Part 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.1 Introduction
Fluid Mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. Fluids include liquids
and gases.

Types of Fluid Mechanics

1. Fluid Statics – is the study of fluids at rest.
2. Fluid Kinematics – is the study of fluids in motion.
3. Fluid Dynamics – is the study of of the effect of forces on fluid motion.

1. Unit Weight or Specific Weight () - is the weight of fluid per unit volume.

(N/m3, kN/m3, lb/ft3)

where:
W = weight of fluid (N, kN, lb)
V = volume of fluid (m3, ft3)
 for water:
w = 9.81 kN/m3 = 9810 N/m3
= 62.4 lb/ft3
 for air:
air = 12 N/m3
2. Mass Density or Specific Density (ρ) - is the mass of fluid per unit volume

(kg/m3, slugs/ft3)

where:
W =mass of fluid (N, kN, lb)
V = volume of fluid (m3, ft3)
 for water:
ρw = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3
= 1.938 slugs /ft3
 for air:
ρair = 1.205 kg/m3
 Density of Gases

(kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
where:
p = absolute pressure of gas (kPa, psi)
R = gas constant (J/kg-°K)
For Air:
0.287 kJ/kg°K
T = absolute temperature (°K, °R)
3. Specific Volume () – is a reciprocal of mass or specific density.

(m3/kg, ft3/slugs)

where:
 = Mass Density or Specific Density

4. Specific Gravity or Relative density (s) – is the ratio of unit weight of fluid to the
unit weight of the reference material. or specific density of fluid over the specific
density of the reference material.

For liquid, the reference material is water at 3.98°C

For gas, the reference material is air at 20°C .

Table 1.1 Specific Gravity of Common Substance

 Substance Specific gravity
water 1.0
salt water 1.03
mercury 13.6
steel 7.8
concrete 2.4
oil & gasoline <1.0

1.2 Surface Tension ()

Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of molecular
attraction (or interaction). Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stress, while
adhesion enables it to adhere to another body. The attraction between molecular forms
an imaginary film capable of resisting tension at the interface between two immiscible
liquids or at the interface between a liquid and a gas. The property that creates this
capability is called surface tension.
The surface tension of a fluid is the work that must be done to bring enough
molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form a new unit area of that surface in
ft-lb/ft2 or N-m/m2.

pressure inside a droplet of liquid

(Pa, psf)

where:
 = surface tension (N/m, lb/ft)
d = diameter of the droplet (m, ft)
adhesion cohesion

1.3 Capillarity
The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillarity tube which is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion >
cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillarity is
important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8” (9.5 mm) in diameter.

(mm, in)

use:
 = 0° for water on clean glass
 = 140° for mercury on clean glass

where:
h = capillary rise or depression (mm, in)
σ = surface tension (N/m, lb/ft)
 = unit weight of fluid (N/m3, lb/ft3)
d = diameter of the tube (mm, in)

PROBLEM SET 1

1. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3. Compute it’s (a) specific density, (b) specific volume,
(c) specific gravity.
Ans. a) 1.63 kg/m3, b) 0.613 m3/kg, c) 0.00163

2. A gallon of water weighs 4.08 lb. Compute it’s (a) Mass (in slugs), (b) Mass (in kg),
(c) Volume (in ft3).
Ans. a) 0.127 slugs, b) 1.85 kg, c) 0.134 ft3

3. The specific gravity of a certain oil is 0.86. Calculate it’s a) specific weight (in lb/ft 3
and kN/m3), b) mass density(in slugs/ft3 and kg/m3)
Ans. a) 53.664 lb/ft3, 8.44 kN/m3
b) 1.67 slugs/ft3, 860 kg/m3

4. The relative density of a certain gas is 1.25, find its specific volume.
Ans. 0.654 m3/kg

5. If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.75 m3/kg, what is its specific weight?
Ans. 13.08 N/m3

6. If an object has a mass of 38 kg at sea level, a) What will be its weight at a point
where the acceleration due to gravity is 9.6 m/s2. b) What will be its mass at that point?
 Ans. a) 364.8 N, b)

7. What is the specific weight of air at 480 gage and 21°C?

Ans. 67.59 kN/m3

8. Find the mass of helium at a temperature of 4°C and a pressure of 285 kPa abs.
inside a 500-liter container. (R = 2079 J/kg•°K)
Ans. 0.25 kg

9. Calculate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of radius 1.5 mm. Use
 = 0.0728 N/m.
Ans. 9.9 mm

10. Compute the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in
diameter. Use  = 0.514 N/m.
Ans. 9.9 mm

11. Determine the surface tension in water in a tube with 0.2 m in radius and capillary
rise of 5 mm. Ans. 4.91 mm

Part 2
PRESSURE

Is the effect of force applied to a surface. Pressure is the amount of force per unit area.

(Pa, kPa, psi)

where:
F = force (N, kN, lb)
A = area (m2, in2)

2.1 Types of Pressure

1. Gage Pressure – is pressure above or below the atmosphere and can be measured
by pressure gages or manometers.

2. Atmospheric Pressure (Barometric Pressure) – is pressure caused by gasses which

composes in the atmosphere.

Under Normal Conditions:

patm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
 = 760 mm Hg
= 29.9 in Hg

3. Absolute Pressure – is measured relative to a perfect vacuum(absolute zero) above

absolute zero.

pabs = pgage + patm

 Note:
If not stated, the term pressure signifies gage pressure.

2.2 Pressure Measuring Device

Manometer – is a pressure measuring device that involves the use of liquid columns in
vertical or inclined tubes.

