Vedic Age/Period

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Sources of Vedic Period
3. Advent of Aryans: Theories related to Original Home of Aryans
4. Geographical Expansion of Aryans in India
5. Phases of Vedic Period
a. Early Vedic / Rig Vedic Period:
i. Geographical location
ii. Economy
iii. Society
iv. Polity
v. Religion
b. Later Vedic Period:
i. Geographical location
ii. Economy
iii. Society
iv. Polity
v. Religion
6. Vedic Literature
a. Shruti Literature
i. Vedas
ii. Brahmanas
iii. Aranyakas
iv. Upanishads
b. Smriti Literature
i. Vedangas
ii. Sutras
iii. Puranas
iv. Epics
v. Dharshana
vi. Upavedas
vii. Dharmasastras

7.Previous Years Questions

Introduction
Vedic Age (1500 BC -600 BC), in the history of India, is the period during which Vedas were
composed. The associated culture is referred to as Vedic civilization and was centered in the northern
and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.Vedic civilization denotes the beginning of the
historic period in India.
 Do You Know?
Harappan Civilization declined by around 1750 BC and Vedic civilization began around 1500 BC.
There is a gap of around 250 years between these two major events, and we know nothing about the
events associated with this gap.

Sources of Vedic Period

Vedic texts (Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Puranas and Epics like Ramayana and
Mahabharata etc.) are believed to be composed by the Indo-Aryans and they are the primary sources
for the reconstruction of the Vedic culture/Vedic age. They shed light on the political, social,
economic, and religious life of the Aryans.

[Note: Vedic literature has been discussed ahead in detail.]

Advent of Aryans
● The term ‘Aryan’ represents a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages, from
which later emerged Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek etc.
○ Vedic people belonged to the Nordic race.

Do You Know?
Sanskrit words 'matri 'and ‘pitri’ are similar to the Latin ‘mater and ‘pater’. Similarly, Inar of the
Hittite (Turkey) language is similar to ‘Indra’ of the Vedas. ‘Suryyas’ and ‘Maruttash’ of the
Kassite (Mesopotamia) inscriptions are equivalent of the Vedic ‘Surya’ and ‘Marut’.
Original Home
● Some Historians believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India while others believe
that the Aryans migrated from outside, i.e. Central Asia (Max Muller); Europe, Arctic region
(B.G. Tilak) and so on.
● The following five important theories are put forward regarding the original home of
Aryans:

Central Asian ▪ This theory was advocated by the famous German orientalist Max
Theory Mueller.
▪ Max Mueller made a comparative study of “Avesta” and “Vedas” and
concluded that ancient ancestors of Indian and Iranian Aryans must have
lived for a very long period of time. Hence the original homeland of the
Aryans must be the region adjacent to these countries.
o The vegetation and animals which are mentioned in "Vedas" and
"Avesta" are similar to those found in Central Asia. Hence, the
original homeland of Aryans must be the region of Central Asia.

European ▪ Many scholars believe that the continent of Europe was the homeland of
Theory Aryans and the ancestors of Indian Aryans belonged to them.
▪ This theory was forwarded by Sir W. Jones in 1786 which was based
on comparative linguistics.
▪ He pointed that Greek, Latin, Gothic, English and Sanskrit language
have almost similar words for mother and father. Thus, the speakers
of these languages have the same ancestors.
 Indian Theory ▪ Dr. Sampurnanand and A. C. Das declared that "Sapta Sindhu” region
was the homeland of the Aryans.
▪ According to Ganganath Jha "Brahmarishi Desh" was the land of the
Aryans.
▪ L. D. Kala propagated for Kashmir.
▪ R. B. Pandey believed Madhya Pradesh to be the locale of Aryans.

Tibetan Theory ▪ Swami Dayanand Saraswati gave the theory that Tibet was the
original home of the Aryans and also tried to give the facts by referring
to Vedas and other books.

Arctic Region ▪ This theory was put forward by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
Theory o His theory was based on the comparative study of 'Avesta' and
'Vedas'.
o Vedas speak about 6 months long day and long nights.
o He believed that Northern Arctic region was suitable for dwelling.
Aryans initially lived there but with the climatic and geographical
changes, Aryans had to move out.

● Based on the philological evidence, originally the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the
Steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia. From here, a group of them migrated to
northwest India and came to be called Indo-Aryans or just Aryans. .
● Aryans had migrated to the Indian subcontinent in several waves spanning several hundred years,
and it seems the earliest wave of migration was around 1500 BCE.

Archaeology about Aryan Migration

The archaeological excavations at various sites suggest that :

1. Earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan
civilization by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic hymns
which invoke Indra to destroy the dwellers of the forts. But archaeological evidence has
shown that the decline of the Harappan civilization was not caused by any large-scale
destruction brought about by an alien invading group.
2. Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not receive
strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures were related to the
Aryans, then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should have found this pottery
type in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route taken by the so-called
Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery types confined to a particular geographical
region comprising Haryana, Upper Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan.
3. It was earlier thought that there exists a time gap and, hence, a cultural discontinuity
between the Late Harappan and the post-Harappan Chalcolithic period. However, recent
excavations at Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the
Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could be found together without any breaks. Hence,
“invasion” cannot be proved on the basis of the excavated sites.

Conclusion
● First, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale migration of
people from central or Western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE.
● Second, archaeologically, there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan
civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization.
Hence , it is said popularly-“Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of
Aryans.”

Geographical Expansion of Aryans in India

● Aryans first appeared around 1500 BC in the Sapta Sindhu region ( Land of the Seven
Rivers) around which the Harappan culture once flourished.
● From 1000 BC on-wards, with the introduction of iron technology, Aryans had started
deserting ‘Sapta Sindhu' region and expanding further eastwards; finally settled in Gangetic
plains (1000-600 BC).

Phases of Vedic Period

● Vedic texts reflect two stages of development in terms of literature as well as social and
cultural evolution.
 ● The Rigveda which is the oldest Vedic text reflects one stage of social and cultural
development whereas the other three Vedas reflect another stage. The first stage is known as
the Rigvedic period or Early Vedic period and the later stage is known as the Later Vedic
period.

