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THE HUMAN ORGANISM 7 octillions

CHAPTER 1 The chemicals that make up

1 Anatomy & Physiology the body may be divided
2 Anatomical terms into two major categories:
3 Body Planes inorganic and organic.
4 Body Cavities
5 Homeostasis Inorganic chemicals are
usually simple molecules
ANATOMY made of one or two elements
Anatomy is the study of the structure and shape of the other than carbon (with
body and its parts and their relationships to one a few exceptions).
another. CELLULAR Smallest Unit in living things
TWO GENERAL APPROACHES
SYTEMATIC àthe study of the structures that make cell is made of chemicals and
ANATOMY up a discrete body system - a group of carries out specific
structures that work together to chemical reactions.
perform a unique body function. TISSUES Muscles, membranes and
cavity linings
àStudy anatomy by systems manner ORGANS Keep the body running
REGIONAL àIs the study of interrelationships of all ORGAN SYSTEMS Work together and combine
ANATOMY of the structures in a specific region. to get things done
àStudy human body by regions THE BODY Highest level of organization
There are a lot of methods to divide the HOMEOTASIS the state of steady internal
human body conditions maintained by
living things
SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
SURFACE Homeo -Sameness
àAnatomical landmarks on the
ANATOMY Stasis - stand still
surface of the body through
"The existence of the
visualization and palpitation.
balance"
GROSS ANATOMY àStructures that can be examined
without using a microscope.
RADIOGRAPHIC àBody structures that can be PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY visualized with x-rays. Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts
PATHOLOGICAL àStructural changes (from gross to work or function. Human physiology is the scientific
ANATOMY microscopic) associated with study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of
disease. the body and how they work together to support the
MICROSCOPIC àThe study of body structures that functions of life.
ANATOMY are too small to be seen with the SUBDIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY
naked eye. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY Functional properties of nerve
EMBRYOLOGY à Emerge from the time of the cells.
fertilized egg through the eighth àstudy of the brain, spinal cord,
week in utero. and nerves
àThe first eight weeks of
development fertilization of an egg CARDIOVASCULAR àFunctions of the heart and
DEVELOPMENTAL àemerge from the time of the PHYSIOLOGY blood vessels
BIOLOGY fertilized egg to the adult form. RESPIRATORY àFunctions of the air
àStarting from heartbeat the PHYSIOLOGY passageways and lungs
organs but not fully developed. RENAL àFunctions of the kidney.
àThe complete development of an PHYSIOLOGY
individual from fertilization of an EXERCISE àchanges in cell and organ
egg to death PHYSIOLOGY functions as a result of muscular
CELL BIOLOGY àCellular structure and functions. activity.
HISTOLOGY àMicroscopic structures of tissues. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY àFunctional changes associated
with disease and aging.
ENDOCRINOLOGY àHormones (chemical regulators
COMPLEMENTART OF STRUCTURE AND in the blood) and how they control
FUNCTION body functions.
CHEMICALS Human is a conglomeration IMMUNOLOGY à How the body defends itself
of atoms against disease-causing agents
Atoms

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RELATIONSHIP B/W ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy and physiology are always inseparable. The DIRECTIONAL TERMS
parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and à
each of those parts has a job to do to make the body
operate as a whole. Structure determines what
functions can take place.

Your study of anatomy and physiology will make more

sense if you continually relate the form of the
structures you are studying to their function

Greek words
Ana à apart
tomy à to cut
physio à nature
ology à study of

TERMINOLOGIES AND BODY PLANES

Standard anatomical position is the body orientation
used when describing an organism’s anatomy.
Standardization is necessary to avoid confusion since
most organisms can take on many different positions
that may change the relative placement of organs.

