UNIT II- ELASTICITY

NOTES -PHYSICS

COURSE CODE- B23-PHY-101

Course Nomenclature : MECHANICS

UNIT II –ELASTICITY

Dr. Rajiv Kumar

Department of Physics
INSTITUTE OF INTEGRATED & HONORS STUDIES
Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra - 136 119
Haryana (INDIA)

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

INTRODUCTION

Rigid Body

 Defined as one, the distance between any two particles remains unaltered whatever the
external forces applied to it, and in whatever manner they may vary.
 In other words, the body remains un-deformated in its shape, size, and volume. However in
practice, We never find such a body.
 Every material body gets deformated, to a smaller or larger extent, depending upon the way
in which the forces act.
 Moreover, it has a tendency to recover its original shape and size on the removal of external
applied forces; within some limit, called an elastic limit. This property of a body is known
as elasticity.
 Elasticity is the property by the virtue of which the material bodies recover (or regain)
their original shape and size on the removal of the external deforming forces.

Strained Body : When an external force acts on a body, there is a change in its length, volume
or shape. The body is then said to be strained.

Elastic Body: On the removal of the deforming force, the strained body tries to regain its
original state or condition. Such a body is known as elastic body.

Some of the examples are steel, ivory, quartz, rubber etc.

Perfectly Elastic Body: If the deformation of a body under a given deforming force, at a given
temperature, remains unchanged (i.e., neither increases nor decreases) by the prolonged
application of that force and which completely regains its original state on the removal of that
force, it is said to be perfectly elastic.

Perfectly Plastic Body: On the other hand, if the body remains deformed and shows no tendency
to recover its original condition on the removal of the deforming force, it is said to be perfectly
plastic.

In practice, however, there exist no such perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic bodies. The nearest
approach to the former is a quartz fibre and to the later, ordinary putty. All other bodies lie
between these two extremes, there being only differences of degree as to their elasticity or
plasticity when compared to one another.

We shall confine ourselves here to bodies which are homogeneous and isotropic, i.e., which have
a uniform composition and whose properties are the same at all points and in all directions.
Almost all fluids (i.e., liquids and gases) belong to this category but not all solids, some of
which, (like wood and crystals, show different properties in different directions and are thus non-
isotropic or anisotropic, including also some metals which are crystalline in structure.

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

LOAD, STRESS AND STRAIN

1. Load. Any combination of external forces acting on a body (e.g., its own weight, along with
the forces connected with it, like centrifugal force, force of friction etc.) whose net effect is to
deform the body, i.e., to change its form or dimensions, is referred to as a load.

2. Strain.

As we have seen, a body under stress, i.e., under a system of forces or couples of equilibrium
undergoes a change in form, i.e., in length, volume or shape. This change in the dimensions of
body measured per unit dimension, i.e., per unit length, per unit volume or the angular
deformation produced in it, is called strain.

The strain produced in the body is measured as the ratio of the change in configuration to its
original configuration.

It is referred to as linear, volume and shearing strain (or shear) in the three cases respectively.
Being thus just a ratio between two similar quantities, it is a mere number and hence a
dimensionless quantity, having no units.

(i) Longitudinal Strain:

For a solid body in the form of a wire or

rod, the longitudinal strain is defined as

the ratio of the change in length to the

original length of the body.

Consider a wire (or rod) of length L

Suspended vertically fixed at its upper end.

If a load is fixed at its lower end the length of the wire increases by l and becomes (L + l), then

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (𝑙)

𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (𝐿)

(ii) Volumetric Strain:

When a body is subjected to a uniform pressure acting normally at

every point on its surface, there is a change in volume of the body
without any change in shape.

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

In such a case the Volumetric Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in volume (v) to the
original volume (V).
change in volume (v)
Volumetric Strain = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)

(iii) Shearing Strain :

When this strain produced in a body is such that there is only change in shape of it but no change
in volume, it is said to be shearing strain.

It is special property of solids because only solid have a shape of their own.

The shearing strain is measured by the ratio of the relative displacement of one plane of the
body to its normal distance from the fixed plane.

OR

the change in the inclination of the co-ordinate axes of the system or the body.

Consider a rectangular solid bar whose lower surface HGCD is fixed and tangential force is
applied to the upper face EFBA in the direction shown in figure.