Phases of Vedic period

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period ( 1500 - 1000 Later Vedic Period (1000 - 600 BC)
BC)

Rig Vedic period refers to the period in which Later Vedic period was the period in which three
Rig Veda was compiled. Vedas along with their respective Brahmanas,
Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 BC)

Geographical location:

● The early Vedic Aryans lived in the area known as sapta-sindhu (Land of seven rivers).

Sapta Sindhu region largely covers the northwestern part of South Asia up to river Yamuna i.e.,
Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab and some parts of Western Uttar Pradesh.
In Zend Avesta, an ancient Iranian text that shares similarities with Rig Veda, rivers in
Afghanistan like Kubha, Indus and its tributaries and Saraswati river are mentioned. Whereas,
Rig Veda mentions Indus and its five tributaries along with Saraswati river -and hence the
identity of these seven rivers is not clearly established.

Rig Vedic Rivers

● More than 25 rivers were mentioned in RigVeda.

● Most referred rivers are Sindhu (73 times), Saraswati (19 times), Ganga (twice), Yamuna
(thrice) and Sarayu (twice).
● According to the Rigveda, the Saraswati was the most pious river. In the Rig Veda,
Saraswati is referred as Matetama (best of all mothers), Devitama (best of all goddesses) and
Naditama (best of all rivers).
● Some of the prominent rivers mentioned in the Rigveda include-

River RigVedic name Region

Indus Sindhu Punjab
Ravi Parushini, Iravati Punjab
Jhelum Vitasta Punjab
Chenab Asikni Punjab
Beas Vipas Punjab
Sutlej Sutudri Punjab
Gomati Gumal Afghanistan
Kurram Krumu Afghanistan
 Kabul Khubha Afghanistan
Swath Suvastu Afghanistan
Ghaggar Drishadvati Rajasthan
Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
Ganga Ganga Uttar Pradesh
Sarayu Guljaram Uttarakhand

Note:

● River Narmada is not mentioned in RigVeda.

● Early Vedic Aryans were never exposed to seas whereas the references of 'Samudra' in
RigVeda is attributed to the confluence of rivers, not sea.

Economy

● The Early Vedic society was pastoral; cattle rearing was the dominant occupational activity.
○ A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce.

● Hymns of the Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic
society. This provides evidence that-
○ They domesticated animals like cows (referred 176 times in Rigveda), oxen,
horses (215 times), camels, goats, sheep etc. for the purposes of milk, meat and
hides.
○ Elephants were rarely domesticated.
○ In wild animals lion was frequently referred but not tiger.

Do You Know?
Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau).
● Cattle was the chief measure of wealth, and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was
called ‘gomat’.
● The terms used for conflicts and battles in this period were gavishti, gavesana, gavyat, etc
○ ‘Gavishti’ means ‘In search of cows’.
● The raja or the chief is called the ‘gopati’ or one who protects cows.
● ‘Godhuli’ is used as a term for a measure of time.
● Distance is called ‘Gavyuti’.
● A daughter is called ‘Duhitr’ or one who milks the cows.
● Kinship units are labelled as ‘gotra’.

All these terms are derived from the word gau and suggest that social relations and all-important
areas of Rigvedic life centred round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, cow
pens, dairy products and domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers.

Agriculture

● The evidence for agriculture in comparison with pastoral activities in the early portions is
meager and mostly late insertions.
○ A few references show that they had knowledge of agriculture and practiced it to
supplement their food requirements.
 ● Agriculture was their secondary economic activity for subsistence.
○ Note-Sapta Sindhu region received low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the
Rigveda are known to change their courses frequently. This along with lack of iron
tools and implements had restricted Early Vedic people to take up large-scale
cultivation.

● Crops-They produced yava (modern jau or barley), which was rather a generic word for
cereals.

○ Apart from ‘Yava’ or barley, no other grains are mentioned in RigVeda.

● Agricultural Technology-The Early Vedic people had no knowledge of iron technology and
the only metal referred in RigVeda is 'Aya' (copper either in its pure form or alloyed form).
○ Copper did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements.
○ Agricultural tools mentioned in the Rigveda are- langala or sira (the plough), the
wooden phala (ploughshare), Khanitra (hoe), the datra (sickle) and the parasue
(axe).
○ Fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practised.

Do You Know?
Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the Early Vedic society. Tribal
conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to the victorious chiefs by the
defeated or the subordinate groups. The rest of the clansmen of the victorious tribe had a share in
the spoils and booty won in the war. The chief also fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during
ceremonial occasions. Thus, Historians consider RigVedic economy as a ‘Gift economy’

Note: There was no concept of private property based on land-ownership in RigVedic Period.

Trade and commerce

● Apart from cattle-rearing and small-scale cultivation, people were engaged in many other
economic activities. Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltry
etc. were some such activities. The products of these activities were exchanged through
barter. However, cows were the most favoured medium of exchange.

Society

Structure of Society

● The basic social unit was the Kula, or the family, and the Kulapa i.e. ‘one who protects the
family’ denoted the eldest male member or the head of the family.
● The family was part of a larger grouping called vis or clan.
● The clans settled in villages or grama.
● One or more than one clans made jana or tribe and the chief of the tribe was the raja or the
gopati. The jana was the largest social unit.

○ All the members of a clan were related to each other by blood relation.
○ The membership of a tribe was based on birth and not on residence in a certain area.
 Tribe (Jana), Head of the Tribe (Rajan) Tribal Unit/Clan (Vis), Village (Grama), Family
(Kula), Head of the family (Kulapa).