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(3) Frontal
(4) Transverse
Sagittal Plane
REGIONAL TERMS à A sagittal plane runs vertically from top to
à The language of anatomy is derived bottom (and front to back)
from Latin and Greek which were the languages of
learning of the ancients of Western Civilization. à“Midsagittal” or “median” plane is a sagittal
Learning some of these terms will help you refer to plane that perfectly divides the body down the
specific regions of the body in the language of midline.
anatomists.
àA “parasagittal” plane is any sagittal plane that
ABDOMINAL anterior body trunk inferior to does not run perfectly down the midline of the body
the ribs.
AXILLARY armpit
BRACHIAL upper arm from shoulder to
elbow
ANTEBRACHIAL lower arm from elbow to wrist
CARPAL wrist
DIGITAL fingers or toes
CEPHALIC head
CERVICAL neck region
INGUINAL region where thigh meets
body trunk
PELVIS area overlying the front of the
pelvis
PUBIC genital region Oblique Plane
THORACIC chest à Plane that can be any type of angle other than a
GLUTEAL buttock horizontal or vertical angle.
àOblique = not parallel
LUMBAR area of back between ribs and
= odd angles
pelvis (lower back)
à located laterally to your abdominal muscles.
OCCIPITAL posterior surface of head
ANTECUBITAL Anterior surface of the elbow
PLANTAR Sole
COXAL Cheek
CRURAL Hip
DIGITAL leg
FEMORAL Fingers or toes
FIBULAR (PERONEAL) thigh
FRONTAL Side of leg
HALLUX forehead
MAMMARY Great toe
MANUS Breast region
Frontal Plane
MENTAL chin
àAlso called coronal plane
ORAL mouth
à Is a plane that runs vertically from top to bottom
NASAL nose and left to right
TARSAL ankle à Divides the body into a front (anterior) portion
PEDAL foot and a back (posterior) portion.
PATELLAR Anterior knee (kneecap)
region
PALMAR Palm of hand
STERNAL Breast bone

PLANES AND SECTIONS

4 TYPES OF BODY PLANES
à There are four major types of body planes, and
an easy way to remember them is to remember the
acronym “SOFT,” which stands for
SOFT (1) Sagittal Transverse Plane
(2) Oblique à also called a horizontal plane

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○ Frontal (forehead)
àruns horizontally, dividing the body or structure ○ Nasal (nose)
into a top (superior) and bottom (inferior) half.
○ Occipital (base of the skull)
à Trans = across ○ Oral (mouth)
○ Orbital/ocular (eyes)
THORAX
○ Axillary (armpit)
AXIAL ○ Costal (ribs)
○ Deltoid (shoulder)
○ Mammary (breast)
○ Pectoral (chest)
○ Scapular (shoulder blade)
○ Sternal (breastbone)
○ Vertebral (backbone)
ABDOMEN
○ Abdominal (abdomen)
BODY REGIONS ○ Gluteal (buttocks)
à The anatomical regions compartmentalize the ○ Inguinal (bend of the hip)
human body. à A region refers to a certain area. ○ Lumbar (lower back)
The body is divided into two major portions: axial ○ Pelvic (the area between
and appendicular. hipbones)
AXIAL
○ Perineal (the area between
à axial body runs right down the center anus and external genitalia)
(axis) and consists of everything except
○ Pubic (genitals)
the limbs, meaning the head, neck,
thorax (chest and back), abdomen, and ○ Sacral (end of vertebral
pelvis. column)
UPPER EXTREMITY
○ Antebrachial (forearm)
APPENDICULAR ○ Antecubital (inner elbow)
à The appendicular body consists of ○ Brachial (upper arm)
appendages, otherwise known as upper APPENDICULAR ○ Carpal (wrist)
and lower extremities (which you call ○ Cubital (elbow)
arms and legs).
○ Digital (fingers/toes)
○ Manual (hand) Anatomy
and
○ Palmar (palm)
LOWER EXTREMITY
○ Crural (shin, front of the
lower leg)
○ Femoral (thigh)
○ Patellar (front of the knee)
○ Pedal (foot)
○ Plantar (arch of the foot)
○ Popliteal (back of the knee)
○ Sural (calf, back of the
lower leg)
○ Tarsal (ankle)

BODY REGIONS BODY CAVITIES

à à hollow spaces within the human body that contain
HEAD AND NECK internal organs.
○ Cephalic (head) à The body maintains its internal organization using
membranes, sheaths, and other structures that
○ Cervical (neck)
separate compartments.
○ Cranial (skull)