The couple formed by this force and an equal and opposite force (of reaction) coming into play
on the lower fixed face, makes the layer, parallel to the two faces, move over one another such
that the points A, B, F & E and shifts to A’, B’, F’ & E’ respectively i.e. the line joining to the
two faces has turned through an angle θ.

The face ABCD is now said to be sheared through an angle θ.

This angle θ through which a line originally perpendicular to the fixed face has turned, give us
the shearing strain or angle of shear.

If θ is small, then θ = tan θ and hence shearing strain-

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

𝐴𝐴′ 𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝜃 = = =
𝐴𝐷 𝐿 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠

3. Stress:

A body in equilibrium under the influence of its internal forces is, as we know, in its natural
state.

But when external or deforming forces are applied to it, there is a relative displacement of its
particles and this gives rise to internal forces of reaction tending to oppose and balance the
deforming forces, until the elastic limit is reached and the body gets permanently deformed.

The body is then said to be stressed or under stress.

Stress is defined as the measure of the internal restoring force setup per unit area of a strained
body which tends to bring the body back to its original state.

If this opposing or recovering force be uniform, i.e., proportional to area, it is clearly a

distributed force like fluid pressure and is measured in the same manner, as force per unit area,
and termed as stress.

Thus if F be the deforming force applied uniformly over an area A , we have

Stress = F/A

The stress is of two types:

(i) Normal Stress: If the elastic forces developed are acting perpendicular to the cross section
area of the deformed body, the stress is called normal stress.

 Normal stress is developed whenever there is a longitudinal or volumetric strain.

 Normal stress is referred as tensile stress whenever there is increase in length and as
compressive stress whenever there is decrease in length.

(ii) Tangential or shearing stress: When the elastic forces developed are acting parallel to a
given surface area distress is called shearing stress.

Shearing stress is developed whenever there is a shearing strain.

Hooke’s Law:

This is the fundamental law of elasticity and was first enunciated in the year 1679 by Robert
Hooke.

It may be formally stated as:

‘Provided the strain is small, the stress is proportional to the strain. OR

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

“Extension is directly proportional to the load applied.” OR
“Within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain.”

Thus within elastic limit, we have

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝑬)
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
It follows, therefore, that if the strain be small; the ratio between stress and strain is a constant,
called modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity (E).

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELASTICITY:

Corresponding to the different types of strain, we have the following different types of elasticity.

1. Young’s modulus (or elasticity of length) Y

For a solid in the form of a wire or thin rod, within elastic limit, the ratio of normal stress to the
longitudinal strain is called the Young's modulus.

If a wire of length l and cross section area A is subjected to a force F and extension l is
developed in it, then

𝐹
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝐴) 𝐹𝐿
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑌 = =
𝑙 𝐴𝑙
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝐿)

Let M = Load of mass Applied at lower end of a wire to elongate it.

Then F = Mg and if r = radius of wire,

Then A = π r2
𝑭𝑳 𝑴𝒈𝑳
Hence, 𝒀 = =
𝑨𝒍 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒍

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

2. Bulk modulus (or elasticity of volume) K:

Within elastic limit, the ratio of the normal stress to the volumetric strain is called bulk modulus
of elasticity.

Let p be the uniform pressure applied to a body and it causes change in volume v for the original
volume V then-
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝 𝑝𝑉
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐾 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= v/𝑉
= v

Bulk modulus is the only modulus of elasticity for liquids and gases.

The reciprocal of bulk modulus is referred to as the “compressibility”

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i.e. compressibility = K

Thus, bulk modulus of a body is a measure of its incompressibility.

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WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME (OR ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN
We Know work has to be done by the applied force in deforming a body, to
whatever type of strain it might be subjected.
This work done or energy spent remains stored up in the body in the form of
potential energy which, in this case, may be called elastic potential energy, energy
of strain or simply, strain energy.
Let us calculate the work done (or the strain energy) per unit volume in the three
different cases of strain dealt with above.
1. Longitudinal strain. If F = the stretching force applied (within the elastic
limit) to a wire of length L and area of cross-section A, such that it increases in
length by l, we have,
Y = FL/Al,
𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝐹= 𝐿
where Y is the value of Young’s modulus for the material of the wire.
Clearly, work done for an additional small increase dl in the length of the wire
𝑌𝐴𝑙
= F.dl = . dl.
𝐿
 Work done during the whole increase in the length of the wire from 0 to l

