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18ME42 ATD Module 1
18ME42 ATD Module 1
Gas power cycles are thermodynamic cycles, in which the working substance
remains a gas throughout the cycle of operation. Analysis of gas power cycles is an
important application of thermodynamics, as they are involved in the conversion of
some heat input into mechanical work output. They form the basis for the operation
of heat engines.
a. Air is used as the working substance, it behaves as perfect gas, ie., it obeys
the gas laws and has constant specific heats. (C p , and C v )
b. The engine operates in a closed cycle. The cylinder is filled with constant
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amount of air and the same air is used repeatedly.
c. No chemical reaction takes place in the engine cylinder. Heat is supplied or
rejected by bringing a hot body or a cold body in contact with the cylinder
head at appropriate time during the process.
d. Compression and expansion processes are adiabatic (insulated) and
internally reversible (no mechanical or friction loss).
Note The efficiency calculated under the above discussed ideal conditions is known
as ideal efficiency or air standard efficiency. However, under actual conditions
variations occur because air and fuel mixture is used as the working substance, intake
and exhaust conditions vary, and also actual combustion process is different. Also
losses due to mechanical and frictional effects need to be taken into account. Thus
the actual efficiency of the cycle is always less than the air standard efficiency, and
this is measured by a term known as relative efficiency.
The present chapter deals with the following gas power cycles: Carnot cycle, Otto
cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion (Limited pressure) cycle and Stirling cycle.
1. The working substance essentially behaves like a perfect gas and follows the characteristic
equation for a perfect gas, Thus, if p is the pressure and V is the volume of the gas then,
2. The Specific heat of the substance at constant volume (Cv) and constant pressure (Cp)
remains the same during the cycle at all temperatures and pressures.
Thus, for air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
R = Cp - Cv and ᵧ = 1.4
3. The internal energy and enthalpy per unit mass of the working fluid at any point is given
by, u = Cv*T and h = Cp*T
4. The cycles are composed of reversible processes. Thus heat absorption and heat rejection
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takes place in a reversible fashion and if required instantaneously also. Similarly
compression and expansion processes are isentropic or reversible adiabatic such that
change in entropy is zero either during compression or expansion.
Thus work done for a non-flow process is given by
5. No heat exchange takes place between the working substance and the engine walls either
during compression or expansion process.
6. No chemical reaction is taken in to account and the working; substance doesn’t undergo
any chemical changes.
7. The heat developed during combustion is considered as heat added from an outside source.
8. Heat carried away by the exhaust gasses is considered as heat taken away from the
working substance.
9. Any kind of friction is absent and kinetic and potential energy of the working substance is
neglected.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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reversibility and cycles. He further introduced that the temperatures of heat source and heat
sink are the basis for determining the thermodynamic efficiency of a reversible cycle. He
showed that all such cycles must reject heat to the sink and efficiency is never 100 percent. To
show a nonexistent reversible cycle, Carnot invented his famous but a hypothetical cycle,
known as Carnot cycle.
Let the cylinder contain 'm' kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-
V and T-S diagrams. The various processes involved in Carnot cycle are discussed below.
The air in the cylinder is heated by bringing the hot body in contact with the cylinder head. The
heat supplied by the hot body at constant temperature T1 is fully absorbed by the air in the
cylinder and this heat is utilized for doing external work (piston movement). In other words, air
expands on heat absorption and does work on the piston causing it to move from top dead center
(TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC).
The heat source (hot body) is removed and an insulating cap is brought in contact with the
cylinder head. Air expands adiabatically and the temperature falls from T2 to T3. The piston
moves to BDC as shown in the Figure.
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−
3
The insulating cap is removed and a cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
The piston removes upwards compressing the air at constant temperature T3.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
The cold body is removed and an insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
The piston moves to the TDC compressing the air adiabatically fro temperature T4 to T1.
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Important Note:
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as a constant volume cycle. Such a cycle is shown on the p-V and T-s diagrams in the Figure.
Otto cycle consists of four processes as shown on P-V and T-S diagrams in Figure.
Let the cylinder contain 'm' kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-V and
T-S diagrams. The various processes involved in Otto cycle are discussed herein.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression
During this process, the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston
moves from BDC to TDC compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder. The temperature of
air rises from T1 to T2.
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Process 3-4 Adiabatic expansion
The hot body is removed and the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
Air expands adiabatically and its temperature falls from T3 to T4. The piston moves towards
BDC.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
Process 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
The insulating cap is removed and the cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head.
