CALCULUS

Calculus; is a branch of mathematics that deals with finding derivatives

and integrals of functions. There are two main types of calculus;
differential calculus and integral calculus
Definition of Terms
i. Function; mathematical expression involving a set of
input(s)/independent variable(s) associated with one output
(dependent variable)
ii. Independent Variable; determinant/predictor variable, whose
change in value determines the value of another variable
(dependent variable)
iii. Dependent Variable; response/outcome variable whose value
depends on or is determined by change in value(s) of
independent variables
iv. Domain; input values of a function, set of values that
independent variable can assume
v. Range; output value of a function, set of values to be assumed
by the dependent variable
vi. Limits; numerical values used to define continuity, integrals,
and derivatives in the calculus
vii. Interval; range of numbers present between two values. There
are two types of intervals
Open intervals; set of all real numbers used to define a variable
in open range e.g a and b in a < x < b
Closed Interval; set of all values used to define a variable in a
closed manner e.g a and b in a ≤ x ≤ b
 a) Differential Calculus
Differential calculus is also referred to as differentiation. It is a branch of
calculus that deals with the rate of change of one quantity (of dependent
variable) as a result of change in other quantity (of independent variable)
i. Differential calculus is used to obtain the derivative of a function
dy
ii. Derivative of function ( y=f (x )) is expressed as dx read as ‘dee y’
over ‘dee x’, meaning change in y as a result of change in x.
iii. When an equation is differentiated for the first time, the derivative
dy
is called the first derivative, denoted as dx
iv. The first derivative of function represents the slope/gradient of a
Δy y 2− y 1
line/curve plotted from the function expressed as; Δx or x 2−x 1
v. When an equation is differentiated for the second time,(when the
1st derivative is differentiated), we get a second derivative; denoted
2
d y
as dx
2

vi. The second derivative denotes the turning point of the curve drawn
from an equation (maximum or minimum points of a curve)
vii. Generally, given a function, y=f ( x ) expressed as y=a x b where ‘a’ is
the coefficient of ‘x’ and ‘b’ is the power of ‘x’, the we get the first
derivative by multiplying the coefficient of ‘x’ by the power of ‘x’
and reducing the power of ‘x’ by 1
Given y=a x b
dy
Then, dx =
b.a x
b−1

For example
Given y=4 x 2
dy 2−1
Then dx
=2.4 x
 dy
=8 x
dx

Rules of Differentiation
i. The Constant Rule
This is the rule used to differentiate functions involving constants.
When a constant is differentiated, the constant degenerates into a zero
dy
Given y=f (x ) such that y=a and a is a constant, a ≠0, then dx
=0

Given y=a

The equation can be re-written as y=a x

0

Therefore,
Differentiating y=a x
0

dy 0−1
=0. a x
dx

dy
=0
dx

Illustration
Differentiate
i) y=10

The equation can be re-written as y=10 x

0

Therefore,
dy 0−1
=0.10 x
dx

∂y −1
=0. x
∂x
 ∂y
=0
∂x

ii. The Power Rule

This rule is used when the independent variable is raised to some power.
i.e. y=f ( x )such that, y=x a where a≠0
y=x
a
can be re-written as y=1 x a
∂y a−1
Given y=1 x
a
, then ∂x
=a .1 x

dy a−1
=a x
dx

Illustration;
Obtain the first derivation of the following equations;
i. y=x
5

Soln;
y=x
5
can be re-written as y=1 x
5

dy 5−1
=5.1 x
dx

dy 4
=5 x
dx

ii. y=x
−4

y=x can be re-written as

−4 −4
y=1 x
dy −4 −1
=−4.1 x
dx
dy −5
=−4 x
dx

iii. y=x
2
 dy 2−1
=2 x
dx

dy
=2 x
dx
iii. Power Function Multiplied by a Constant Rule

This rule is used to differentiate a function that has the independent

variable multiplied by a coefficient and raised to some power.