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àThese cavities contain and protect delicate internal
organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant
changes in the size and shape of the organs as they
perform their functions.
Dorsal àcontinuous cavity located
on the dorsal side of the
body
àhouses the organs of the
upper central nervous
system (brain and spinal
cord)
Info
à meninges are a multi-
layered membrane within
the dorsal cavity that
envelops and protects the
brain and spinal cord.
Cranial àanterior portion of the
dorsal cavity consisting of
the space inside the skull
à Contains the brain, the
meninges of the brain&
cerebrospinal fluid.
Vertebral à posterior portion of the
dorsal cavity and contains
the structures within the
vertebral column
àinclude the spinal cord,
the meninges of the spinal
cord, and the fluid-filled
spaces between them.
ànarrowest of all body
cavities
à described as thread-like
ventral àinterior space in the front
of the body
àalso called viscera
àanterior and posterior
portions divided by the
diaphragm; a sheet of
skeletal muscle found
beneath the lungs
thoracic àAnterior ventral body
cavity found within the rib
cage in the torso
àHouses the primary
organs of the cardiovascular
and respiratory systems
(Heart, Lungs, Thymus
gland, Esophagus)
àMesothelium is a type of
membrane tissue that lines
the ventral cavity
2 types of mesothelium
1) The pleura lining
of the lungs
2) The pericardial
lining of the
heart
Abdominopelvic à found beneath the
thoracic cavity and
diaphragm
àabdominal cavity is not
contained within the bone
and houses many organs of
the digestive and renal
systems.
àpelvic cavity is contained
within the pelvis and houses
the bladder and
reproductive system.
àabdominopelvic cavity is
lined by a type of
mesothelium called the
peritoneum.
ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS
àAnatomists and medical personnel divide the
abdominopelvic cavity into smaller regions to facilitate
study and discussion.
àDivisions are often used to categorize the individual
abdominal organs by their location and function and
are used by clinicians to help diagnose the source of
abdominal pain and determine the appropriate
treatment
ABDOMINAL FOUR QUADRANTS
àThese quadrants are defined by the intersection
of the sagittal plane with the umbilical plane (the
transverse plane through the navel).
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àClinicians use these regions to determine the 2 Left Hypochondriac

organs and tissues that may be causing pain or àpart of the spleen,
discomfort in that region. left kidney,
1 Right Upper Quadrant part of the stomach,
àPain=infection and inflammation in the pancreas,
gallbladder and liver or peptic ulcers in the parts of the colon.
stomach.
3 Epigastric
àportion of the liver, àmajority of the stomach,
the gallbladder, part of the liver,
right kidney, part of the pancreas,
a small portion of the stomach, part of the duodenum,
the duodenum, part of the spleen
the head of the pancreas, adrenal glands.
portions of the ascending and transverse colon,
parts of the small intestine.
4 Right Lumbar
àgallbladder,
2 Left Upper Quadrant right kidney,
àpain = malrotation of the intestine and colon.
part of the liver,
ascending colon.
àthe left portion of the liver,
part of the stomach,
the pancreas, 5 Left Lumbar
left kidney, à descending colon
spleen, left kidney,
portions of the transverse and descending part of the spleen.
colon,
parts of the small intestine. 6 Umbilical
àumbilicus (navel)
àtransverse colon (the section between the
3 Right Lower Quadrant ascending and descending colons)
àpain= appendicitis bottom portions of both the left and right
kidney.
àcecum,
appendix,
part of the small intestines,
7 Right Iliac
the right half of the female reproductive system, àappendix,
right ureter cecum,
iliac fossa
4 Left Lower Quadrant
àpain= colitis, pelvic inflammatory disease and
8 Left Iliac
ovarian cyst àappendix,
àmajority of the small intestine, some of the Cecum
large intestine, the left half of the female right iliac fossa
reproductive system, and the left ureter.
ABDOMINAL NINE DIVISIONS 9 Hypogastric
àSmaller than the 4 div. àbladder,
àThese divisions are marked by two parasagittal part of the sigmoid colon,
and two transverse planes centered around the anus,
navel. organs of the reproductive system (uterus,
àThe perineum (the area beneath the hypogastric ovaries, prostate)
region at the bottom of the pelvic cavity) is
sometimes considered to be the tenth division in
this system.