Heat is rejected (transferred) to the cold body at constant volume.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
It is evident from the above equation that thermal efficiency of the cycle increases by
increasing the compression ratio, Rc. But use of high compression ratio is limited by the
selection of material, temperature and
combustion problems mainly knocking
in the engine. The variation of engine
efficiency with different compression
ratio of specific heats is shown in
Figure 1.3.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
This cycle was introduced by Rudolph Diesel, which is applicable for slow speed compression
ignition engines or diesel engines. Heat addition takes place at constant pressure and hence the
cycle is also known as constant pressure cycle. This cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic, cycle
pressure process and one constant volume process. Heat rejection takes place during constant
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volume process. Different processes are shown on the p-V and T-s diagram in Figure.
Let the cylinder contain ‘m’ kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-V and T-S
diagrams. The various processes involved in Diesel cycle are discussed below.
Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression
During this process, the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston moves
from BDC to TDC compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder. The temperature of air rises from T 1
to T2.
Temperature rises from T1 to T2.
Pressure rises from p1 to p2.
Volume reduced from V1 to V2.
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Process 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
The insulating cap is removed and the cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder head. Heat is
transferred to the cold body at constant volume.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
1.4 Dual Combustion cycle (Semi Diesel cycle or Limited pressure cycle)
Fig: P-V Diagram and T-S Diagram for Dual combustion cycle
This cycle which incorporates both Otto cycle and Diesel cycles, fits the actual cycle of an oil engine
or the modern high-speed Diesel engines. Heat addition takes place partially at constant volume and partially
at constant pressure. Constant volume heat addition improves the efficiency whereas as constant pressure heat
addition limits the maximum cycle pressure. Hence sometimes this cycle is also known as limited pressure
cycle.
Let the cylinder contain ‘m’ kg of air at its initial condition represented by point 1 on P-V and T-S
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diagrams. The various processes involved in Diesel cycle are discussed below.
The insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston moves from BDC to TDC
compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder.
During this process, the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The piston moves from
BDC to TDC compressing the air adiabatically in the cylinder. The temperature of air rises from T 1 to T2.
Temperature rises from T1 to T2.
Pressure rises from p1 to p2.
Volume reduced from V1 to V2.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Temperature falls from T4 to T5.
Pressure falls from p4 to p5.
Volume increases from V4 to V5.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Thus, dual combustion cycle is a combination of Otto cycle and Diesel cycle. This cycle is a closer
approximation to the behaviour of the actual Otto and Diesel engine, because in actual engines, the
combustion process does not occur exactly at constant volume (Otto cycle) or at constant pressure (Diesel
cycle), but rather as in the dual cycle occurring partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
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1.5 STIRLING CYCLE
The cycle was introduced by Dr. Robert Stirling in 1815, which uses air as a working fluid. The
cycle has two isothermal processes and two constant volume processes. A regenerator adds heat at
constant volume and rejects heat at constant volume between the upper and lower temperature limits.
Regenerator
It consists of a matrix of
sheet iron plates with an air space in
the upper and lower ends. The lower
end is maintained at a higher
temperature by the furnace and the
upper end is maintained at a lower
temperature by water -cooler. The
hot air which is in contact with the
engine cylinder is forced upwards
through the bulky matrix by an
external pump. Hot air is cooled at
constant volume by the cold air at
the upper end at a uniform rate so
that temperature gradient is Fig: Regenerator
approximately a straight line. As
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied thermodynamics (18ME42) Module – 1
the matrix is bulky, the increase in its temperature is very small.
Let us consider m kg of air at its initial conditions represented by point 1 on P-V and T-S
diagrams. The various process involved in stirling cycle is fallows.
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working medium to the external sink.
Temperature remains constant T1 = T2.
Pressure rises from p1 to p2.
Volume reduced from V1 to V2.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GMIT, Bharathinagara
Applied Thermodynamics (18ME42) Module-1
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The process is so controlled that ultimately the air comes to its initial condition 1 and the cycle is completed.
Temperature decreases from T4 toT1.
Pressure decreases from p4 to p1.
Volume remains constant V4 = V1.
Therefore, the work done during the process is, W4−1=0
Heat is rejected during the process. Q4−1=m Cv (T4−T1)
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1.6.1 For same compression ratio (Rc) and heat supplied (Qs)
The super-imposed p-v and t-s diagrams of Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles for same
values of Rc and Qs are shown in Figure 1.8.