Given y=f (x ) such that y=a x

b

dy b−1
Then, dx
=b . a x

Illustration;

Differentiate y=4 x
2

dy 2−1
=2.4 x
dx

dy
=8 x
dx

ii. Differentiate y=−2 x

−3

dy −3−1
=−3.−2 x
dx

dy −4
=6 x
dx

iv. The Sum Rule

This rule is used to obtain the derivative of a sum of two or more

functions. The derivative is obtained by summing the derivatives of the
individual terms of the function.
Given y=f (x ) such that b d
y=a x + c x +...+i x
j
, then
dy b−1 d−1 j −1
=b . a x + d . c x +…+ j. i x
dx

Illustration;

Differentiate;

iv. 3
y=−3 x + 4 x + 4
2

The equation can be re-written as; 3 2

y=−3 x + 4 x + 4 x
0

dy 3−1 2−1 0 −1
=3 (−3 ) x +2 ( 4 ) x +0(4) x
dx
dy 2
=−9 x + 8 x +0
dx
dy 2
=−9 x + 8 x
dx

ii. Differentiate y=12 x 4 +3 x 2

iii. Differentiate y=10 x 4 + 4 x 3 +18 x2
v. The Difference Rule;

This rule is used to determine the derivative of a difference of two or

more functions.

Given y=f (x ) such that b d

y=a x −c x −…−i x
j
then
dy b−1 d−1 j−1
=b . a x −d . c x −…− j. i x
dx

Illustration;

Differentiate;

i. 3
y=4 x −2 x
2

dy 3−1 2−1
=3.4 x −2.2 x
dx
 dy 2
=12 x −4 x
dx
ii. y=−12 x−x
3

dy 1−1 3 −1
=1 (−12 ) x −3 x
dx

dy 2
=−12−3 x
dx

iii. The Product Rule

This rule is used to obtain the derivative of a product of two or more

functions.

Given y=f ( x )such that y=ax . bx

dy dy dy
Then = ( ax ) . ( bx ) + ( bx ) .(ax)
dx dx dx (the sum of the derivative of first function
and derivative of second function)

Illustration;

i. Differentiate y=(x ¿¿ 2) x ¿

2
ax= x ∧bx=x

dy dy dy
= ( ax ) . ( bx ) + ( bx ) .(ax)
dx dx dx

dy
ax= x
2
, therefore ( ax ) =2 x 2−1
dx

dy
bx=x , therefore ( bx )=1. x 1−1
dx

dy
=( 2 x ) x+(1 x )x
2−1 1−1 2
dx
dy
=( 2 x ) x +(1)x
1 2
dx

dy 2 2
=2 x + x
dx

dy
=¿3 x 2
dx

ii. Differentiate 2 3 2
y=(x + 3)(2 x + x −3)

Soln;
2 3 2
ax= x +3∧bx=2 x + x −3

dy
=2 x ( 2 x + x −3 ) +¿6 x 2+ 2 x ¿( x 2+ 3)
3 2
dx

iv. The Quotient Rule

This rule is used to obtain the derivative of quotient of two functions.

dy dy
ax ( ax ) .bx − ( bx ) . ax
Given y=f (x )such that y= ,
bx then dy d x
=
dx
dx (bx )
2

Illustration;
x
Differentiate y=
3+ x
2

dy 1 ( 3+ x2 ) −2 x (x )
dx = (3+ x 2)(3+ x 2 )

2 2
dy 3+ x −2 x
=
dx 9+ 6 x 2 + x 4

2
dy 3−x
=
dx 9+6 x 2+ x 4

3
x
Differentiate y=
3 x+ 7
 v. Reciprocal Rule

This rule is used to determine the derivative of a reciprocal;

1
Given y=f (x )such that y=
x

−dy
(x)
Then dy
=
dx
dx x
2

Illustration;
1
Differentiate y=
x

1
The equation can be re-written as y=
x
1

1−1
dy −1 x
=
dx x .x

dy −1
=
dx x2

Illustration 2
1
Differentiate y=
4x
3

−dy 3
(4 x )
dy dx
=
dx (4 x3 )(4 x3 )

2
dy −12 x
=
dx 16 x 6

vi. The Chain Rule

This rule is used to determine the derivative of a composition.