Nature of Society

● The Early Vedic society was a tribal and largely an egalitarian society.
○ Social relations were based on kinship ties.
○ There was no caste division.
○ Occupation was not based on birth and members of a family could adopt different
occupations.
● However, certain differences did exist during the period.
○ Society was economically stratified, and we do find references to rich people
possessing chariots, cattle, etc. and making generous gifts of them.
■ Certain practices during this period, such as concentration of larger share
of the war booty in the hands of the chiefs and priests resulted in the
creation of some inequalities within a tribe during the later part of this Vedic
phase.
○ Gradually, the Rig Vedic tribals society was divided into three groups- warriors,
priests and the ordinary people.
■ The sudra category came into existence only towards the end of the Rigvedic
period.
● This means that the division of society in the early Vedic period
was not sharp. This is indicated by the following verse in the
Rigveda: “I am a poet, my father is a physician and my mother
grinds grain upon the stone. Striving for wealth, with varied plans,
we follow our desires like cattle.”
○ Varna or colour was the basis of initial differentiation between the Vedic and
non-Vedic people. Rigveda mentions arya varna and dasa varna.

The authors of the Rigveda distinguished themselves from other groups whom they called Dasas
and Dasyus. The Dasas are described as dark, full-lipped, snub-nosed, worshippers of the phallus
and of hostile speech. They were rich in cattle and lived in fortified strongholds.
● Dasas were, also mentioned in ancient Iranian literature, probably a branch of early Aryans.
● Dasyus were original inhabitants of the country, possibly phallus worshipers.
● References of Trasadasyu, an Aryan chief who overpowered Dasyus, and 'dasyuhatya'
(slaughter of Dasyus) were found in RigVeda.
● Aryans were soft towards Dasas and were hostile towards Dasyus.

Rigveda also mentions another group of people called the Panis who were wealthy in cattle
treasures.

● Occupation-Rig Veda mentions various occupational groups such as those of weavers,

smiths, carpenters, leather workers, chariot-makers, priests etc. The chariot-makers occupied
special social status and Bronze-smiths and carpenters were frequently referred to in RigVeda.
○ Takshan refers to the carpenter and rathakara refers to the chariot maker.
○ The weaver was called as 'Vaya' whereas the Charakha was called as 'Tasar'.
 ○ The goldsmith was called as 'Hiranyakar' who used to make Jewellery of gold, both
for human and horses.
○ There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda.
○ There are multiple references of slaves.
● Trade: The trade was on the levels of exchanges and involved only “barter system”.
○ The people involved in trade was called as 'Pani'.
○ Cows were the most favoured medium of exchange.
● Society was patriarchal.
○ The birth of a son was the common desire of the people.
○ The importance given to the male members is reflected in the Rigvedic hymns,
where the desire for a son is a constant prayer.

Do You Know?
● Vedic Aryans used to wear colourful cloths of cotton and wool. Such colourful cloths were
embroidered by women, known as Peshaskari.
● The dress of Aryans consisted of: Nivi (Loin cloth), Vas (all over cover like chadar),
Adhivas (covered upper body).
● The head was tied by a turban or a headgear or 'Pagri'.
● 'Uttariya' was worn both by men and women.
● The popular drink of the Aryans was ‘somaras’.

Position of Women

● Comparatively, the women in Early Vedic society enjoyed a respectable position.

● Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but both polygamy and polyandry were also
present.
o Marriages took place after attaining maturity. After marriage the wife went to her
husband’s house.
● Though Sati was mentioned , it was never practiced in a strict sense and was only symbolic.
● There were no references of child marriage.
● There are few references to widow remarriage.
○ Niyoga (levirate)-marrying the husband's younger brother after the death of one's
husband was allowed.
● Women were educated and they had access to the tribal assemblies. There are also instances
of women who composed hymns.
○ Learned women, who chose the path of Vedic studies, were called 'brahmavadinis'.
○ Brahmavadins viz. Lopamudra, Gosha and Apala had contributed to the hymns of
RigVeda.

Do You Know?

RigVeda mentions 22 female scholars and sages that include -Ghosha, Lopamudra, Sulabha
Maitreyi, Gargi Kakshivati, Dakshina Prajapathya, Vishvavar, Atreyi, Godha,, Apala, Yami
Vivasvathi, Lopamudra, Romasha Svanya,, Aditi Dakshayeni,, Ratri Bharadwaja, Vasukra Pathni,
Surya Savitri, Indrani, Sarma Devasuni, Urvashi, Shashwati, Angirasi, and Sri Laksha.
Polity

● The polity of the early vedic period was a tribal one where democratic principles were
generally predominant.
● We have mentioned above that the chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana. The
chief of jana was the political leader called rajan.
○ The post of the chief was not hereditary. The tribe generally elected him.
■ Though the succession in one family was known but that was not based on
the rule of primogeniture (i.e., the eldest son acquiring the position).
● The main function of the rajan was to protect the jana and cattle from the enemies. He was
helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana and
parishad.
○ Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies.
■ All aspects of life were discussed in these assemblies. These may include
wars, distribution of the spoils of wars, judicial and religious activities etc.
Thus these assemblies in a way limited the powers of the chiefs. Interestingly,
women were also allowed to participate in the deliberations of the sabha and
samiti.

Tribal Assemblies of Early Vedic Period

● It was the council of elders of the clan.
Sabha ● Referred as 'Narista'-meaning its resolutions cannot be denied.
● Women had special representation in this assembly.

● It was the General assembly of the entire clan.

Samiti ● Its most important function was the election of Rajan.

● Rigveda refers to this assembly 122 times- probably it might be the most
important one.
● This assembly was a kind of dispute resolutionary body, but was not
directly involved in administrative functions.
Vidhata ● It took up the task of distribution and re-distribution of wealth among the
clan.
● Women had special representation in this assembly.

● No much information is available regarding this assembly.

Gana ● It also participated in distribution of wealth of the clan.

Functionaries:
In the day to day administration, the king was assisted by the following functionaries:
● Purohita-He was the most important functionary.The purohita assisted and advised the chief
on various matters.
○ His role also included to offer prayers and perform rituals. Two priests who played a
major part in the time of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
● Senapati- He was the next important functionary. He assisted Rajan in waging wars.
 ● Vrajapati-He was the officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture lands. He led the heads
of the families called kulapas or the heads of the fighting hordes/units called gramanis to
battle.
● Gramani- He was the head of village or fighting hordes/units, He was referred as
'Rajakarte' (king-maker) in RigVeda.
● Takshan, the carpenter and rathakara, the chariot maker were responsible for making
chariots.