On the t-s diagram, the area a-2-3-b representing heat supplied for Otto cycle equals to area a-
2-3'-d for Diesel cycle, and in turn also equals to the area a-2-3"-4"-c. In simple words, heat
supplied is same for all the 3-cycles.
Comparison
• The temperature and pressure attained in Otto cycle is greater (point 3) than that
obtained in Diesel (point 3') and Dual cycle (point 4").
• Heat rejection (QR) in Diesel cycle represented by area a- 1-4'-d is comparatively
grater (maximum).
• Heat rejection (QR) in Otto cycle (area a-1-4-b) is less than the other 2-cycles.
Q S − QR QR
η= =1−
QS QS
Hence, for the same quantity of heat supplied (Qs), Otto cycle has a comparatively
higher efficiency, as heat rejection is comparatively less.
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• Heat rejected by Dual cycle lies in between that of Otto and Diesel cycles.
The super-imposed p-v and t-s diagrams for same; Rc and QR are shown in Figure.
Hence, for the same quantity of QR, Otto cycle has a comparatively higher efficiency.
1.6.3 For same maximum pressure, maximum temperature and Heat rejection
The super-imposed p-v and t-s diagrams for same Pmax, Tmax and QR are shown in Figure.
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The p-v and t-s diagrams for maximum pressure and work output are shown in Figure.
It is clear from p-v diagram, the maximum pressure is same for both Otto and Diesel cycles.
From t-s diagram, for same work output, the area 1-2-3-4 represented by Otto cycle is equal to the area
1-2'-3'-4, which is the work output for Diesel cycle. To achieve this, the entropy at point 3 must be greater
than the entropy at point 3'. Under such condition, the heat rejection for Diesel cycle given by the area a-
1-4`-b is less than that of Otto cycle given by the area a-1 -4-c.
The low heat rejection in Diesel cycle makes it to be more efficient than Otto cycle.
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1.7 IC Engines
An engine or heat engine can be defined as a machine or device that converts
the chemical energy of a fuel into heat energy (by combustion of fuel), and utilizes
this heat energy to perform useful mechanical work. Combustion of fuel can take
place either inside the engine or outside the engine thereby giving a means to classify
the heat engine into two types: Internal combustion engine and External combustion
engine.
If the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder, the engine is
called internal combustion engine, or simply IC engine. Examples include: Petrol
engines, Diesel engines and gas engines. In IC engine, the burning gas inside the
engine cylinder expands and exerts force to the movable component called piston.
The motion from the piston is transferred to the crankshaft by intermediate
mechanisms. The motion obtained at the crankshaft can be used to drive any machine
or devices, or perform any other useful work.
On the other hand, if the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine
cylinder, the engine is called external combustion engine, or simply EC engine.
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Examples include: steam engines, steam turbines and closed cycle gas turbine. EC
engines are commonly used for generating power or electricity, while IC engines are
used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. Discussions related
to EC engines lies outside the scope of the present chapter.
Discussed below are a few common terms involved in the study of IC engines.
• Stroke or Stroke length is the linear distance travelled by the piston when it moves from
top dead centre to bottom dead centre. It is denoted by L. Refer figure 1.1-1
• Bore is the inner diameter of the cylinder. It is denoted by d.
• Stroke volume or Swept volume or Piston displacement is the volume swept by the
piston when it moves from top dead centre to bottom dead. It is denoted by Vs.
• Clearance volume is the volume of the cylinder above the top of the piston when the
piston is at the top dead centre. It is denoted by Vc.
• Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance
volume.
w.k.t. total cylinder volume = stroke volume (Vs) + clearance volume (Vc).
Vs + Vc
∴ compression ratio = R c =
Vc
Note: The higher the compression ratio, the more powerful the engine is and the higher its efficiency. However,
the compression ratio should not exceed the limit in order to avoid pre ignition of the fuel mixture, which would
cause engine knocking resulting in damage to the engine. For example, the compression ratio in petrol engine is
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about 8:1, which means that the fuel mixture is compressed inside the engine cylinder to about 1/8th of its original
volume. In case of Diesel engine, the compression ratio is about 16:1. Thus Diesel engines are capable of
producing more power than petrol engines, and hence more efficient.
