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Optimization of Bell Nozzle Design for Cold Gas Thrusting System

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25825.58722

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 Optimization of Bell Nozzle Design for Cold Gas Thrusting System
1 2,
Adeniyi A. Sobowale, Seyi F. Olatoyinbo*, 3Moses U. Negedu, 4Emmanuel C.
Onwubiko, 5Emmanuel U. Enejor, 6Oloyede O. Oloruntoba
1, 3-6
Advanced Aerospace Engines Laboratory, Oka-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria
2
National Space Research and Development Agency, Abuja FCT, Nigeria

Abstract

A 10N cold gas thruster was developed for nano-satellite applications in such areas as orbit
manoeuvring, attitude control and station-keeping. Nitrogen gas was selected as a working gas
due to its inertness, availability, storage density as well as its cost-effectiveness. Four
engineering materials namely, aluminium, carbonfibre, mild steel and titanium were considered
for the storage tank design. Structural test analysis was conducted for each material at a
maximum expected operating pressure of 8.27 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 to obtain the maximum stress that
each material can withstand without failure, and the most suitable material chosen is mild steel
based on its manufacturability and availability, among others. A bell-shaped nozzle was designed
using SOLIDWORKS software after adequate parametric calculations and dimensions of key
parameters were obtained. Fluid flow analysis was carried out using ANSYS FLUENT software
for design and flow optimization. The numerical result obtained from pressure analysis inside
the nozzle indicated maximum stress of 9.833 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 . With allowable yield strength of
6.20 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 not exceeded, the designed bell nozzle configuration is considered safe for
operation at a maximum operating pressure of 8.27 × 10 𝑁/𝑚 . Bell nozzle design
optimization results carried out on three different pairs of convergent/divergent angles of
60°/15°, 60°/30° and 30°/15° clearly indicated that the pair of 60°/15° congervent/divergent
angles yielded maximum exit velocity and thus highest thrust performance. At a constant
convergent angle of 60°, a loss of nozzle performance was observed as the divergent angle was
increased from 15° to 30°.

Key words: Bell nozzle, optimization, cold gas thruster, convergent angle, divergent angle