TYPES OF MANOMETER

1. Open-manometer
2. Differential (U-Tube) Manometer
3. Piezometer

1. Open-Manometer – has an atmosphere surface in one leg and is capable of

measuring gage pressures.
Ope
n

Pipe

2. Differential (U-Tube) Manometer– without an atmosphere surface and

capable of measuring difference in pressure between two pipes or containers.
 Pipe 2

Pipe 1

3. Piezometer – The simplest type of manometer consist of a vertical tube, open

at the top, and attached to the conduit or pipe in which the pressure
is desired.
Ope
n

Pipe

CASE 1:
The pressure at any point below the free surface of a liquid equals the product of
the unit weight of the liquid and the depth of the point. It is because free water surface
(FWS) is subject to atmospheric pressure only and no gage pressure.

P = h

CASE 2:
The difference in pressure between any two points in a homogenous fluid at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the vertical distance between the
points.

P2 = P1 + h

 Note: According to Pascal’s Law “At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is
the same in all directions”
Pressure Head (h)
The height “h” of a column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight “” that will produce an
intensity of pressure p.

To convert height of liquid A to liquid B

(s • h)A = (s • h)B

Pressure below layers of different liquids

 Air pressure,
P

Liquid h1
Interface
1

Liquid h2
Interface
2

Liquid h3
3

 Pressure at the interface of liquid 1 and liquid 2,

pinterface = p + 1h1
 Pressure at the bottom,

pbottom = p + 1h1 + 2h2 + 3h3

PROBLEM SET 2

1. If a depth of liquid of 1.2 m causes a pressure of 6 kPa, what is the specific gravity
of the liquid?
Ans. 0.51

2. If the pressure 17 m below a liquid is 260.4 Kpa, determine it’s (a) unit weight, (b)
mass density, and (c) specific gravity.
Ans. (a) 15.32 kN/m3, (b)1,561.43 kg/m3, (c) 1.56
3. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 2,560 psf, what is the pressure 70' below
this point?
Ans. 7,059.04 lb/ft3

4. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (s = 0.85) surface in a closed tank is
126 kPa absolute, what is the pressure 3 m below the surface?
Ans. 49. 69 kPa

5. A pressure gage at elevation 12 m at the side of the tank reads 100 kPa. Another
gage at elevation 7 m reads 140 kPa. (a) Determine the specific gravity of the
liquid.
Ans. 0.815

6. An open tank contains 5.7 m of water covered with 2.8 m of kerosene ( = 8

kN/m3). Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.
Ans. 22.4 kPa, 78.32 kPa

7. If the atmospheric pressure is 108.2 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads
192 mmHg vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank.
Ans. 82.58 kPa

8. Convert 580 mm of mercury to (a) oil(s = 0.82), (b) water, (c) gasoline
(s = 0.91).
Ans. (a) 9.62 m, (b) 7.89 m, (c) 8.67 m

9. Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m 3, what is the approximate

height of Mt. Manunggal if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads
512 mm and at the same time another barometer at the top of the mountain reads
360 mm.
Ans. 1690 m

10. In the figure shown, the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 214.3 kPa,
what is the specific gravity of olive oil?
 SAE Oil (s=0.89) 1.2 m

Water 1.80 m

Olive 2.4 m
s=?

Mercur 0.4 m
y
Ans. 1.34

11. A barometer reads 760 mmHg and a pressure gage attached to a tank reads 750
cm of oil(s =0.84). What is the absolute pressure in the tank in kPa?
Ans. 163.2 m

12. In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?

Ai 2.0
r m

Oil
(s =0.82) 5m

4m
2.0
m

Ans. -20.60 kPa

13. A closed cylindrical tank contains 2 m of water, 3 m of oil(s = 0.80) and the air
above oil has a pressure of 20 kPa. If an open mercury manometer at the bottom
of the tank has 1 m of water, determine the deflection of mercury.
Ans. 0.547 m

14. For a gage reading of -11.2 kPa, determine the (a) elevation of the liquids in the
open piezometer columns A and B and b) the deflection of the mercury in the U-
tube manometer neglecting the weight of air.
 A B
Gage

Air
Elev. 15 m

s = 0.70

Elev. 12 m

water
Elev. 8 m

h
Elev. 3 m
Mercury

Ans. (a) 13.37 m, 12.96 m (b) 0.73 m

15. An open manometer attached to a pipe shows a deflection of 160 mmHg with the
lower level of mercury 400 mm below the centerline of the pipe carrying water.
Calculate the pressure at the centerline of the pipe.
Ans. 17.42 kPa

16. Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury, the
connecting tubing being filled with water. The higher pressure vessel is 1.2 m lower
in elevation than the other. a) If the mercury reading is 90 mm, what is the
pressure head in meters of water? b) If carbon tetrachloride (s = 0.60) were used
instead of mercury, what would be the manometer reading for the same pressure
difference.

1.2 m

Water

Water

Ans. (a) 2.33 m, (b) 1.88 m

17. In the figure shown, determine the height “h” of water and the gage reading at A
when the absolute pressure at B is 260 kPa.
 Air, 145 kPa

Water

580 mm Hg
B A

Ans. 3.83 m, 188.26 kPa

18. For the manometer setup shown, determine the difference in pressure between A
and B.

Oil (s = 0.82)

540 mm
B

1,500
Water mm
A

Ans. 13.76 kPa

19. Determine the pressure difference between the water pipe and the oil pipe.

s = 0.68

20 cm
Oil (s = 0.86)
Water 25 cm

15 cm
10 cm

Hg
Ans. 13.76 kPa