𝑙 𝑙
𝑌𝐴𝑙 1 𝑌𝐴𝑙 2 1 𝑌𝐴𝑙 1
𝑊= 𝐹. 𝑑𝑙 = . 𝑑𝑙 = = . 𝑙 = 𝐹. 𝑙
𝐿 2 𝐿 2 𝐿 2
0 0
i.e., work done during stretch of the wire from 0 to l = ½ x stretching Force x stretch
Volume of Wire = L x A
work done per unit volume of the wire or strain energy per unit volume of the wire =

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𝐹𝑙 1 F 𝑙 1
𝑊=2 = = × Stress × Strain
AL 2 A L 2

2. Volumetric strain.
Let p be the stress or pressure applied normally over an area A of a body of volume
V such that its volume decreases by v.
𝑉
Then, clearly, K =p , or, p = Kv/V,
v
where K is the Bulk modulus for the material of the body, (omitting the – ve sign
which merely indicates that v is a decrease in volume).
If, therefore, dx = a small movement in the direction of p,
𝐹
Work done 𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = . 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝. 𝑑𝑣, where dv is the small
𝐴

additional decrease in volume.

So that, work done for the whole decrease in volume from 0 to v,
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𝑣 𝑣
𝐾v 1 𝑘v 2
𝑊= 𝑝 𝑑v = 𝑑𝑣 =
0 0 𝑉 2 𝑉
1 𝑘v 1
𝑊=2 .v2𝑝 𝑣
𝑉
1
= 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
2

Therefore, work done (or strain energy) per unit volume

1 𝑝v 1 v 1
= = 𝑝× = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2 𝑉 2 𝑉 2

3. Shearing Strain- Let the upper face of a cube of each side L

(with its lower face fixed) be sheared through an angle  under a tangential force F, as
shown in Fig..
l A B l B
Then, clearly, 𝜂 = 𝐹/𝐴𝜃, A
L F
M N
Or 𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴𝜃,
where 𝜂 = modulus of rigidity of the material F L
 
A = the area of the upper (or any) face of the cube.
Since A = L2 and  =l/L,
where l is the displacement of each vertical edge of the cube, we have
𝐹 = 𝜂 𝐿2𝑙/𝐿 = 𝜂𝐿𝑙.
Clearly, work done during a small additional displacement dl of a vertical edge =
𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑙 = 𝑛𝐿𝑙. 𝑑𝑙.
Work done during the whole displacement from 0 to l or during the whole shearing
strain , i.e.,
𝑙 1 1 F L 1 F 𝟏 1
𝑊= 𝜂𝐿𝑙. 𝑑𝑙 = 2 ηL𝑙 2 = L𝑙 2 = 2 L 𝑙. 𝑙 = 𝟐 𝛈 𝐋 𝒍. 𝑙 = F. 𝑙
0 2 L2 𝑙 Aθ 2

[𝜂 = F/A = (F/L2) (L/l)]

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Work done (Strain Energy) per unit volume = tangential Force × displacecment
2
Volume of the cube = L3
1 F.𝑙 1 F 𝑙 1 F
Work done (Strain Energy) per unit volume =2 L3
= 2 L2 L
=2 A
θ=

= 1
Stress × Strain
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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

BEHAVIOUR OF A WIRE OR A BAR UNDER INCREASING STRESS
(Load Extension Curve)
If we subject a wire (or a bar) to gradually increasing stress and plot a graph between the stress
applied and the corresponding strain produced, we obtain a curve of the form shown in Fig.
below called the stress-strain diagram, from which the following points emerge:

(i) Linear relationship between stress and strain

 There is linear relationship between stress and

strain, i.e., Hooke’ law is fully obeyed (or the wire
is perfectly elastic) up to the point A, as shown by
the straight and sloping part OA of the curve.
 So that, on the stress being removed at any point up
to A, the wire recovers its original condition of
zero strain represented by the point O.
 Obviously, therefore, the tensile stress corresponding to A thus gives the elastic limit of
the material of the wire, sometimes referred to as the elastic strength of the wire.

(ii) Residual strain or a Permanent set

Beyond the elastic limit (A), Hooke’s law ceases to be obeyed, the strain increasing more rapidly
with stress than warranted by the law, as shown by the bent part AB of the curve.