Note:
● There is no official mentioned as a collector of taxes.
○ The people offered to the chief what is called bali- It was just a voluntary
contribution made by the ordinary tribesmen on special occasions.
● Rig veda does not mention any officer for administering justice.
○ But it was not an ideal society.-There were cases of theft and burglary and especially
theft of cows is heard. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial
activities.
● Army- The sena or army was not a permanent fighting group.
○ In times of war, Rajan mustered a militia whose military functions were performed
by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.
○ The warrior category was the ‘rajanya’.

All this shows that the early Vedic polity was an uncomplicated system based on the support and
active participation of all the tribesmen. This situation, however, changed during the later Vedic
phase.

Tribal Conflicts
● Possession of cattle and the pastoral lands was the bone of contention between different
groups and led to occasional intertribal fights and conflicts.
○ When gramas clashed with one another, it caused Sangrama (war).
● The most decisive intra-tribal conflict (Gavisti) referred in RigVeda is Dasarajna( Battle
of Ten Kings).

Dasarajna( The Battle of Ten Kings)

● This battle was fought on the banks of river Parushini (Ravi).

● The battle was fought between the Bharata tribe and a confederation of 5 Aryan and 5
non-Aryan tribes led by the Puru tribe.
○ 5 Aryan Tribes were-Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu and Druhyu.
○ 5 Non-Aryan Tribes were-Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin.
● This battle is also known as “Priests' conflict”, since Sudasa of Bharata tribe was
supported by Vasista while Purukutsa was supported by Viswamitra.
● Reason for the battle-There was a dispute among these tribes in matters of cattle issue,
river water sharing and control over pastures of Sapta Sindhu region.
● Outcome- Bharata tribe won the battle and this battle had established the supremacy of
Bharata tribe.

Religion
● The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda.
 ● Rig Vedic religion is materialistic in nature-The prayers to propitiate gods for physical
protection and for material gains were the main concerns of the Rigvedic people.
● The Vedic religion was sacrificial in nature i.e., sacrifices or yajnas were performed:
○ To invoke the gods, in order to grant boons;
○ Victory in battles, or
○ For acquisition of cattle, sons etc.

RigVedic Gods

● Early Vedic people worshipped the natural forces around them like wind, water, rain,
thunder, fire etc.
● The attributes of the Rigvedic gods reflect the tribal and patriarchal nature of the society
as we do not find many goddesses mentioned in the text.
○ Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male gods.
○ In comparison, we have only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc
which occupy secondary positions in the pantheon.

● The functions of different gods reflect their needs in the society.

○ Since the Rigvedic people were engaged in wars with each other they worshipped
Indra as a god. He is the most frequently mentioned god in the Rigveda. He carried
the thunderbolt and was also respected as a weather god who brought rains.
○ Maruts the god of storm aided Indra in the wars in the way tribesmen aided their
leader in the tribal wars.
○ Agni, the fire god was the god of the home and was considered an intermediary
between gods and men.
○ Soma was associated with plants and herbs. Soma was also a plant from which an
intoxicating juice was extracted. This juice was drunk at sacrifices.
○ Varuna, another important deity, was the keeper of the cosmic order known as rita.
This rita was an important aspect of tribal set-up.
○ Pushan was the god of the roads, herdsmen and cattle. In the life of the pastoral
nomads, this god must have been very important.

Other gods were similarly associated with other aspects of nature and life.

RigVedic Gods

● Most important God of Early Vedic people.

Indra ● RigVeda devoted 250 hymns to him.
● Indra was the god of strength and the god of thunder.

● Varuna is water god.

Varuna ● Upholder of Rta (cosmic and moral order).
● Punishes immoral people with Pasha.
● Aryans appealed him for forgiveness.
● RigVeda devoted 20 hymns to him.
● Agni is Fire god.
Agni ● Priest of gods (intermediary between men and god).
● RigVeda devoted 200 hymns to him.
 ● Soma is god of plants.
Soma ● King of gods.
● RigVeda devoted 120 hymns to him.
Other Vayu(Wind god); Marutha( God of storms); Yama(God of death); Aswins(Healers of
prominent diseases), pushan(Protector of cattle), Dyaus (God of Heaven).
Gods
RigVedic Aditi(Earth goddess); Ushas(Goddess of dawn), Aranyasi(Goddess of forests);
Godesses Savitri(Goddess of light); Ila(Mother of cattle herds).

Later Vedic Period (1000 - 600 BC)

● The period that followed Rig Vedic period is known as the Later Vedic period. This period is
also marked as Iron- PGW Age because of the use of iron in agriculture and painted grey
ware (PGW).
● The history of this period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were completed after the
age of the Rig Veda.

Geographical Expansion
● The literature of this period mentions the Arabian sea, the Vindhya range and the Northern plains
of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
● During this period, the Aryans moved into Eastward and southward regions.
○ In the East, Aryans inhabited the Awadh region and after that they entered into Bihar.
A proof of the Eastward march was given in the Satapatha Brahmana through the story
of Agni and Videha.
● The Later Vedas give three broad divisions of India:
○ Aryavarta (Northern India);
○ Madhyadesa (Central India); and
○ Dakshina Patha (Southern India).

Major Kingdoms of the Later Vedic Period

● Panchal (Bareilly, Badayun & Farrukhabad in U.P.)
● Kushinagar (Eastern region of Uttar Pradesh)
● Kashi (Modem Varanasi)
● Koshal (Faizabad in Uttar Pradesh)
● Southern Madra (Near Amritsar)
● Uttara Madra (Kashmir)
● Eastern Madra (Near Kangra)
● Kekaya (On the bank of Beas River east of Gandhar kingdom)
● Gandhar (Rawalpindi & Peshawar)

Economy

● During the Later Vedic Period, the pastoral economy of the Early Vedic period was replaced
by a sedentary agrarian economy.
Agriculture

● Agriculture was the mainstay of the Later Vedic people. This is largely due to-
○ the establishment of settlements in the most fertile and virgin lands of
Ganga-Yamuna doab and mid-Gangetic valley which are suitable for high
agricultural productivity; and
○ the use of iron tools and agricultural implements in land reclamation.
● The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes. This animal was
extremely useful in ploughing the swampy land.
● The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now
cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet,sugarcane etc.