1 Right Hypochondriac
àright portion of the liver,
the gallbladder,
the right kidney,
parts of the small intestine

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SEROUS MEMBRANE
à one of the thin membranes that cover the walls
and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities.
à also referred to a serosa
àsingle layer of flattened mesothelial cells applied
to the surface of a thin layer of collagenous tissue
that attaches to underlying
endothoracic/transversalis fascia.
PARIETAL LAYERS
àmembrane covers the organs (the
viscera)
. — pleural cupula.
VISCERAL LLAYERS
à membranes line the walls of the body
cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall)
àBetween the parietal and visceral layers is a very
thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity
SEROUS MEMBRANE CAVITIES
à are lined by a serous membrane
à are normally empty (except for microscopic cells
and a film of fluid)
àfunction to preclude adhesions among organs,
thereby allowing organs to move freely relative to one
another.
mesothelium
àforms the lining of a closed serous
membrane cavity.
àlining the wall of a serous cavity is
designated parietal while that covering
viscera is called visceral.
Peritoneum
àThe peritoneal cavity is found within the
abdominal & pelvic body cavities.
Connecting peritoneum forms:
— mesentery
— ligament.
Pleura
àtwo pleural cavities (separated by mediastinum)
are found within the thoracic cavity.
àParietal pleura is divided into:
— costal pleura
— diaphragmatic pleura
— mediastinal pleura
àConnecting pleura forms the pulmonary
ligament.
àVisceral pleura is also called pulmonary pleura.
Pericardium
àthe pericardial cavity is found within the
mediastinum of the thoracic cavity. àVisceral
pericardium is also called the epicardium.
Vaginal tunics
à the cavity of the vaginal process begins at the
vaginal ring and extends into the scrotum around
the spermatic cord & testis.
àConnecting vaginal tunic forms:
-mesorchium
-mesoductus deferens.
HOMEOSTASIS
à physiological process of a body to maintain a
constant internal environment in response to
fluctuations in the outer external environment
àMaintaining a dynamic equilibrium between the
body’s internal environment and changing the external
environment requires constant monitoring and
adjustments.
àAn inability to maintain homeostasis may lead to
death or a disease, a condition known as homeostatic
imbalance.
àdiabetes, dehydration, hypoglycemia,
hyperglycemia, gout, hypothermia, etc
CONCEPTS OF HOMEOSTASIS
à regulates an organism ‘s internal environment
and maintains a stable, constant condition of
properties like temperature and pH.
à regulates an organism ‘s internal environment
and maintains a stable, constant condition of
properties like temperature and pH.
STIMULUS
àdisturbance that causes deviation of
normal body’s environment
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RECEPTOR OR DETECTOR ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN

à receives the stimulus and forwards it
to the control center. BODY
Eg. neurons à Human beings are arguably the most complex
organisms on this planet. Imagine billions of
CONTROL CENTER OR REGULATOR microscopic parts, each with its own identity, working
à receives and processes information together in an organized manner for the benefit of the
from the receptor. total being.
àsets the normal reference point or
setup point for any physiological
processes.
Eg. Hypothalamus or brain

effector
à commands the effector to respond to
the stimulus. Eg. Glands, muscles

Response
à receives the stimulus and forwards it
to the control center.
Eg. neurons

Negative feedback Mechanism

àOccurs when a system's output acts to reduce or
dampen the processes that lead to the output of that
system, resulting in less output. Atom
àNegative feedback loops allow systems to self- àtiny building blocks of matter
stabilize àcombine to form molecules such as water, sugar,
àChanges occurring in the system automatically and proteins, like those that make up our muscles.
activate the corrective mechanism, which reverses the àthe smallest units of all living things.
changes and brings back the system to the normal. Cells
àthe basic unit of life
àcarries out basic life processes that allow the
positive feedback Mechanism body to survive
àcauses destabilizing effects in the body, so does not àvary widely in size, shape, and their particular
result in homeostasis. It is mainly responsible for the roles in the body.
amplification of the changes caused by the stimulus. àsimplest living creatures are composed of single
àMost positive feedback mechanisms are harmful; cells, but in complex organisms such as trees or
positive feedback is very useful (eg.) breastfeeding, human beings, the structural ladder continues to
blood clot and child birth the tissue level.
àless common than negative feedback since it leads
to unstable conditions and extreme state
Tissue
àconsists of groups of similar cells that have a
common function.
Connective tissue
à made up of cells that form the body’s
structure.
Eg. Bone &cartilage