 The increase in length of the wire is now partly elastic and partly plastic (i.e., due to
shearing stress): so that if the stress be removed at B, the wire does not recover its
original condition of zero strain along BAO but takes the path BC to come to the position
C, with a residual strain or a permanent set OC in it.

(iii) Yield Point

 Beyond the point B, there starts a large but irregular increase

in strain upto D with little or no increase in stress, the stress
being just a little smaller at D than at B.
 This point B, where the large, erratic increase in strain just
starts is called the yield point of the material of the wire, and
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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

the corresponding stress is referred to as the yielding stress. Points B and D are also
sometimes called the upper and the lower yield points respectively.

(iv) Breaking point:

 Beyond the point D, the yielding comes to a stop and any further extension in the wire
(which is now purely plastic) can be produced only by increasing the stress, there being a
corresponding decrease in the area of cross-section of the wire, so that its volume remains
unaffected.
 This continues up to the point F, beyond which the extension goes on even without any
addition to the load applied, the wire being in a state of virtual flow.
 Its cross-section decreases faster at some section of it and a local constriction, called a
neck or a waist is developed there. This results in an automatic decrease in stress and
gives the portion FE of the curve, where E represents the breaking point of the wire
since it breaks there.
 Obviously, the maximum stress to which the wire can be subjected (i.e., the maximum
load or force applied divided by the original cross section of the wire) is the one
represented by the point F. It is fittingly called the breaking stress and measures the
tensile or ultimate strength of the wire.
 A material which shows this type of stress-strain curve is known as ductile. A ductile
material is therefore, permanently distorted before breaking. For ductile substances
the breaking point far exceeds the Yield point.
 However for certain substances e.g. cast iron, glass, hardened steel etc. the yield point
and the breaking point are very close together and such materials are termed as ‘brittle’.

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UNIT II- ELASTICITY

POISSON’S RATIO :

Whenever a force acts upon a body along any direction, the size of the body changes not only in
that direction but in other directions too.

If a force produces an elongation in its own direction, a contraction too occurs in direction
perpendicular to it i.e. in a lateral direction and vice versa.

The change in dimension per unit dimension along the direction in which the force acts is called
the ‘longitudinal strain’ where as

The change in lateral dimension per unit lateral dimension is called ‘lateral strain’.

The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain of a material within elastic limit is a
constant for that material and is known as the Poisson’s Ratio. It is denoted by symbol σ.

OR

The ratio of the fractional lateral contraction to the fractional longitudinal extension.
Lateral strain β
Poisson’s ratio σ = longitudinal strain
=α

Where β = lateral strain per unit stress;

α = Longitudinal strain per unit stress
Consider wire of original length L and diameter D.
F = tensile force acts in direction shown in Fig.
Length of wire increases from L to (L + l).
Diameter decreases from D to (D – d)
Longitudinal Strain = l / L
Lateral Strain = -d / D
Poisson’s Ratio of material of wire is given by :
Lateral strain β −d / D L.d
Poisson’s ratio σ = =α= =−
Longitudinal strain 𝑙/L 𝑙.D

Here –ve sign has been taken as the Longitudinal and lateral strains are in
mutually opposite sense i.e. if one is positive, and the other is negative.

Poisson’s Ratio

 It is dimensionless quantity and has no units.

 Its value depends only upon nature of the material.
 Its Value lies between 0.2 and 0.4.

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Relation between Angle of Shear and Angle of Twist

Imagine a cylindrical rod of length l and radius r fixed rigidly at its upper end.
When a couple is applied at its lower free end in plane perpendicular to the length
& whose axis coincides with the axis of the cylinder, the radius of each circular
cross section of the rod gets rotated in its plane about the axis of the rod, by an
amount proportional to the distance of the cross section from the fixed upper end.
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The angle through which any cross section rotates is called the
angle of twist (ø ). Its value is zero at fixed end and maximum at the
free end.
As the rod is twisted, a restoring couple is developed in it due to the
elastic properties of the material which is equal and opposite to the
external twisting couple.
As the rod is twisted, a generating line AB on its outermost layer is
turned through an angle θ.
Thus the line AB1B moves into the position 𝐴𝐵1′ 𝐵′ having been turned
through an ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵’ equal to θ.
This angle is called Angle of Shear.
From Fig., angle in 𝛥𝐵𝐴𝐵’

This is the relation between angle of shear and angle of twist.

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