* Corresponding Author Email: sfo0001@alumni.uah.edu

1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Small satellites weighing less than 10 kg necessitate
propulsion systems that can provide thrust in the
range of milli-Newton to micro-Newton force for
most orbital maneuvering and attitude control when
in space. It is therefore necessary to undertake their
space operations since the latest scientific spacecraft
requires a very precise position technology for small
satellite applications. This is owing
requirement to sustain an accurate position and/or
orientation concerning a fixed reference
regardless of the potential disturbances (winds,
solar, gravitational influence, etc.). To achieve this
precision, the orientation thrusters should be able to
deliver extremely small thrusts at absolute
precision in reaction to an appropriate feedback
system depending on the inertial orientation
and position sensors implemented by customized
software. The propulsion system is the most
significant design characteristic for achieving the
accuracy of a precise position application on a
microsatellite (Lizbeth, 2018; Sansone et al., 2020).
As a result, a team of researchers from the Advanced
Aerospace Engines Laboratory investigated an
indigenous experimental cold gas thruster with
optimized bell-shaped nozzle for
nanosatellite application. The Advanced Aerospace
Engines Laboratory (AAEL) situated in Oka-Akoko,
Ondo State, Nigeria is one of the engineering
laboratories of the National Space Research and
Development Agency (NASRDA) saddled with the
responsibility of design/research/fabricate space-
qualified propulsion systems for satellites and
spacecraft applications..
This paper analyzes the optimization of a bell nozzle
using computational fluid dynamic (CFD) applicable
for nanosatellite applications. To model and simulate
the system appropriately, commercially available
software such as Solidworks and Ansys were utilized.
Ground experimentation is amongst the most
indisputable procedures, despite its widespread usage
in computational techniques for aerodynamic design.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has grown in
to the
importance as a tool for designing and analyzing
aerospace engine ground testing (Otter et al., 2018;
frame
N. Yu et al., 2020). Before rocket engine
technologies are fully completed, they must be put
through a variety of tests in the aerospace industry.
Sometimes most of these tests are destructive which
may lead to waste of material and are invariably more
costly, therefore it becomes important to verify using
software before either a ground test or a real test
The thrust achieved was in the range of 3-9N using a
bell nozzle. Other variables such as mass flow rate,
intake pressure, and output velocities were
investigated as well. FEA study of the propellant tank
was also carried out after the conclusion of the
material selection process. Aluminum, Mild Steel,
Carbon fiber, and titanium were considered for the
in-orbit tank design with weight, cost, manufacturability, and
availability. With the same tank geometry, each
material under consideration was subject to the same
conditions to determine the least regarding weight.
Carbon Fibre was found to have the lowest weight of
about 535g to aluminum’s 810g however, aluminum
was considered the next best material for the tank due
to its availability and cost but mild steel was chosen
due to manufacturability. The tank volume of 4litres
and tank pressure of 600psi at an ambient
2
temperature of 25°C (298K) were chosen as the
initial operating conditions. The tank was designed to
store propellant at the Maximum Expected Operating
Pressure (MEOP) of 900psi. The current research
focuses on the design and performance of a tiny
nozzle for satellite applications that uses Nitrogen gas
as a propellant. The micro thrusters' functionality in
terms of thrust, nozzle performance, and chamber
effectiveness has been demonstrated using Nitrogen
at various pressures.
2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Murali et al. (2022) proved that symmetric outflow in
rapid expansion ducts can occur in a two-dimensional
frame for a constrained Reynolds number range. At
increased Reynolds numbers, a tiny interference is
being developed and magnified at the apex of the
unexpected expansion in the shear layers created
between the recirculating flow in the bend and the
main flow. Nguyen et al. (2019) investigated flow
patterns in piping systems with sudden expansion.
They found that non-dimensional base pressure is
affected and influenced by variables such as duct
length-to-diameter ratios, overall pressure ratios, and
expansion area ratios. They discovered that for a
specified area ratio and overall pressure ratio,
the length-to-diameter ratio of the expansion can
obtain which results in the least amount of pressure
drops in the nozzle at the nozzle exit on the
symmetry axis. The duct length ought to be greater
than a fixed lower limit for set minimum pressure at a
specified nozzle and expansion area ratio. If the base
pressure reduction is insufficient inflow via pipes
with unexpected expansion, the overall pressure loss
needs to be taken into account to get the best results.
Khan et al., (2002-2012) experimental studies
demonstrated the utility of micro-jets for controlling
3
base pressure in an abruptly expanded axially
symmetric duct by taking into account variables such
as area ratio, different Mach number, length-to-
diameter (L/D) ratio, and NPR, in the expansion of a
CD nozzle without and with fluid flow control.
Nevertheless, no computational or analytical research
was conducted to clarify how to regulate the base
pressure at the CD nozzle from micro-jets. Several
other researchers' computational and experimental
research has assessed the turbulence model's ability
to accurately predict nozzle performance and the flow
field accurately. Hamedi-Estakhrsar et al. (2021)
investigated two-dimensional axially symmetric
compressible dynamic analysis via a CD nozzle
utilizing ANSYS FLUENT by the Spalart-Allmaras
turbulence model and the K-ε turbulence model, in
addition to a comparison exploration between the
models that were based on velocity, pressure, vectors
and temperature contours, to determine the optimized
design constraints for CD nozzles. CFD is used to
visualize the variability of flow characteristics such
as velocity, temperature, pressure, and density, as
well as to ascertain the modeling of shockwaves
(Saiprakash et al., 2019). Zhang & Kim (2018)
investigated particle-gas flows via a CD nozzle both
numerically and theoretically. For multiphase flows,
a equilibrium and homogeneous model for the no-
slip condition in temperature and velocity taking
place between gas and particule phase is regarded to
derive the speed of sound and mass flow rate. Particle
mass loading was performed to examine its effect on
choking phenomena for particle-gas flows at various
nozzle pressure ratios. The data was analyzed using
the Solid Works CAD tool and CFD simulation
code. In this execution, the fluid exits the throat and
travels to the divergent region of the CD nozzle. This
demonstrates pressure distribution in the nozzle as
the flow continues to accelerate super-sonically (Satyanarayana et al., 2013)
or sub-sonically with reducing drop in pressure
3.0. METHODOLOGY