• Piston speed is the average speed of the piston as it moves from the top dead centre to
bottom dead centre. It is described by the equation as given below:
• Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is defined as the mean or average pressure acting on the
piston throughout the power stroke. It is also defined as the average pressure developed
inside the engine cylinder of an internal combustion engine. It is denoted by Pm, and
obtained from the indicator diagram using the equation:
𝑆𝑎
𝑝𝑚 =
𝑙
• Indicated Power is defined as the total power developed inside the engine cylinder due to
the combustion of fuel. It is commonly denoted by IP and is expressed in kW (kilo Watts).
npm LANk
IP = kw
60000
• Brake Power (BP) is the net power available at the crankshaft of the engine for
performing useful work. It is denoted by BP and expressed in kW.
2πNt
BP = kW
60000
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R = Effective radius of brake drum =
2
Dd= diameter of brake drum (m). and
Note: The power developed inside the engine cylinder is transmitted to the crankshaft through the piston,
connecting rod, crank; etc. Hence, a fraction of the indicated power (actual power) developed is lost due to the
friction of these moving parts. The net power available at the crankshaft is the true output of the engine, and is
used for performing useful work. The power at the crankshaft is measured by applying a brake of some kind to
the pulley of the engine, and is therefore called brake power.
• Friction Power (FP) is the amount of power lost due to friction of the various moving
parts in an engine. Numerically, friction power is the difference between the indicated
power and brake power of the engine. It is denoted by FP and expressed in kW.
FP = IP – BP
Mechanical efficiency of IC engine denotes the efficiency with which the moving parts
of the engine can transmit the power developed inside the engine cylinder to useful motive
power.
• Thermal Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power output to the heat supplied by the
burning fuel. It is expressed in percentage. The power output can be based on either IP or
BP. Thermal efficiency based on IP is called indicated thermal efficiency (ITH), and is
defined as the ratio of indicated power to the heat supplied by the burning fuel.
While thermal efficiency based on BP is called brake thermal efficiency (BTH),, and is
defined as the ratio of brake power to the heat supplied by the burning fuel.
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• Volumetric Efficiency indicates the breathing capacity of the engine and is defined as the
ratio of the actual volume of the charge (reduced to NTP conditions) drawn in during the
suction stroke to the swept volume of the engine. Higher volumetric efficiency means more
air is inducted and consequently more power is developed.
• Specific Fuel Consumption abbreviated as SFC is a term used to describe the fuel
efficiency of an engine design_ It measures the amount of fuel needed to provide a given
power for a given time period. This measurement helps one to judge engines of different
manufacturers as to which engine will use the least fuel while still producing a high amount
of power. Specific fuel consumption is expressed as the mass of fuel consumed per kW
power developed per hour. SFC based on IP is termed indicated specific fuel consumption
(ISFC) while SFC based on BP is termed brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC).
(a) Speed
(b) Fuel consumption
(c) Air consumption
(d) Brake Power
(e) Indicated power
(f) Friction power
(g) Heat going to cooling water
(h) Heat going to exhaust
(i) Exhaust gas analysis
(j) Smoke density
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Figure. shows the
arrangement of air box method for
measuring air consumption in IC
engine. The system consists of an
air tight chamber fitted with a
sharp edged orifice of known
coefficient of discharge. The
orifice is located away from the
Fig: Air Box Method for measuring air consumption suction connection to the engine.
Due to the suction of the engine,
there is a pressure drop in the air box chamber which causes air flow through the orifice. In
order to obtain a steady-flow of air, the volume of air box chamber is made sufficiently large
compared to the swept volume of the cylinder. A water manometer is used to measure the
pressure difference causing the flow through the orifice. The volume of air passing through the
orifice is calculated using the equation:
Principle
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The principle of operation of the
dynamometer is based on Newton’s third law of
motion, which states that the forces of action and
reaction are equal and opposite. In motors and
generators, for example, the torque developed by
the armature current of the machine exerts an
equal and opposite (reaction) torque on the
machine frame. When a dynamometer is used to
Fig: Swinging Field Dynamome
test such machines, its reaction torque is used as
a measure of the tested machine’s torque.
Operation
The swinging field dynamometer consists of an electric generator, the stator of which
is mounted on trunnions so as to be able to revolve freely at whatever speed is required for the
test. The rotor driven by the engine under test is coupled to the stator, and hence when the rotor
revolves, the electromagnetic reaction set up by the field coils on the stator tends to cause
rotation of the stator casing. This rotation is prevented by the application of a dead weight or a
spring balance to an arm fixed to the stator casing. The reaction torque is the force required to
prevent the casing rotation multiplied by the torque arm length. From the measured reaction
torque and the known speed of rotation of the shaft, the power supplied can be calculated in
the usual manner. The resisting torque is varied by altering the resistance
in the armature circuit, thus altering the current generated. The disadvantages of swinging field
dynamometer are that it is only suitable for comparatively high speed and small powers, and it
is much less robust than the hydraulic dynamometer.
