Chapter 5: Nuclear Physics

Structure of atom:

Atom consists of a nucleus with protons and neutrons inside it. Electrons orbit the nucleus.

Orbit

Nucleus

Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass

Proton +1 1u
Neutron 0 1u
Electron -1 1
𝑢
2000

How atoms of diff. elements are represented using nuclide notation:

4
2 proton no. or atomic no.

nucleon no. or mass no.

If no. of proton = no. of electron in atom, atom is neutral.

Same charge repel. Opp. charge attract.

Note: Neutrons made of 1 +ve and 1 -ve charge. Overall, 0 charge.

Define isotope

Atom with same proton no. - proton no. determines what element - but diff. neutron no.

Note: All elements have more than one isotope.

Alpha scattering/gold foil experiment:

Observations:
1. Most alpha particles un-deflected/passes straight through.
2. Some are deflected. (moving close to nucleus)
3. Very few are repelled back/deflected back/reflected.

Conclusions:
1. Nucleus very small and mostly surrounded by empty space.
2. Nucleus is +vely charged.
3. Nucleus has most mass of atom.

Vacuum Chamber

Nuclear Fission and Fusion:

Def. nuclear fission: Splitting a larger nucleus into smaller nuclei. (process releases energy)

Def. nuclear fusion: Joining small nuclei into a larger nucleus. (process releases energy)
Radiation:

1. Types of radiation

Nucleus of unstable isotope (excess neutrons) emit 3 types of radioactive emission.

Note: All type of emission is release of energy.

This process is random and spontaneous.

• Random: exact amount of radiation at a time is unpredictable.

• Spontaneous: Not effected by external factors.

Note: if have a lot of unstable atoms, cannot say which exact atom/s will decay at a time.

∝ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛽 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 y-rays (gamma)

Nature 2p + 2n 1e Electromagnetic
wave
Relative mass 2u + 2u = 4u 1 0
𝑢
2000
Relative charge +2 -1 0
Atomic notation ∝ 𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 none

Ionizing power Very strong strong Very week

Range in air Few centimeters Several meters (10) Several kilometers
(10) (10)
Absorbed/Blocked by Sheet of paper Plate of thick aluminum Thick block of lead

Note: alpha particle is helium nuclei (not atom as it lacks electrons)

Note: while most y-rays absorbed by block of lead, some leak through.
Note: Beta particle is an electron from neutron in nucleus.

Alpha particles most ionizing, as they have most mass, kinetic energy and electrical charge.
Beta particles less ionizing, as they have lesser mass, kinetic energy and electrical charge.
Gamma/y-rays very less ionizing, as they have no mass, very little kinetic energy and no charge.

Note: Ionizing means to remove electrons for atom, making it +vely charged. Ionizing produces cancer and cell-
mutation in body.

Deflection of radiation in electric and magnetic field:

1. Electric field
 2. Magnetic field

Using Flemings Left Hand rule:

• Alpha particle (+ve) goes up the page.
• Beta particle (-ve) goes opp. (down the page)

Process of radioactive decay:

Def.: Process where nucleus of unstable isotope emits radiation to become more stable, causing change in nucleus
(changing element).

• Alpha decay: 𝑋 → ∝ + 𝑌

Nucleus losses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, changing to diff. element.

• Beta decay: 𝑋 → 𝐵 + 𝑌

Nucleus losses 1 neutron (not electron) and gains 1 proton, changing to diff. element.

Note: proton no. increases as neutron lost splits into a proton (+ve) and an electron (-ve/B particle). The latter
escapes as radiation, leaving proton behind. Or, Z - (-1) = Z + 1

In beta decay:
Neutron → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 + 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

• Gamma decay: No equ. No change in neutron/proton no.

Background radiation:

• Def.: Radiation present all round us in environment, even in absence of radioactive sources.

Source of background radiation:

1. Radon gas (in air)

2. Rocks and buildings
3. Foods and drinks
4. Cosmic rays

Radiation measure using detector connected to counter, giving reading in counts/s or counts/min.

• Cal. Corrected count rate:

Corrected count rate = detector reading - background radiation reading (given in ques.)

Safety precautions:

Radioactive emissions can cause:

• Cell death
• Cell mutation
• Cancer cells

Safety precautions when dealing with radioactive sources:

• Increasing distance between source and living tissue.
• Reduce exposure time.
• Use shield or screen (usually made of lead)
• Storing radioactive substances in lead lined containers that are locked.

Half-Life:

• Def.: Time taken for half of nuclei of unstable (radioactive) isotopes to decay.
Isotopes have very long half-life (thousands of yrs) or very short half-life (few seconds).
1. Longer half-life means it decays (through radioactive decay; radiation) slowly. Hence, intensity of radiation
(counts/t) is low. So it is weak in ionizing.
2. Smaller half-life means it decays quickly. Hence, intensity of radiation (counts over time) is very high. So it
ionizes strongly.

• Reading half-life from graphs:

Note: Half-life questions may include background radiation. If background radiation is part of value of detector
reading, remove background radiation from all values before dividing to find half-life.

Applications of radioactivity:

• Smoke alarms: Uses alpha particles with long half-life. Small radioactive source emits alpha particles, ionizing
air particles in detector, conducting electricity. This allows small current to flow between 2 plates in detector.
When smoke enters, it absorbs alpha particles, stopping current and alarm is triggered.
 • Irradiating food to kill bacteria:
Uses gamma radiation with long half-life used to kill bacteria in canned food to prolong shelf life.

• Sterilization of equipment:
Uses gamma radiation (sometimes beta) with long half-life to kill bacteria on medical equipment, ensuring
they are sterile.

• Measuring and controlling thickness of material: Any type of radiation. Use linked to penetration and
absorption.
i. Beta particles pass through sheet of metal.
ii. If reading is too low, sheet is too thick.
iii. If reading is too high, sheet is too thin.

• Diagnosis and treatment of cancer:

i. For diagnosis (finding cancer cell), patients injected with gamma source, so it has short half-life.
ii. For treatment, high-energy beam of gamma ray aimed on cell from different directions. Gamma source in
laser equipment has long half-life.