This project implemented the design, fabrication, and 2022; Pérez-Roca et al., 2019; Aabid et al., 2021; Das
testing of a cold gas propulsion system, capable of et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2018). The flow in the throat
delivering up to 10N thrust for applications in is sonic, meaning the Mach number in the throat is
Nanosatellite propulsion systems. The device will one. The geometry diverges downstream of the
generate 10N of thrust, and the prototype will be throat, and the flow is isentropically expanded to a
tuned for use at sea level with nitrogen (N2)gas as supersonic Mach number, which is determined by the
fuel. A pressurized gas tank will hold Nitrogen gas at area ratio of the exit to the throat (Bage et al., 2022).
a pressure of 600psi, which will be reduced to 100psi Because the temperature and the static pressure of a
by different pressure regulators connected in series supersonic flow diminish as it expands from the
before getting to a solenoid valve programmed to throat to the exit, the amount of expansion also
deliver pulses at intervals through the bell nozzle and dictates the temperature and exit pressure. The exit
resulting thrust measured at the exit of the nozzle by temperature dictates the exit sound speed, which is
a well-calibrated load cell. determined by the exit velocity (Bage et al., 2022).
The magnitude of thrust generated by the nozzle is
3.1 The Nozzle Design
dependent on the exit pressure, velocity, and mass
Newton's third law of motion describes how nozzles flow through its nozzle (Khizar et al., 2018; K. Yu et
propel hot gas to produce thrust in aerospace al., 2020). The figure 1 below show the de-laval
vehicles. The pressure at the motor's exit, the mass nozzle
flow rate through the motor, and the exit velocity of
the flow determines the amount of thrust generated
(Gany, 2018; Halchak et al., 2018; Vernacchia et al.,
2022). The nozzle design determines the value of
these three flow parameters. A convergent-divergent
(CD) nozzle, is a comparatively straightforward
device that consists of a specifically designed tube
that allows hot gases to pass through it (Ferreira et
al., 2018; Nasif et al., 2019). The nozzle of
rockets, ramjets, and most aerospace
vehicles are normally designed with a fixed
convergent segment preceded by a
specified/fixed divergent segment. The hot outflow
from a CD nozzle exits the combustion chamber and
converges down to the nozzle's minimum area, or
throat. The throat size is intended to restrict the flow
Figure 1: de-lavel nozzle (Satyanarayana et al., 2013)
and control the system's mass flow rate (Bage et al.,

4
The de-Laval nozzle, also referred to as the 3.2 DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Convergent-Divergent (C-D) nozzle, was invented by
Parameters Assumptions
Gustaf de Laval and Ernst Körting in 1888 and is
capable of converting subsonic fluid flow in the 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)(𝐹 ) − 10𝑁
converging part to supersonic flow in the diverging
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 (𝐼 ) − 72𝑠𝑒𝑐
region while avoiding flow shock. G.V.R. Rao
suggested in 1958 that near-optimal thrust bell nozzle 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃 ) − (100𝑝𝑠𝑖) =
outlines be designed using parabolic estimation 689475.7𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
approaches. Figure 2a and 2b depicts the conceptual
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 Tc − 298𝐾
model of the bell nozzle and fluid volume designed
by the team using Solidworks software. 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 − (𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛)

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝛾) − 1.4

𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖 (101352.9𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙)

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 8314.3

3.2.1 THROAT AREA DETERMINATION

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒 (𝑃 ) =

(𝑃 )

Therefore, exit pressure is equated to sea level

ambient pressure, at 14.7psia.
Figure 2a: The conceptual model of a parabolic
estimation bell nozzle 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = ……………… (1)

Where Cf is the thrust coefficient, Pc is pressure at

nozzle inlet

Thrust coefficient is given with this expression

( )
𝐶 = 1− + ∗

……………… (2)

( )
Since Pe = Pa (optimum expression), ∗ = 0.