○ With the beginning of food production agricultural produce began to be offered in

the rituals.

■ Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived
increasingly, came to be used in rituals.

● With the passage of time the Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of seasons,
manuring and irrigation.

All these developments resulted in the substantial enlargement of certain settlements such as
Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic period. These settlements slowly
began to acquire characteristics of towns. Such rudimentary towns inhabited mainly by the chiefs,
princes, priests and artisans were supported by the peasants who could spare for them some part of
their produce voluntarily or involuntarily.

Do You Know?
● Vedic texts refer to rice with multiple names like- Vrihi, Tandula and Sali.
● ‘Godhuma’ denotes wheat.

Use of Iron

● The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the later Vedic period was the
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
○ The iron metal is called Syama or Krishna ayas in the later Vedic texts.
○ Iron implements buried with dead bodies have been discovered in good numbers.
● Archaeological evidence at Baluchistan , Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan has
shown that iron began to be used around 1000 BC which is also the period of later Vedic
literature.

Do You Know?

● The objects which are found in the excavations are iron tipped arrowheads, spearheads, etc.
i.e. weapons of which the largest number comes from the Ahichhatra excavations.
 ● Sickles, hoes, axes are rarely found in the excavations.
● One ploughshare has been reported from Jakhera which probably belongs to the end of
this period.
Thus, from the excavations, it appears that the use of iron was restricted to making weapons and
Iron had not much affected the agricultural operations in the later Vedic period.

Crafts

● The Later Vedic period saw the rise of diverse arts and crafts.
● Some important craftsmen mentioned in the Later Vedic texts include- Vyaya (Weaver),
Kulala(Potter);Tashta(Carpenter),Karmara(Black-smith), Hiranyakara (Gold-smith), and
Rathakara (Chariot-maker).
● Pottery- Black and red ware, Black slipped ware, Painted Grey Ware and Red Ware.

Do You Know?
Archaeologists refer to Aryan culture as PGW (Painted-Grey Ware) Culture. PGW, exclusively
used by Aryans, is thin wheel-made grey to ash-grey pottery, painted with black linear designs on
both the inner and outer surfaces.

Note: Pottery will be discussed in detail in Art and culture classes.

Trade and Commerce

● There was growth of trade and commerce.

○ This led to the rise of urban centers in Indo-Gangetic basin viz., Hastinapur,
Kausambi, Ahichchatra etc
● There was no mention of coined money and the Barter system has continued in economic
transactions.
○ Nishka, Satamana (100 silver units) and Krishala (copper object having fixed
value) were used as means of exchange.
● Money-lending activity had become an important profession.
○ Kusidin (usurer) is referred for the first time in Satapatha Brahmana.

Society

● The family remains the basic unit of the Vedic society. However, its composition underwent
a change.

○ The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-family with three or
four generations living together.

○ The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people having
common gotra descended from a common ancestor and no marriage between the
members of the same gotra could take place.

● Patriarchal Family System-The eldest of male members of the family perceived as the head
of family, called as 'grihapati'.
Varna system

The most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of varna
system.

● The 10th Mandala in Purusha Sukta of Rigveda mentions a clear-cut division of the
society.
● Duties assigned to each varna:
○ Brahman-Teaching, learning, performance and hosting of sacrifice
■ The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period made the
brahmanas very powerful. They conducted various rituals including those
related to different stages of agricultural operations. This made them all the
more important.
○ Kshatriya-Learning, hosting sacrifice and protection of people and land
■ The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with
brahmanas controlled all aspects of life.
○ Vaishya-Trade and agriculture; the agriculturists, traders and artisans belonged to this
varna
■ The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and
taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas.
○ Shudra- They were at the bottom of the social hierarchy and were ordained to be in
the service of the three upper varnas.
■ They were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara (investiture with
sacred thread necessary to acquire education). This can be construed as the
beginning of the imposition of disabilities on the shudras as well as the
beginning of the concept of ritual pollution.
● The other three varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya) were
entitled to such a ceremony and hence they were known as dvijas.

Chatur-Varnashrama system

Another important institution that began to take shape in this period was ashrama or different stages of
life.In this, a person's life is divided into four parts and he was assigned some duties with respect to
his age:

1. Brahmacharya ashrama-Studentship
2. Grihastha ashrama-Householder
3. Van-prastha ashram-Partial retirement from household life
4. Sanayas ashrama -Complete retirement from social life

Concept of Purushartha

● Every man was expected to follow four main duties in his life: Artha (economic values),
Kama (pleasure), Dharma (righteousness), and Moksha (liberation).

System of Marriage

● Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was frequent.

● 'Inter-Varna' marriages were disliked, whereas 'same gotra/ family’ marriages were forbidden.
 ● There were two types of legalized structures of marriages:
○ Anuloma marriage was used to perform between bridegroom from higher Varna and
bride from lower Varna.
○ Pratiloma marriage was used to perform between bridegroom from lower varna and
bride from higher varna.
● Asta-vivaha -This refers to the eight types of marriages prevalent during the period.

Astavivaha
S.No. Type of Marriage Description

1 Brahma Most idealistic marriage; duly dowried, and marriage in same Varna
with the consent of parents

2 Daiva Giving daughter to a priest in lieu of dakshina

3 Arsa Marriage with a token bride-price of a cow and a bull

4 Prajaprathya Marriage without dowry or bride-price

5 Gandharva Clandestine marriage with the consent of the both parties; meant for
kshatriyas
6 Asura Marriage by purchase which was meant for Vysyas

7 Rakshasa Marriage by capture which was also meant for Kshatriyas

8 Paisacha Marriage by seducing girl with intoxicants, meant for Shudras

Note: First four marriages were permissible to Brahmans.