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Epithelial tissue
àmade up of cells that line inner and
outer body surfaces
àprotects the body and its internal
organs, secretes substances.
àabsorbs substances such as nutrients.
Muscle tissue
à made up of cells that have the unique
ability to contract or become shorter.
Eg. Bone &cartilage
Nervous tissue
àmade up of neurons, or nerve cells,
that carry electrical messages.
àNervous tissue makes up the brain
and the nerves that connect the brain all
parts of the body
Organ
à composed of two or more tissue types that
perform a specific function for the body.
Eg. the small intestine, which digests and absorbs
food, is composed of all four tissue types.
System
à group of organs that work together to carry out a
complex overall function.
àorgan of the system does part of the larger job.
Organism
à highest level of organization
àorganism is a living being that has a cellular
structure and that can independently perform all
physiologic functions necessary for life.
àmulticellular organisms, including humans, all
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the
bodywork together to maintain the life and health of
the organism.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
àCovers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body
cavities, and ducts; it also forms glands.
àCovering and lining epithelium covers all free body
surfaces, both inside and out, and contains versatile
cells.
àNearly all substances that the body gives off or
receives must pass through the epithelium.
àEpithelial functions include; protection, absorption,
filtration, and secretion.
àEpithelium specialized to absorb substances lines
some digestive system organs such as the stomach
and small intestine, which absorb food nutrients into
the body.
Unique characteristics
àExcept for glandular epithelium, epithelial cells fit
closely together to form continuous sheets.
Neighboring cells are bound together at many points
by specialized cell junctions, including desmosomes
and tight junctions.
à The membranes always have one free (unattached)
surface or edge. This apical surface is exposed to the
body’s exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ.
The exposed surfaces of some epithelia are slick and
smooth, but others exhibit cell surface modifications,
such as microvilli or cilia.
à The anchored (basal) surface of epithelium rests on
a basement membrane, a structureless material
secreted by both the epithelial cells and the connective
tissue cells deep to the epithelium. Think of the
basement membrane as the “glue” holding the
epithelium in place.
à Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of their own
(that is, they are avascular) and depend on diffusion
from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue
for food and oxygen.
à If well-nourished, epithelial cells regenerate
themselves easily.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
à Each epithelium is given two names. The first
indicates the number of cell layers it has
àThe classifications by cell arrangement (layers) are
simple epithelium (one layer of cells) and
stratified epithelium (more than one cell layer).
àThere are squamous (skwa′mus) cells, flattened like
fish scales (squam = scale),
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àcuboidal (ku-boi′dal) cells, which are cube-shaped

like dice, and columnar cells, shaped like columns.
-Hallmarks-
àVariations in blood supply
àMost connective tissues are well vascularized (that
is, they have a good blood supply)
àExceptions: Tendons and ligaments, have a poor
blood supply, and cartilages are avascular.
Consequently, all these structures heal very slowly
when injured.
àConnective tissues are made up of many different
types of cells plus varying amounts of a nonliving
substance found outside the cells called the
extracellular matrix.

Matrix
varies from fluid to solid, holds fibers and cells in place
while determining the function of the tissue
Matrix= water w/ cell adhesion proteins and charged
polysaccharide molecules.
àthe cell adhesion proteins serve as a glue that allows
the connective tissue cells to attach themselves to the
matrix fibers embedded in the ground substance.
Types of fibers
àCollagenous - contains the protein collagen,
- fibers are strong and flexible

àReticular fibers
- fine branching fibers form a supporting framework.

àElastic fibers
- protein is elastin, fibers have strength and elasticity.
Types of Connective Tissue Cells
Fibroblast
-produces fibers & matrix
- most numerous
- involved in repair and growth
Fibrocyte
- mature fibroblast
- maintenance
Connective TISSUE Macrophages
à protects and supports the body and its organs. - defense, phagocytosis
àConnective tissues bind organs together, store Plasma cells
energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with - the source of circulating antibodies
immunity to disease-causing organisms. Mast Cell
àas its name suggests, connects body parts. It is
- releases heparin, an anticoagulant
found everywhere in the body. It is the most abundant
- releases histamine dilates small blood
and widely distributed of the tissue types.
vessels
àConnective tissues perform many functions, but they
are primarily involved in protecting, supporting, and Fat Cell
binding together other body tissues. - stores triglycerides
- signet ring shape

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function
- Provides Strength
location
-fibers arranged in parallel bundles for
strength
- tendons (attaches muscle to bone)
- ligaments (holds bones to joints)
- fibers irregular for stretch aponeuroses
(fasciae) and capsules of organs

