exceeded, but no
exact analysis based on monitoring station readings are available.Diesel buses were only allowed
to operate until that date if their owners could prove that they had placed orders either for the
same number of new CNG buses or for conversion to CNG.
According to a study issued by the Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, which
was carried out by an international consultant team, until March 2001 about 275 CNG buses,
12,000 CNG taxis and cars and 13,500 CNG three-wheelers were on the road by that time. As
2002 came to a close, however, all diesel buses in Delhi have been converted to CNG and air
pollution levels are noticeably down.
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For a country which depends on 70% of oil imports, the recent indigenous gas discoveries in
the K.G Basin and elsewhere have only brightened our outlook for lesser dependence on foreign
oil, enabling us to save valuable foreign exchange. In view of growing awareness for cleaner air
and climate change, there‘s many a lesson to be learnt from Delhi‘s resurgence.
Limitations
According to the Centre for Science and Environment, the ministry of petroleum and natural gas
(MPNG) did not organize an appropriate supply of CNG to the Delhi area, because they did not
believe that the Supreme Court‘s order would be implemented. Consequently, in the late spring
and in the summer 2001 there was a shortage of CNG forcing many of the taxis and three-
wheelers to stop circulating. This influenced public opinion negatively against CNG. While it
was recognized that the introduction of ultra-low sulfur diesel (<50 PPM) and diesel particulate
filters could make it possible for conventional diesels to achieve very low PM levels, such fuels
are not scheduled to be introduced in Delhi until 2010. Another problem arose by a whisper
campaign of unidentified sources that CNG would cause cancer. According to a survey carried
out by CSE, more than half of the people asked in several parts of Delhi had heard that CNG
caused cancer although the majority of the whole participants preferred CNG and did not believe
the alleged negative environmental aspect of CNG.
Impact
The shift to CNG initiated by the Indian Supreme Court was very difficult and took much longer
to implement than it should have due to very limited support by other government authorities in
Delhi. But at the end of the day, all diesel buses were eliminated and air quality has improved.
But Daily ambient air quality data from June 1999 to September 2003 from the busiest crossing
in Delhi do not indicate an all-round improvement in ambient quality due to point sources of
pollution which is contributing to SO2 and mobile sources are contributing to NOX
concentrations. The NOx has risen after the conversion whereas SPM and PM10 have shown
only marginal fall; CO has shown a significant decline.

1) Who among the following was associated with Bishnoi movement?
a) Amrita Devi
b) Gaura Devi
c) Govind Singh Rawat
d) Shamsher Singh Bisht
2) Who among the following was associated with chipko movement?
a) Sundarlal Bahuguna
b) Gaura Devi
c) Sudesha Devi
d) All of the above
~5. 107~
3) Which of the following was started in 1973 to save the evergreen tropical forest in the
Palakkad district of Kerala, India from being flooded by a hydroelectric project?
a) Chipko Movement
b) Silent Valley Movement
c) Appiko Movement
d) Jungle Bachao Andola
4) Which environmental movement refers to as Greed Game Political Populism by the
environmentalists?
a) Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)
b) Silent Valley Movement
c) Appiko Movement
d) Jungle Bachao Andola
5) Hazards and Disasters are mainly classified as-------------
a) Physical and chemical
b) Natural and human induced
c) Physical and Human
d) Social and cultural
6) A hazard is a situation where there is-------------
a) Threat of natural calamity
b) Threat to property and lives from calamities
c) Threat for consequences of disaster
d) All of the above
7) Disaster is an event arising out of------------
a) Result of hazard event
b) Causes of hazard event
c) Causes of disaster event
d) All of the above
8) The typical examples of man-made disasters are------------
a) Chemical explosion
b) Leakage of toxic waste
c) War and civil strife
d) All of the above
9) What are the consequences of disaster on a society?
a) Loss of life
b) Damage to property
c) Environmental Damages
d) All of the above
10) The primary result of earthquakes is-------------

~5. 108~
a) Building and bridge collapsed
b) Rapture of water and gas pipelines
c) Change in course of river and creation of new islands
d) All of the above
11) What are the major consequences of Tropical cyclones?
a) Fierce wind
b) Heavy rain
c) Storm surge
d) All of the above
12) Mass killing diseases can be referred as-----------
a) Biological disaster
b) Industrial disaster
c) War disaster
d) Flood disaster
13) Which instrument is used for recording the occurrences of the earthquake
a) Richter Scale
b) Seismology
c) Seismograph
d) None of the Above
14) What type of disaster is most prominent in India?
a) Flood
b) Draught
c) Cyclone
d) Earthquake
15) Which of the following disasters can be triggered by an earthquake?
a) Tsunami
b) Intense ground shaking
c) A landslide
d) All of the above
16) The ancient Greeks valued the environment, as evidenced by their-----------
a) Building architecture
b) Recycling efforts
c) Sleeping in the open air
d) Having gods of nature
17) Environmental justice is described as intergenerational, meaning that-------
a) Both genders should enjoy the environment equally
b) International laws define general environmental laws
c) Each generation is responsible for current environmental laws
~5. 109~
d) The environment should be preserved for future generations
Answers: 1) a, 2) d, 3) b, 4) d, 5) b, 6) b, 7) a, 8) d, 9) d, 10) d, 11) d, 12) a, 13) c, 14) a, 15) d,

16) d, 17) d
Review Questions
Q.37. What do you mean by Population Growth? Explain the Stages of Population Growth.
Q.38. Discuss in detail about the Human Population Growth: Impacts on Environment.
Q.39. Explain in detail about the Human Wealth and Welfare.
Q.40. Discuss in detail about the Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Project affected Persons.
Q.41. Discuss in detail about the Phases of Disaster Management.
Q.42. Write a detail note on Flood as Disaster.
Q.43. Explain the Causes and Effects and Management –Mitigation Methods of Earthquake.
Q.44. Discuss in detail about the Effects and Management and Mitigation of Cyclones.
Q.45. Explain the Causes and Effects of Landslides.
Q.46. Discuss in detail about the Environmental Movement.
Q.47. What do you mean by Environmental Ethics? Explain the Role of Indian Culture in
Environment conservation.
Q.48. Discuss in detail about the Role of Other Religions in Environment Conservation.
Q.49. Write a Case Study: CNG Vehicles in New Delhi.
~5. 110~

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Environmental Pollution

5.1 Environmental Pollution:

5.1.2 Types of Environmental Pollution:

5.1.3 Role of an individual in prevention of pollution:

5.2 Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks :

5.2.2 Sources of Nuclear Hazards:

5.2.3 Human Risks in Nuclear Hazards:

5.2.4 Control of Nuclear Hazards:

5.3 Solid Waste Management :

5.3.1 Sources of Solid Waste:

5.3.2 Nature of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):

5.3.3 Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:

5.3.4 Control Measures of Urban and Industrial Waste:

5.4 Pollution Case Studies:

Case on Pollution Effect on Tajmahal

Case on Ganga River

1) Which of the following facts are incorrect?

33) What are the sources of radioactive wastes in the marine?

34) What are the sauces of sediments in causing marine pollution?

39) Which of the following is done on an individual level?

40) Which of the following plans is used as a waste management plan?

41) The organic material of the solid waste will decompose--------------

Answers: 1) d, 2) c, 3) a, 4) b, 5) c, 6) a, 7) c, 8) d, 9) a, 10) a, 11) d, 12) c, 13) d, 14) b, 15) a,

Environmental Policies and

6.1.1 Factors/ Causes for Climatic Changes:

6.1.2 Effects of Climatic Change:

6.2 Global Warming:

6.2.1 Causes of Global Warming:

6.2.2 Effects of Global Warming:

6.3 Ozone Layer Depletion:

6.3.1 Causes of Ozone Depletion:

6.3.2 Effects of Ozone Depletion:

6.4 Acid Rain:

6.4.1 Causes of Acid Rain:

6.4.2 Effects of Acid Rain:

6.5 Environmental Laws :

6.5.1 Environment Protection Act:

6.5.3 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974:

6.5.4 Wild Life Protection Act, 1972:

6.5.5 Forest Act, 1878:

6.6.1 Montreal Protocol:

6.6.2 Kyoto Protocol:

6.7 Nature Reserves:

6.7.1 Tribal Populations and Rights:

Multiple Choice Questions

Q.23. Explain the Factors/ Causes and Effects of Climatic Change.

Human Communities and

7.1 Human Population Growth:

7.1.3 Human Population Growth: Impacts on Environment:

7.1.4 Human Health and Welfare:

7.2 Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Project affected Persons:

7.2.1 Resettlement Issues Emphasizes following Needs:

7.2.2 Case Study:

7.3 Disaster Management:

7.3.1 Phases of Disaster Management:

7.4 Environmental Movements:

7.5 Environmental Ethics:

7.5.2 Role of Indian Culture in Environment Conservation:

7.5.3 Role of Other Religions in Environment Conservation:

7.6 Environmental Communication and Public Awareness:

Multiple Choice Questions

10) The primary result of earthquakes is-------------

Answers: 1) a, 2) d, 3) b, 4) d, 5) b, 6) b, 7) a, 8) d, 9) d, 10) d, 11) d, 12) a, 13) c, 14) a, 15) d,

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