 dy
Given y=f (x ) such that y=f ( g ( x )) , then =f ’ ( g ( x ) ) . g ’(x )
dx

In the Chain Rule, we work from the outside to the inside. We

differentiate the outer function and then we multiply with the derivative
of the inner function

Given y=(ax−b) ,
n
the outer function is (ax −b) and
n
the inner function is
ax−b

Given y=(ax−b) ,
n

dy dy n dy
= ( ax−b ) . (ax−b)
dx dx dx

dy n−1
=n(ax−b) . a
dx

Illustration

Differentiate y=(5 x−2)

3

Soln;

The outer function = (5 x−2)3 and the inner function =5 x−2

dy dy dy
= ((5 x−2)¿ ¿3)¿. (5 x−2)
dx dx dx

dy 3−1
=3(5 x−2) .5
dx

dy 2
=3(5 x−2) .5
dx

dy 2
=15(5 x−2)
dx

Practice Question

Differentiate 3
y=(2 x +7)
6
Outer function (2 x 3+7)6 ∧theinner function is 2 x 3+7
dy dy 3 dy 3
= ((2 x +7)¿¿ 6). (2 x +7)¿
dx dx dx

dy
=6(2 x +7) .6 x 2
3 5
dx

Interpretation of Derivatives

The 1st derivative represents the slope or gradient of the line/curve drawn
from an equation

If;
' dy
dx ; the slope is positive, the rate of change in the value of
f ( x )∨ >0

dependent variable increases as the value of the independent variable

increases. A direct relationship
dy
< 0; the slope is negative; the rate of change inverse, i.e as the
'
f ( x )∨
dx
value of independent variable increases, the value of dependent
decreases.

f ( x )=0 , the
slope of the line is zero. There is no change in the dependent
'

variable as independent variable changes. This is a straight line parallel

to the x axis.

f ( x )=1 ,the slope is 1, this is a straight line parallel to the y axis.

'

The Second Derivative

The 2nd derivative is obtained when the first derivative is differentiated

or when a function is differentiated for the 2nd time.
2
d y
The second derivative is denoted as f ( x )or
''

dx
2
The second derivative indicates the turning point of a curve drawn from
an equation

Illustration;

Obtain the second derivatives of the following equations;

i. 4 2
y=x −4 x +10 x

Soln;

1st derivative;
dy 3
=4 x −8 x +10
dx

2nd derivative
dy 3
=4 x −8 x +1 0
dx
2
d y 3−1 1−1 0−1
2
=3 (4) x −1(8)x +0.10 x
dx
2
d y 2
2
=12 x −8
dx

ii. 3 2
y=x −x +5 x+ 15
dy 2
=3 x −2 x +5
dx
2
d y
2
=6 x−2
dx

Interpretation of the 2nd derivative

If;

f ( x )> 0,
the slope of the function is increasing, the rate of change is
''

positive and the curve is convex

f ' ' (x)< 0,
the slope is decreasing, the rate of change is negative, the curve
is concave

Turning Points of a Curve

The turning point is the point at which a curve changes direction of its
movement or the point at which the slope of a curve changes from sign
to the other

Types of Turning Points

i. Maximum Turning Point

This is the maximum point in a curve (in mountain shape)

At maximum turning point,

dy

'
f ( x )∨ =0
dx
2
d y

''
f ( x )∨ 2 < 0
dx
 To the left of the turning point, the slope is positive
 To the right of the turning point, the slope is negative

Maximum TP (slope=0)

+ve
slope -ve slope
 ii. Minimum Turning Point

This is the minimum point of a curve (in a valley shaped/ ‘u’ shaped
curve)

At the minimum turning point,

dy

'
f ( x )∨ =0
dx
2
d y

''
f ( x )∨ 2 > 0
dx
 To the left of the turning point, the slope is negative
 To the right of the turning point, the slope is positive

-ve slope +ve slope

Turning point (slope=0)

iii. Point of inflexion

This is the point at which the slope of curve changes the rate of change
from initially increasing or decreasing to regain or lose the rate of
change