>Elastic connective tissue

Types of Connective Tissue
>Areolar connective tissue (areolar)

structure
- free branching elastic fibers, few
fibroblasts
structure function
- collagenous & elastic fibers - allows expansion and recoil
- all 6 types of connective tissue cells
- the fluid matrix contains hyaluronic location
acid which aids in diffusion - lungs, trachea, arteries, aorta
function
- covers organs
- holds blood vessels & nerves in place >Reticular Connective Tissue
- widely distributed
- nutritive role
- the second line of defense
location
- with adipose tissue forms a
subcutaneous layer
-mucous membranes
-between the tissue of the body organs

structure
>Dense connective tissue - mainly reticular fibers, thin matrix
function
- holds cells of loose organs together

location
- liver, spleen, bone marrow

structure
-collagenous fibers predominate
- cells are fibroblasts and macrophages
- dense matrix

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>Adipose connective tissue Fibrocartilage

structure
-collagenous and elastic fibers structure
- all six connective tissue cells -collagenous fibers arranged in parallel
- fibroblasts specialize as fat cells bundles
(central fat vacuole thin cytoplasm) -chondrocytes sandwiched between
- associated with areolar connective bundles
tissue
function function
-Food reserve for energy -provides strength
-prevents loss of body heat
location location
-around most organs -intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis
-beneath skin
- the marrow of long bones

Cartilage Elastic cartilage

àcells are chondrocytes
àmatrix is semi solid containing chondroitin
à Lacuna – a depression in the matrix w/c houses
chondrocytes
àPerichondrium- connective tissue membrane
around the cartilage
àno blood supplies
Types of cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
structure
-many elastic fibers

Function
-allows for bending with a return to
original shape

location
-the external ear, larynx, and eustachian
structure tubes
-invisible fine collagenous fibers
- two chondrocytes housed in each
lacuna
- thick gelatinous ground substance
function
Bone tissue
- organic matter - 35% (cells and fibers)
-acts as a model for embryonic bone the
- inorganic material - 65% (matrix & calcium salts)
formation prevents tissue damage from
friction. Provides shape to the nose
and respiratory passages Types of bone cells
location osteocytes - maintenance of intercellular material
-covering the bone ends at joints (matrix)
- tip of nose osteoblasts - peripheral bone-forming cells
- between rib and sternum (costal) osteoclasts - internal, actively destroy the bone matrix
-epiphyseal plate

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classification of bone
accrdg. to structure
Compact bone
- Arranged into concentric rings called
haversian systems
- Provides strength
- Is external and solid
Haversian system consists of:
à Lamella – concentric ring of matrix
àlacuna- openings between lamellae for
osteocytes
Osteocytes is a mature bone cell
àhaversian canal- in center of lamella;
house vessels
àcanaliculi- radiating cannels between
lacuna and haversian canal for nutrients and
wastes
àVolkmann canal – crosswise canals from
haversian canal to exterior containing blood
vessels and nerves

Spongy bone

- irregular latticework
- space filled with red bone marrow
- osteocytes trapped within calcium
matrix

Muscular tissue
àcomposed of cells specialized for contraction and
generation of force.
àIn the process, muscular tissue generates heat that
warms the body.