Therefore,

𝐶 = 1− ………. (3)
Figure 2b: Designed nozzle showing fluid volume

5
𝑪𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 3.2.5. NOZZLE LENGTH

From Equation (1) Since we are using a C-D shaped Nozzle, the length
of divergent from the throat area (LdN) is
𝐴 = 1.23 × 10 𝑚

Diameter of the Throat. Dt 𝐿 = • …………… (8)

𝐷 = ……. (4) 𝐿 = 9.2 × 10 𝑚

ƛ

Length of convergent Lcn

𝐷 = 3.96 × 10 𝑚

3.2.2 NOZZLE EXPANSION RATIO (E) 𝐿 = • ………….(9)

𝜀= = According to literature, the area of nozzle

convergence, Ac
𝜕+1
1+ (𝑀 ) 𝜕 − 1.......................
𝐴 = 3𝐴 ……………………………… (10)
..(5)
𝐴 = 3.96 × 10 𝑚

Substituting the value of Ac into equation 9,

But = 1+ 𝑀 ……… (6)
𝐿 = 1.99 × 10 𝑚
From Eqn (6),

𝑀 = 1.91

Where Me is the Mach Number of the Gas flow at the

3.2.6.
Nozzle exit.
NOZZLE EXIT
 1
So Substituting the Value of Me in Eqn (5)   VELOCITY
2RTc   p e   
Ve  1  
𝜀 = 1.55   1   pc  
 
3.2.3. NOZZLE EXIT AREA

Recall that 𝜀 =
……………(11)
𝐴 = 1.91 × 10 𝑚
Ve  511 .2m / s
3.2.4. NOZZLE EXIT DIAMETER (DE)
Tc is the temperature of the gas, 298K, where R=

𝐷 = …………………… (7) 8314.4/28gmol= 296.95. Exit velocity can also be

ƛ
calculated in an optimum state.
𝐷 = 4.93 × 10 𝑚
𝑉 =𝑀 𝛾𝑅𝑇 ……………. (12)

6
Where Te is the exit temperature, and it is given by 𝑉 = 𝜆𝑅𝑇 ……………. (20)
the equation below
Where Tt is given by

𝑇 =𝑇 ……………. (13)
𝑇 =𝑇 = 248.3𝑘………… (21)
𝑇 = 172.3𝐾
Therefore,
Substituting the value of Te into equation 12,
𝑣 = 321.3𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 = 511.2𝑚/𝑠
Determination of pressure at the nozzle throat P t
3.2.7. MASS FLOW RATE DETERMINATION

• 𝑃 =𝑃 1+ …………….. (21)
𝑚= ……… (14)

• 𝑃 = 0.36𝑚𝑝𝑎 ≈ 52.8𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑚= = 0.0196𝑁𝑠/𝑚 ≈ 𝐾𝑔/𝑠 …… (15)
.
3.3. OPTIMIZATION AND SIMULATION
Another expression for the mass flow rate,
3.3.1 DESIGN SETUP
• ( )
𝑚= ………….. (16) The pressure in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) varies
between 1.933𝑒 𝑝𝑠𝑖 - 9.66𝑒 𝑝𝑠𝑖, the
•
𝑚 = 0.0196𝑘𝑔/𝑠 temperature is 279.15 K (Tan et al., 2019), according
to NASA technical guidebook, However, the typical
3.2.8. DETERMINATION OF THE
pressure in the specified range, 100 -120 psi, was
CHARACTERISTIC VELOCITY, C*
employed in the nozzle for the modeling of the
𝐶 ∗= • ……………… (17) nozzle in the ambient environment. The ambient
temperature is 298K, and the ambient pressure is 14.7
𝐶 ∗= 433𝑚/𝑠
psi in these situations. Because the propellant will be

3.2.9. DETERMINATION MACH NUMBER stored at a pressure of 600psi. The surrounding

AT THE THROAT, M T temperature of the tank was the temperature within

the tank, which was adjusted for inlet
𝑀 = ………… (18)
temperature because the tank is not lagged. C-D
nozzle literature review was carried out due to
Where a, is the nitrogen local speed of sound, and v
diverse design specifications. Much literature
is the velocity of flow at the nozzle inlet. For
emphasizes modeling, design, and analysis (Asif
nitrogen, a is 353.0032m/s and v is defined as
Kabir et al., 2019) whereas others literature
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑅𝑇 …………. (19) concentrates on multi-objective optimization (Patil et
al., 2017).
3.2.10. DETERMINATION OF THROAT
VELOCITY, VT