Position of Women

● This period onwards status of women had started deteriorating.Some restrictions on

women appeared during this period.

○ In a text women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine.

○ In another text a daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows.

○ The participation of women in public meetings was restricted.

○ Husband received the status as a Patiparmeshwar (God).
○ According to the Satapatha Brahmana, a wife was supposed to eat only after the
husband had finished eating.
○ Manusmriti laid down various restrictions regarding the traditional rights for women
in his book Manusmriti.
 ○ Hindu Dharmashastras denied offering prayers and sacrifices, practices of penances
and undertake religious pilgrimages for women.

Polity

The changes in the material and social life during the later Vedic period led to changes in the political
sphere as well.

● The small tribal states (Janas) of Rig Vedic period were replaced by large territorial states
(Janapada).
○ Puru and Bharata tribes of RigVedic period were merged to form Kuru rajya.
○ Srijanya, Krivi, Turuvasa, Somaka, Keshin tribes were merged into Panchala
kingdom.
● Monarchy-The chiefship had become hereditary and tribal polity was now replaced by a
monarchical system of governance.
○ The idea of the divine nature of kingship gets a mention in the literature of this
period. The brahmanas helped the chiefs in this process
○ To assert his authority over subjects, the king began to perform public rituals to get
religious sanctity and to secure titles like Samrat, Virat, and Bhoja.
● As the chiefs became more powerful, the authority of the popular assemblies started
waning.
○ The officers were appointed to help the chief in administration and they acquired the
functions of the popular assemblies as main advisors.
● A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element of the political structure during
this period.

Do You Know?
There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship.
● Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of origin
of kingship
● Taittiriya Brahmana explained the divine origin of kingship.

● There were five Types of State System that include-

○ Rajya(Central kingdom) - Ruled by the Raja
○ Bhojya (Southern kingdom)- Ruled by the Bhoja
○ Swarajya (Western kingdom)- Ruled by Svarat
○ \Vairajya (Northern kingdom)- Ruled by the Virat
○ Samrajya (Eastern kingdom)- Ruled by the Samrat.
● Tax system-The king levied taxes like ‘Bali’, ‘sulka’ and ‘Bhaga’.

Bureaucracy

There were officers/ministers known as ‘Ratnins’ to assist the king in the administration. Some
important Ratnins and other officials include :

● Purohita -Chief Priest, also called the Rastra Gopa

● Senani-Supreme Commander of the Army
● Vrajapati-Officer Incharge of the Pasture land
 ● Jivagribha-Police Officer
● Spasas/ Dutas-Spies, who sometimes worked as messengers
● Gramani-Leader of the village
● Madhya Masi-Mediator of disputes
● Kulapati-Family head
● Bhagadugha-Tax Collector
● Sangrahitri-Treasurer
● Mahishi -Chief Queen
● Suta-Charioteer
● Govikartana-Keeper of forests and games
● Akshavapa-Accountant
● Sthapati-Chief Judge
● Gramyavadin-Village Judge
● Rathakara -Chariot maker
● Adhikrita-Village officer- lowest in the rank

Note: Satapata Brahmana calls Suta and Gramani as 'Arajano Rajakarte' (non-royal king makers).

All these elements do not show that a janapada or territorial state with all its attributes had emerged in
the later Vedic period but the process has started and soon after the vedic period in the sixth century
BC the rise of sixteen mahajanpadas in the northern India is noticed.

Religion
As in the later Vedic period agriculture had become an important activity of the people. Changes in
the material life naturally resulted in a change in their attitude towards gods and goddesses too.
Continuous interactions with the local non-Aryan population also contributed to these changes.

● Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra (Trinity) which were smaller deities in the Rigveda became
extremely important.
○ Rigvedic Gods like Indra, Varuna and Surya became unpopular.
○ All the Natural forces were made subordinate to the Trinity were reduced to the
position of Astadikpalas.
● Pushan became the God of the shudra, who was the protector of cattle in the early Vedic
period.

● The religion became very complex in the Later Vedic period.

○ Speculative philosophies like transmigration of soul, salvation, karma etc began to
dominate Vedic religion.
● Increase in the frequency and number of the yajna.
○ This was probably the result of the growing importance of a class of brahmanas
and their efforts to maintain their supremacy in the changing society.
○ These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of dana and
dakshina.
● Some of the important yajnas were -
○ Asvamedha- meant to establish kings supremacy over other kings
○ Rajasuya-Consecration ceremony which conferred supreme power to the kings
○ Vajapeya -Chariot race which was meant to re-establish a king’s supremacy over his
people.
 ● Sacrifices became far more important in rituals.
○ Sacrifices varied and codified with various types of rules and regulations i.e.
karmakanda.
○ The right of performance of sacrifices became the monopoly of the priestly class.
People began to oppose these sacrifices during the later Vedic period itself. A large number of
cattle and other animals which were sacrificed at the end of each yajna must have hampered
the growth of economy. Therefore, a path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was
recommended for happiness and welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the
Upnishads.
● Private rituals-Shodasakarmas (16 rituals) were expected to be performed by an individual to
get salvation during his lifetime from conception to cremation.

Shodasakarmas (16 rituals)

S.No. Ritual Description

1 Garbhadana A ceremony to promote conception in women

2 Pumsavana A ceremony to procure a male child

3 Simantonyaya A ceremony to ensure the safety of child in womb

4 Jatakarma A birth ceremony before cutting umbilical chord; an astrologer is called on

to interpret future of the child
5 Namakarna A ceremony of naming child

6 Nishkramana Child is taken outside house to get exposed to the sun

7 Annaprasana A ceremony to introduce solid food to a child

8 Chudakarma Tonsure ceremony

9 Karnabheda A piercing ceremony
10 Vidyarambha A ceremony to introduce formal learning to a child

11 Upanayana Initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of three higher Varnas

12 Vedarambha A ceremony to start Vedic education

13 Keshanta Shaving of head at gurukul

14 Samavartana Home-coming ceremony from student-hood

15 Vivaha Marriage ceremony

16 Antyesti Funeral rites by son

Vedic Literature
Vedic literature is classified into two sets of literature: The Shruti and The Smriti.