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Three types of muscular
tissue
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
à packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs
called skeletal muscles, which are attached to the
skeleton.
àcontrolled voluntarily (or consciously), form the flesh
of the body, the so-called muscular system
àskeletal muscles contract, they pull on bones or skin.
As a result, gross body movements or changes in our
facial expressions occur.
àThe cells of skeletal muscle are long, cylindrical, and
multinucleate they have obvious striations (stripes).
àskeletal muscle cells are elongated to provide a long
axis for contraction, they are often called muscle
fibers.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
àCardiac muscle is found only in the heart wall.
àAs it contracts, the heart acts as a pump to propel
blood through the blood vessels.
à skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle has striations, but
cardiac cells have only a single nucleus and are
relatively short, branching cells that fit tightly together
(like clasped fingers) at junctions called intercalated
discs.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
àVisceral muscle is so-called because no striations
are visible. The individual cells have a single nucleus
and are tapered at both ends.
àSmooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs
such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.
àAs smooth muscle in its walls contract, the cavity of
an organ alternately becomes smaller (constricts
when a smooth muscle contracts) or enlarges (dilates
when the smooth muscle relaxes) so that substances
are mixed and/or propelled through the organ along a
specific pathway.
àSmooth muscle contracts much more slowly than
the other two muscle types and these contractions
tend to last longer. Peristalsis, a wavelike motion that
keeps food moving through the small intestine is
typical of its activity.
ànervous tissue -detects changes in a
variety of conditions inside and outside the
body and responds by generating electrical
signals called nerve action potentials (nerve
impulses) that activate muscular
contractions and glandular secretions.
àWhen we think of nervous tissue, we think
of cells called neurons. All neurons receive
and conduct electrochemical impulses from
one part of the body to another; thus,
irritability and conductivity are their two
major functional characteristics.
à The structure of neurons is unique. Their
cytoplasm is drawn out into long processes
(extensions), as long as 3 feet or more in the
leg, which allows a single neuron to conduct
an impulse to distant body locations.
à However, the nervous system is more than
just neurons. A special group of supporting
cells called neuroglia insulate, support, and
protect the delicate neurons in the structures
of the nervous system—the brain, spinal cord,
and nerves.
Membranes
àBody membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover
the body, line body cavities, and cover organs within
the cavities in hollow organs.
à They can be categorized into epithelial and
connective tissue membranes.
Epithelial Membranes
àEpithelial membranes consist of epithelial tissues
and the connective tissues to which it is attached.
àThe two main types of epithelial membranes are the
mucous membranes and serous membranes.
Mucous Membranes
àMucous membranes are epithelial membranes that
consist of epithelial tissue that is attached to an
underlying loose connective tissue.
àthese membranes, sometimes called mucosae, line
the body cavities that open to the outside. The entire
digestive tract is lined with mucous membranes.
àOther examples include respiratory, excretory, and
reproductive tracts.
Serous Membranes
àSerous membranes line body cavities that do not
open directly to the outside, and they cover the
organs located in those cavities.
àSerous membranes are covered by a thin layer of
serous fluid that is secreted by the epithelium.
àThe serous fluid lubricates the membrane and
reduces friction and abrasion when organs in the
thoracic or abdominopelvic cavity move against each
other or the cavity wall.
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à Serous membranes have special names given
according to their location.
àFor example, the serous membrane that lines the
thoracic cavity and covers the lungs is called pleura.
Connective tissue membranes
àcontain only connective tissue.
àSynovial membranes and meninges belong to this
category.
Synovial Membranes
àSynovial membranes are connective tissue
membranes that line the cavities of the freely movable
joints such as the shoulder, elbow, and knee.
àLike serous membranes, they line cavities that do
not open to the outside.
àUnlike serous membranes, they do not have a layer
of epithelium.
à Synovial membranes secrete synovial fluid into the
joint cavity, and this lubricates the cartilage on the
ends of the bones so that they can move freely and
without friction.
Meninges
àThe connective tissue covering on the brain and
spinal cord, within the dorsal cavity, are called
meninges.
àThey provide protection for these vital structures.
Nervous system
àThe nervous system is the collection of cells and
tissues that form the structures and organs involved in
collecting and processing sensory information and
then triggering reactions.
àThe nervous system is broken down into the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
àThe central nervous system is just the brain and the
spinal cord.
à The peripheral nervous system is the rest of the
nervous tissue in the body and the sensory organs that
the nervous tissue attaches to.
àThe peripheral nervous tissue includes the cranial
nerves that branch out from the brain and the spinal
nerves that branch out from the spinal cord, as well as
all the sensory organs in the head and body.
àThe nervous system carries out a complex array of
tasks.
à It allows us to sense various smells, produce speech,
and remember past events;
à it provides signals that control body movements
and regulates the operation of internal organs. These
diverse activities can be grouped into three basic
functions: sensory (input), integrative (process), and
motor (output).
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
àThe central nervous system (CNS) consists of the
brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body
cavity and act as the integrating and command
centers of the nervous system.
àThey interpret incoming sensory information and
issue instructions based on experiences and current
conditions.
-The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all
parts of the nervous system outside the CNS.
àIt consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the
spinal cord and brain. Spinal nerves carry impulses to
and from the spinal cord.
àCranial nerves carry impulses to and from the brain.
These nerves serve as communication lines.
àThey link all parts of the body by carrying impulses
from the sensory receptors to the CNS and from the
CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
àThe sensory division, or afferent (literally “to
go toward”) division, consists of nerves (composed of
many individual nerve fibers) that convey impulses to
the central nervous system from sensory receptors
located in various parts of the body.
- The sensory division keeps the CNS
constantly informed of events going on both
inside and outside the body.
- Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called
somatic (soma = body) sensory(afferent)
fibers, whereas those transmitting impulses
from the visceral organs are called visceral
sensory (afferent) fibers.
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àThe motor division, or efferent division, o Visceral sensory - convey information about
carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the conditions of various internal (visceral)
muscles, and glands. organs.
- These impulses activate muscles and
glands; that is, the effect (bring about or Motor or efferent neurons
cause) a motor response. These neurons carry commands to effector
- The motor division in turn has two organs and are subcategorized according to
subdivisions: the somatic nervous system the effector organs they control:
and the autonomic nervous system.
- o Somatic (voluntary) motor – control skeletal
àSomatic nervous system allows us to consciously, or muscles.
voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles. Hence, we o Autonomic (involuntary) motor – regulate
often refer to this subdivision as the voluntary nervous cardiac and smooth muscle and glands.
system. However, not all skeletal muscle activity
controlled by this motor division is voluntary.
àSkeletal muscle reflexes, such as the stretch reflex
are initiated involuntarily by these same fibers.
CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
àAutonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates events
that are automatic, or involuntary, such as the activity
of the smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
àThis subdivision, commonly called the involuntary
nervous system, itself has two parts, the sympathetic
and parasympathetic, which typically bring about
opposite effects. What one stimulates, the other
inhibits.
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The central nervous system (CNS)
àincludes all the nervous tissue contained within the
brain and spinal cord, which occupy he dorsal body
cavity and act as the integrating and command
centers of the nervous system. A. Structural Organization
àThey interpret incoming sensory information and of Cells
issue instructions based on past experiences and àThe cell is the smallest entity that still retains
current conditions. 1 the characteristics of life.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all
the parts of the nervous system outside the CNS.
àIt consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the
spinal cord and brain.
àSpinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal
cord while the cranial nerves carry impulses to and
from the brain.
à These nerves serve as communication lines.
àThey link all parts of the body by carrying impulses
from the sensory receptors to the CNS and from the
CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles.
The PNS can be further subdivided on a functional
basis into
Sensory or afferent neurons
These neurons provide sensory input and are
subcategorized according to the type of information
they provide:
o Special sensory – sends information about
vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, and taste.
o Somatic sensory – sends information about
touch, temperature, and tissue damage from
receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints.
àAll cells have three basic parts
2 A.
à Plasma membrane separates each
cell from the environment, permits the
flow of molecules across the membrane,
and contains receptors that can affect
the cell’s activities.
b.
à A DNA-containing region occupies a
portion of the interior
c.
à The cytoplasm contains membrane-
bound compartments (except bacteria),
particles, and filaments; all bathed in a
semifluid substance.
à Eukaryotic cells are defined by their
3 possession of a membrane-bound nucleus
à Prokaryotic cells have no defined nucleus; the
4 only representatives are bacteria.

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Endoplasmic reticulum
B. Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell àmodifies newly formed polypeptide chains
and is also involved with lipid synthesis.
Membranes
àThe "fluid" portion of the cell membrane is
1 made of phospholipids.

A. phospholipid molecule
à composed of a hydrophilic head and
two hydrophobic tails.

b.
à If phospholipid molecules are Golgi Body
surrounded by water, their hydrophobic à modifies, sorts, and ships proteins; they
fatty acid tails cluster, and a bilayer also play a role in the synthesis of lipids for
result secretion or internal use
àhydrophilic heads are at the outer
faces of a two-layer sheet.

c.
à Bilayers of phospholipids are the
structural foundation for all cell
membranes.

àWithin a bilayer, phospholipids show quite a

2 bit of movement; they diffuse sideways, spin,
Vesicles
and flex their tails to prevent close packing and
àtransport material between organelles and
promote fluidity, which also results from short-
function in intracellular digestion
tailed lipids and unsaturated tails

C. Overview of Membrane Proteins

A variety of different proteins are embedded in
1 the bilayer or positioned at its two surfaces.

Membrane proteins serve as transport proteins,

2 receptor proteins, recognition proteins, and
adhesion proteins. Mitochondria
àefficient factories of ATP production

Cell Size and Cell Shape

à Because of their small size, most cells can only be
seen by using light and electron microscopes.
àCell size must be small; remember the surface-to-
volume ratio.
àA cell that is too large will not be able to move
materials into and out of the cell.
The Defining Features of Eukaryotic
Cells
à A. Major cellular components
1. Organelles form compartmentalized
portions of the cytoplasm.
2. All eukaryotic cells contain organelles

A.
àThe nucleus controls access to DNA and
permits easier packing of DNA during cell
division.

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