At the point of inflexion; f '' ( x )=0

 Point of inflexion

Procedure of Obtaining Turning Point

 Get the 1st derivative, at the turning point, the slope = 0, therefore,
we equate the 1st derivative to zero to solve for x.
 Use the x value obtained above to get corresponding value of y.
 The x and y values are the coordinates of the turning point.
 Obtain the 2nd derivative, f '' <0 at the maximum turning point and
f >0 at minimum turning
''

Illustrations
Obtain the turning points of the following equations and comment on
their nature

i. 3
y=2 x −3 x −6
2

dy 2
∨(f '( x ))=6 x −6 x
dx

At turning point, slope =0, therefore, equate f ' (x) to zero and
solve for x value at the turning point.
2
6 x −6 x=0
Solve for x
6 x ( x −1 )=0
x=0 , x=1

Obtain the values of ‘y’ at the turning points by substituting ‘x’

in the original equation
Point 1
x=0
3 2
y=2(0) −3(0) −6
y=−6

Point 2
x=1
3 2
y=2(1) −3(1) −6
y=−7

The turning points are; (0,-6) and (1,-7)

To determine the nature of the turning point, we obtain the
second derivative and check on the value;
2
d y
∨( f ( x ) )=12 x−6
''
2
dx

Determine the value of the 2nd derivative by substituting x in the

2nd derivative
''
f ( x )=12 x−6

Point 1(x=0)

f ( x ) at point 1= 12(0)−6;
''

''
f (x) =-6

Point 2 (x=1)
f ( x ) at point 2=12 ( 1 )−6 ; =6
''

Point 1(0,-6);
2nd derivative (-6; f '' ( x )<0) is –ve, maximum turning point
Point 2(1,6);
2nd derivative (6; f '' ( x )> 0) is +ve, minimum turning point
 ii. y=17 x−12−5 x
2

'
f ( x )=17−10 x

Obtain the coordinates of the turning point; solve for x in f ' (x)

and substitute ‘x’ in the ‘y’ function to solve for y.

At the turning point, f ' (x)=0
Therefore, 17−10 x =0
x=1.7

Obtain y
2
y=17 (1.7)−12−5(1.7)
y=2.45

The turning point =(1.7,2.45)

Determine the nature of the turning point
Obtain f '' ( x )
f ( x )=¿-10
''

The second derivative (-10) is negative, therefore, this is a maximum

turning point.

iii. 3
y=6 x +2 x +1
2

iv. y=2+ 3 x −x
2 3

v. 3
y=x +3 x −9 x +6
2

vi. y=60 x +3 x −4 x
2 3
Partial Differentiation

This is where an equation containing more than one variable is

differentiated with respect to one of the variable holding other
variable(s) constant.

NB. During the differentiation process, one of the variables is treated as

a constant and therefore degenerates

Given a function f ( x , y )=a x b +c y d

b
a x +c y
d
can be rewritten as; a x b . y 0+ c y d . x 0

Differentiate with respect to x

b 0 d 0
f =a x . y + c y . x

∂f b−1 d 0−1
Then ∂x
=b .a x .1+ c y .0 . x

∂f b−1
=b .a x
∂x

Differentiate with respect to y

b 0 d 0
f ( x , y )=a x . y + c y . x

∂f b 0−1 d −1 0
=a x .0 . y + d .c y . x
∂y

∂f d −1
=0+d . c y .1
∂y

∂f d −1
=dc y
∂y
Illustration;

Given f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 3

Obtain

i. Differentiate with respect to x

f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 3
' ∂f
f ( x )∨ =2 x
∂x

ii. Differentiate with respect to y

' ∂f 2
f ( y )∨ =3 y
∂y

Practice questions

Differentiate the following equations;

i. f ( x . y )=2 x2 + 4 xy

a) With respect to x
We can re-write the equation as;
2 0 1
f ( x . y )=2 x y +4 x y

∂f 2−1 1−1
=2.2 x .1+1.4 x . y
∂x

∂f 1
=4 x .1+ 4.1. y
∂x

∂f
=4 x +4 y
∂x

b) With respect to y
2 0 1
f ( x . y )=2 x . y + 4 x y
 ∂f 2 0−1 1−1
=2 x .0 . y +4 x .1 y
∂y
∂f 2
=2 x .0+ 4 x .1
∂y