Shruti Literature- The term ‘Shruti’ literally means “what was heard”. This literature, also known
as Vedic Literature, is thought to be eternal and thought to be revealed by gods to rishis. They are
orally transmitted for many centuries and later compiled into written texts. Shruti literature includes-
Vedas; Brahmanas ; Aranyakas; and Upanishads,. These are believed to be during 1500 BC-500
BC.

Smriti Literature- The term ‘Smriti’ literally means “that which was remembered”. These texts are
usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down but constantly revised. These are believed to
be written after Vedas i.e. post 1000 BC. The Smriti Literature includes- Vedangas, Shutras,
Puranas, Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata); Dharshana and Upavedas.

Shruti Literature

Vedas There are four Vedas namely- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and
Atharvan Veda. RigVeda, Sama Veda and Yajurveda are collectively known
as 'Vedatrayi'. Atharva Veda is a later addition and believed to be composed
by non-Aryans. Many scholars consider Bharatamuni's “Natyasastra” or
sometimes, Mahabharata as Panchama Veda (5th Veda).

(1)Rig Veda- It's the earliest of entire Vedic literature. It consists of

hymns(mantras) addressed to nature gods like Varuna (rain), Vayu (wind),
Indira (thunder), Surya(sun), and Usha (dawn).
● It is in verse form and contains 1028 hymns divided into 10
Mandalas / Books. Each Mandala is ascribed to a particular family of
seers. For instance, III Mandala is associated with Viswamitra and VI
Mandala is to Vasista.
● Famous Gayatri mantra which is dedicated to Goddess Savitri
(Goddess of light) is in III Mandala.
● Dasarajna (Battle of Ten Kings) is described in VII Mandala.
● Purusha Sukta which gives the first reference of Varna system is in
X Mandala. It explains that four Varnas were born from the mouth,
arms, belly and legs of the Creator respectively.
 (2)Yajur Veda-It consists of hymns for rituals and sacrifices. It also
prescribes the procedures to be adopted at the time of performing different
sacrifices.
● It consists of two parts namely – Krishna Yajurveda (in prose form)
and Shukla Yajurveda (in verse form).

(3)Sama Veda- The Samaveda is the Rig Veda set in musical form. It consists
of 1063 hymns from the Rigveda arranged in keeping with the requirements
of melody.

(4)Atharvan Veda-It contains 711 hymns divided into 20 Khandas. Most of

these hymns are used to ward off evil spirits. It describes the popular beliefs
and superstitions of the humble folk due to non-Aryan influence.

Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and
Brahmanas they elaborately describe the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their
mystic meanings. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant – RigVeda (2), Sama
Veda (10), Yajurveda (6) and Atharvan Veda(1). Important Brahmanas and
associated vedas include-
● Aithareya Brahmana- RigVeda
● Taittariya Brahmana-Krishna Yajurveda
● Satapata Brahmana-Shukla Yajurveda
● Tandyamana Brahmana-Sama veda
● Gopatha Brahmana-Atharvan Veda

Aranyakas Aranyakas are the appendices ( concluding portions) of the Brahmanas. They
deal with philosophical doctrines and mysticism to answer the various
complex questions related to human life. The word Aranyaka means 'the
forest' and these are called 'forest books' written mainly for the hermits and
students living in the jungles.

Upanishads Literally means ' sitting at the foot of' guru to get knowledge, they are the
concluding portions of Vedas, thus referred as “Vedantas”. They are in prose
as well as verse form. .

● Upanishads talk about the philosophical concepts and principles such

as Karma (right action), Atman (true self or soul), Brahman (ultimate
reality) and moksha (liberation from the birth and death cycle).
● They also contain Vedic doctrines that explain the process of
self-realisation through practices such as yoga and meditation.

There are 108 Upanishads classified according to the Vedas-10 out of them
are considered as 'Dasa or Mukhya Upanishads'. The names of Mukhya
Upanishads along with associated Vedas include-

● Aithareya-Rigveda
● Kena and Chandogya-Samaveda
 ● Isa and Brihadaranyaka- Shukla Yajurveda
● Katha and Taittariya-Krishna Yajurveda
● Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya-Atharvan Veda

Upanishads Vs Vedas
● The Upanishads contain the essence of the Vedas. They are the
concluding portions of the Vedas and are the source of the Vedanta
philosophy.
● The Vedas start out as mythical and ritual texts. Whereas Upanishads
have been telling man, what it is that he should do, what it is that he
should not do; what paths, if adopted, will lead to good, what paths if
adopted will lead him to bad, and so on.
● The thoughtful way of Upanishad is deemed to be a bit more
advanced than the outward-looking nature of Vedas. Each Upanishad
represents any of the four Vedas, thereby explaining the profound
truths hidden in that Veda with an inner looking attitude.
● Upanishads laid the foundation for various philosophical systems that
developed in India. The three most famous Vedanta systems still
prevalent in India are Advaita, Dvaita and Vishishtaadvaita, which
had borrowed the ideologies from the important Upanishads.
● Upanishads are key texts that helped to develop and grow Samkya,
Yoga, Mimamsa, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Note-
● Our national motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is a part of a mantra from
Mundaka Upanishad.
● Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains discussion between Yagnavalka
and his two wives, Gargi and Maitreyi.
● The first reference of Ahimsa is in Chandogya Upanishad.

Smriti Literature
Vedangas Vedangas are the supplements/limbs of Vedas and help in understanding the
Vedas. There are 6 such Vedangas-

1. Shiksha- It deals with the study of sounds and

pronunciation(Phonetics) of Vedic hymns.
2. Kalpa-It deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual
aspect of the Vedas.
3. Vyakarana-It deals with Sanskrit grammar used in Vedic hymns.
4. Nirukta -It deals with etymology (study of origin of words) of the
words used in Vedas.
5. Chhanda -It deals with metrics( pattern in which one must recite any
mantra).
6. Jyotisa-It deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of fixing
auspicious date and time to perfom vedic rites and rituals etc.