7
Nitrogen gas was pressurized in a 4L tank from a
reservoir tank using a one-way fill valve and brass
coil tubing was used to connect the tank to the other
components namely; shut-off valve, and high- and
low-pressure regulators, solenoid valve, and the
nozzle. Gas under 600psi pressure from the tank was
initially regulated to 300psi as shown by the high-
pressure regulator connected immediately after the
shut-off valve and further to 100psi where the inlet
pressure was then controlled by the solenoid valve
driven electronically by a well-programmed circuit
board. The bell nozzle was then mounted to the
valve, the downwards-facing nozzle exit was used
facing a load cell to measure the thrust reaction force
Figure 3: The design schematic of the project
in grams-force. To quantify the response force of the
thrust generated by the nozzle in grams-force, the 3.3.2 SIMULATION RESULTS
setup was positioned on top of a digital mass balance
The calculated exit velocity at the nozzle's exit with
(Load Cell). The tank's valve was opened, allowing
varying convergent and divergent angles using CFD
air into the reservoir. Pulses, in which a reservoir
analysis aids in determining the best set of angles for
containing 100psi of nitrogen gas is periodically
maximum exit velocity. The CAD model of the
released in bursts until the reservoir is empty, and
considered set of dimensions was created in
Steady Flow, in which the reservoir is manually kept
Solidworks and then exported to Ansys for fluid
at a constant 600psi while the solenoid valve is open
simulation, where input boundary conditions were
to allow air to continually flow out, were used in this
used and simulation performed. The simulation
work. Figure (3) show the design schematic of the
results revealed that changing the angles resulted in
project.
different exit velocities and thus thrust values. The
various angles considered were 60°/15°, 60°/30°, and
finally 60°/15°, in the order of convergent/divergent
angles. The results are shown below, with an exit
diameter of 4.93 × 10 𝑚, nozzle divergent length
of 9.2 × 10 𝑚 and convergent length of 1.99 ×
10 𝑚;

8
3.3.2.1 At angles 60° and 15°
The velocity flow trajectory obtained is shown below
with an upper limit of 808 𝑚/𝑠, a maximum value of
548 𝑚/𝑠 was obtained as shown in Figure (4) below.

Figure 6. Maximum velocity obtained at 30° and 15°

4.0. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The simulation result obtained from the software
shows different maximum velocity values for the
Figure 4. Maximum velocity obtained at 60° and 15°
various pair of angles. Figure 4 above shows the
highest valuve of velocity of 548 𝑚/𝑠 obtained
3.3.2.2 At angles 60° and 30°
which corresponds with the pair 60° and 15° and
The velocity flow trajectory obtained is shown below
agrees with theory about the pair being the best for
with an upper limit of 1051 𝑚/𝑠, a maximum value
bell nozzles design. At angles 60° and 15°, the
of 488 𝑚/𝑠 was obtained as shown in Figure (5)
maximum velocity of 488 𝑚/𝑠 as shown in Figure 5
below.
above. At a constant convergent angle of 60°, a loss
of nozzle performance is observed as the diverging
angle is increased from 15° to 30° as shown thereby
resulting in a reduced value of velocity obtained. At a
converging angle of 30° and diverging angle of 15°,
the nozzle performance experienced a further
reduction in value obtained. It is critical to recognize
that, while detailed, this simulation results described
here does not fully satisfy all of the testing
requirements for any spacecraft mission. In

Figure 5. Maximum velocity obtained at 60° and 30° particular, system level testing between the
propulsion system and other elements such as the

3.3.2.3 At angles 30° and 15° avionic components is not included nor is any

The velocity flow trajectory obtained is shown below environmental testing done.

with an upper limit of 670 𝑚/𝑠, a maximum value of

375 𝑚/𝑠 was obtained as shown in Figure (6).

9
5.0. CONCLUSION AND divergent nozzles affects the thrust that can be
RECOMMENDATION produced at the exit.

The change in the angle of the convergent and

divergent nozzles affects the exit velocity and in turn,
the thrust produced at the nozzle exit because the
different angles cause the fluid particles to be emitted
at different velocities when they reach the exhaust.
These different particle velocities create a different
amount of thrust at the nozzle exit. The study showed
that the change in the angle of the convergent and

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