∂f
=4 x
∂y

Integral Calculus
Integral calculus (integration) involves finding the integral (anti
derivative) or integrals of a derivative or a function. It is the reverse of
differentiation
The outcome of integration is called the ant derivative
The symbol ‘ʃ ’ is used to denote integration, read as ‘integral of’
Integration Process
The process of integration is the reverse of the process of differentiation,
therefore, integration involves increasing the power of the variable by 1
and divide the coefficient by the new power and introduce the
coefficient of integration.
1 n+1
Given a derivative of function such that f ' ( x )=x n then ʃ(x n )dx = n+1 x +c

where ‘c’ is constant of integration

Rules of integration
a) Integrating a Constant
When a constant is integrated, the variable is reintroduced into the ant
derivative.
Given f ' ( x )=a , then ʃ(a ¿ dx = ax +c
'
f ( x )=a can be re-written as; f ' ( x )=a x 0
 0 +1
ax
ʃ(a ¿ dx = 0+ 1
+c

ʃ(a ¿ dx =ax +c
Illustration
i) ʃ(10)dx
We can re-write 10 as;10 x 0
0 +1
Therefore; ʃ (10 x 0) dx = 100+1
x
+c

ʃ ( 10 x 0 ) dx=10 x +c

ii) ʃ6dx
b) Integrating a Variable
A variable is integrated by increasing its power by 1 and dividing the
outcome by the new power

2
x
Given '
f ( x )=x then, ʃ( x ¿ dx = 2
+c

Illustration;
From the above expression, x can be re-written as x 1
1+ 1
x
ʃ( x ¿ dx= 1+1 +c

2
x
ʃ( x ¿ dx= 2
+c

c) Integrating functions involving sum of terms

Given a derivative involving a sum of terms, then the anti-derivative of
the function is obtained by obtaining the individual anti-derivatives and
inducing the constant of integration.
Given f ' ( x )=a x b +c x d +…+ m x n, then
b +1 d +1 n+1
ax cx mx
ʃ ( a x + c x + …+m x ) dx=
b d n
+ + …+ +c
b+ 1 d +1 n+1

Illustration;
i) 3 2
ʃ ( x + 4 x +3) dx

ʃ ( x3 + 4 x 2+ 3 ) dx can be re-written as; ʃ ( x3 + 4 x 2+ 3 x 0 ) dx

3+1 2+1 0+1
x 4x 3x
ʃ ( x + 4 x + 3 x ) dx=
3 2 0
+ + +c
3+1 2+1 0+1
4 3
x 4x
ʃ ( x + 4 x + 3 x ) dx=
3 2 0
+ +3 x +c
4 3

d) Integrating a term raised to some power

n+1
x
Given f '
( x )=x ,then,
n
ʃ( x n
¿ dx = n+1
+c

Illustration
i. ʃ( x 4 ¿ dx
4 +1
x
ʃ ( x ) d x=
4
+c
4+1
5
x
ʃ ( x ) dx= +c
4
5

ii. ʃ( x 7 ¿ dx
7 +1
ʃ( x 7 ¿ dx= 7x +1 + c
8
x
ʃ( x ¿ dx=
7
8
+c
 e) The square rule
This rule is used to integrate derivatives involving squares
3
Given f ( x )=x ,
' 2
then ʃ( x ¿ dx = x3 + c
2

This rule can also be used to integrate a square root

Given f ' ( x )=√ x,
√ x can be rewritten as x 0.5
0.5+1
x
ʃ √ x dx , ʃ (x ¿¿ 0.5)dx=
( ) +c¿
0.5+1
1.5
x
ʃ ( √ x ) dx , ʃ (x ¿¿ 0.5)dx= +c ¿
1.5

f) Multiplication by a constant
n+ 1
Given f ' ( x )=a x n , then ʃ (a x n)dx= an+1
x
+c

Illustration
4
ʃ (5 x )dx
4 +1
5x
ʃ ( 5 x ) dx=
4
+c
4+1
5
5x
ʃ ( 5 x ) dx=
4
+c
5

ʃ ( 5 x 4 ) dx=x 5+ c

Definite Integral