Sutras Kalpasutra is based on Vedic literature and has four sub divisions:

1. Srauta Sutras-They deal with major rituals such as the asvamedha and
the rajasuya.
2. Griha Sutras -They lay down the norms for domestic rituals including
rites of passage.
3. Dharma Sutras -They lay down social norms and conduct.
4. Sulba Sutras-They lay down principles of geometry that were used for
constructing the sacrificial altar.

Puranas Puranas are mythological works that propagate religious and spiritual messages
through parables and fables. These Puranas contain important geographical
information/ histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and
dynastic genealogies(dynastic history).

● There were eighteen major Puranas: the Markandeya, Vayu,

Brahmanda, Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagvata, Kurma, Vamana, Linga,
Varaha, Padma, Narada, Agni, Garuda, Brahma, Skanda,
Brahmavaivarta and the Bhavisya Purana

Puranas as Scripture of Masses

● The Puranas were recited in popular gatherings and were generally

considered as the scripture of the masses.
● The Sanskrit of the Vedas is archaic and difficult to master; the subtle
metaphysics of the Upanishads is difficult for a common person to
understand; the Puranas, hence, are of special value as they present
Vedic truths in a simple manner.
 ● The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the
teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God,
through concrete examples, myths, stories, legends, lives of saints,
kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical
events.
● The Puranic literature is encyclopedic, and it includes diverse topics
such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings,
heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples,
medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as
well as theology and philosophy.
● The Puranas not only educated the masses and infused them with noble
ideals, they also tactfully solved social and economic problems that
arose due to social upheavals and foreign invasions. This way, Puranas
disseminated secular knowledge through legends and myths among the
masses during the ancient period in India.

Epics There are two Mahakavyas(Epics) namely-Ramayana and

Mahabharata-both seem to have been finally compiled by 400 AD. They
reflect social, economic and political conditions from the 10th century BC to
the 4th century AD.

(1)Ramayana-It is considered as the Adikavya and believed to be composed

by Valmiki. The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses than
12,000 verses and was finally expanded to 24,000 verses in 7 Kandas(sections).

(2)Mahabharata-It is believed to be composed by Ved Vyasa. It originally

consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita (a song dealing with
victory). These later got expanded to 24,000 verses and came to be known as
Bharata because it contained the stories of the descendents of one of the
earliest Vedic tribes called Bharata. A further expanded version of 1,00,000
verses was named Mahabharata in 18 Parvas(books) plus Harivamsa
supplement.

Note-Bhagavad Gita is part of Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata.

Dharshana There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana. They all
propagate the virtues of life.

1. Nyaya by Gautama-It is a school of logic and realism.It held that

liberation is gained through right knowledge i.e., by negating both
illusion and unhappiness using logic.
2. Vaishesika by Kanada-It postulated that all the objects in the physical
universe are reducible to ‘paramanu’ (atom). It held that knowledge
and liberation was achievable by fully recognizing the atomic nature of
the Universe and its difference from the soul. This atomic theory
marked the beginning of Physics in India.
 3. Purvamimansa by Jaimini-It regards Vedas as eternal and rituals are
of primary importance. Thus it recommended the performance of Vedic
rituals and sacrifices to attain salvation (ritualism).
4. Sankhya by Kapila-It has no faith in existence of God. It held that
world was created and evolved by Nature/Prakriti. It further asserts that
soul can attain liberation only through real knowledge that is to be
acquired through observation and inference.
5. Yoga by Patanjali-It believes in salvation through meditation and
physical application. It had influenced the development of physiology
and anatomy in ancient times.
6. Uttaramimansa by Bhadarayana-It is the summary of the teachings
of the Upanishads. It dealt with metaphysical concepts like
aatma-brahma, karma doctrine, meditation, devotional Hinduism etc. It
held that brahma is reality and everything else is myth.

Upavedas There are four Upavedas.

1. Dhanurveda (deals with the art of warfare)-It is upaveda to Rigveda.

2. Gandharvaveda (deals with the music)-It is part of Yajurveda.
3. Silpaveda (deals with are and architecture)-It is part of Samaveda.
4. Ayurveda (deals with medicine)-It is part of Atharvana Veda.

Dharmasastras are the source of religious law for Hindus. There are eighteen
Dharmasastras main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of Manu,
Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those of Vishnu, Daksha,
Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama,
Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

Manusmriti:
● It is the earliest Hindu Law book, dated 2nd -3rd century AD, and
translated into English by William Jones in 1794.
● While 58 verses are attributed to Manu, the remaining 2000+ to his
disciple Bhrigu.
● It is mainly targeted to Brahmans (1034 verses) and Kshatriyas (971
verses).
● Important commentaries on Manusmriti were by Bharuchi (7th -11th c)
and Medhatithi (9th -11th c).

Narada Smriti:
● Dated 100-400 AD, it is known as judicial text par excellence.
● It exclusively deals with procedural and substantive law.

Yagnavalka Smriti:

● It is dated between 3rd and 5th century AD(Guptan period).

● ItIt divides dharma into three categories - Achara, Vyavahara, and
Prayaschitta.
● It is more advanced and unconventional Law book so that it allows
widows to inherit property.
UPSC Previous Years Mains Questions

Prelims

1. Which one of the following four Vedas contains an account of magical charms and spells?

(a) Rig-veda

(b) Yajur-Veda

(c) Atharva-Veda

(d) Sama-veda

Ans:( C)

2. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people,
which of the following statements is/are correct?

(1) Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley
Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.

(2) Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and
iron.

(3) Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people
having been aware of this animal.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (C)

Mains

1. Describe the social life of the later Vedic people. How was it different from the Rig Vedic life.
2. Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form of social exchange in Vedic India.
3. Evaluate the conceptual basis of the Vedic deities.
4. Evaluate the contributions of the Puranas in disseminating secular knowledge among the
masses in ancient India.
5. “The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of Vedic thought.” Discuss.
6. “Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.” Critically examine.