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with the help of an Instrument known as planirneter,
and let these areas be Ap and A cm2 respectively. The
area is then divided by the length of the diagram (l)
in order to obtain mean height. This mean height,
when multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator
mechanism (S), gives the indicated mean effective
Indicator diagram (p-v diagram) for Otto cycle pressure for the cylinder.
Morse test method is used in multi-cylinder engines to measure IP without the use of
indicator. During the test, the engine is made to run at a constant speed and al same throttle
opening. Let us assume that the engine consists of four cylinders. The brake power (BP) of
the engine at a particular speed with all the four cylinders operating is measured by means of a
dynamometer. Now, one of the cylinders is inactivated (cut-oil) by short circuiting the spark
plug or disconnecting the fuel injector. Under this case, the power developed by the cut-off
cylinder (IP) is lost and the speed of the engine falls down. The engine speed can be restored
to its original value (when all the 4-cylinders were firing) by reducing the load on the engine,
but by keeping the throttle positions same. When the speed is stabilized, the brake power is
measured as BP1.
Similar procedure is adopted by short circuiting the remaining cylinders one at a time
leaving the other three cylinders to develop power; the resulting brake power is measured as
BP2, BP3, and BP4 respectively for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cylinder.
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(a) Willan's line method (used for compression ignition engines only)
(b) Motoring test, and
(c) Morse test
The graph is extrapolated (extended) back to cut the BP axis (x-axis) at point L as shown
in Figure. The reading OL is taken as the power loss or friction power of the engine at that
speed. The fuel consumption at zero brake power is shown by OM.
As shown in the Figure, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel
consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and this
permits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop any power, i.e. brake power
= 0, the engine still consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been
spent in overcoming the friction. Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal
axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole
is termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction power will hold
good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for compression ignition [CI] engines.
In Motoring test, the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its own power and
allowed to remain under the given speed and load conditions for sufficient time so that the
temperature of the engine components, lubricating oil, and cooling water reaches a steady state.
A swinging field type electric dynamometer is used to absorb the power during this period. The
fuel supply is then cut-off and by suitable electric switching devices, the dynamometer is
converted to run as a motor to drive or motor the engine at the same speed at which it was
previously running. The power supply to the motor is measured, which is a measure of friction
power of the engine at that speed. This test gives a higher value of friction power as compared
to that given by Willan's method.
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1.7.4.3 Morse Test Method
Morse test method is used in multi-cylinder engines to measure friction power. During
the test, the engine is made to run at a constant speed and at same throttle opening. Let us
assume that the engine consists of four cylinders. The brake power (BP) of the engine at a
particular speed with all the four cylinders operating is measured by means of a dynamometer.
Now, one of the cylinders is inactivated (cut-off) by short circuiting the spark plug or
disconnecting the fuel injector. Under this case, the power developed (IP) by the cut- off
cylinder is lost and the speed of the engine falls. The engine speed can be restored to its original
value (when all the 4-cylinders were firing) by reducing the load on the engine, but by keeping
the throttles position same. When the speed is stabilized, the brake power is measured as BP1.
Similar procedure is adopted by short circuiting the remaining cylinders one at a time
leaving the other three cylinders to develop power, the resulting brake power is measured as
BP2, BP3, and BP4., respectively for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cylinder.
A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in various ways in
the engine system. The heat balance is generally done on second basis, minute basis, or hour
basis. A sample tabulation of the heat balance sheet is shown in Table.
Note Since there is a energy balance in combustion of fuel, the value of heat supplied by fuel
(Q) must be equal to the heat expenditure.
The heat supplied to the engine is only in the form of fuel-heat and is given by:
Q = mf ∗ CV
Where mf = mass of fuel supplied per sec or minute.
CV = lower calorific value of fuel in kJ/ kg
Heat Balance Sheet
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Heat input/Sec kJ/s % Heat expenditure/sec kJ/s %
1) Heat lost for BP
2) Heat lost to FP
The various ways in which heat is used up in the system is given as follows: