GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II

. LESSON 2: CELL BIOLOGY AND CYTOLOGY .

CELL THEORY . 3. Glycocalyx – this may be another network of
➢ Contributions: polysaccharides that project from cellular
○ Antony van Leeuwenhoek: a shoekeeper surfaces of bacteria, made up of a capsule
that crafts lenses, observed movements of 4. Cytosol – a jellylike semifluid substance in
unicellular organisms he called which organelles are suspended
animalcules. 5. Cell Wall – the rigid structure outside the
○ Robert Hooke: coined the term cell in his plasma membrane present in all prokaryotes
publication called Micrographia (1665), to 6. Plasma Membrane – aka cell membrane, the
which he observed plant cells thru cork membrane enclosing the protoplasm
tissues. 7. Ribosomes – these are complex proteins that
➢ Final ver. was developed by the late 1830s by also synthesize other proteins.
Matthias Schleiden [botanist], Theodor
Schwann [zoologist], and Rudolf Virchow. EUKARYOTES .
➢ Propositions: ➢ From the Greek eu – “true” and karyon –
1. All living things are composed of one “kernel / nucleus”; literally meaning true
or more cells nucleus
2. The cell is the basic unit of life ➢ These are cells that have a clearly-defined
3. Cells arise from preexisting cells nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles
★ All cells share 4 common characteristics: ➢ They have several, rod-shaped chromosomes
A. Plasma membrane and more complex structures than prokaryotic
B. Cytoplasm cells
C. DNA [particularly, chromosomes]
D. Ribosomes

PROKARYOTES .
➢ These are simple, unicellular organisms,
lacking a nucleus or any membrane-bound
organelle
➢ In prokaryotes, the DNA is concentrated in the
center region called the nucleoid.

★ Cells keep their size small to optimize the

surface area — which determines the rate of
exchange of nutrients and wastes.
★ Sometimes, microvilli are present that increase
surface area without any appreciable increase
in the volume

Parts of a Prokaryotic Cell .

1. Fimbriae, Pilus, and Flagella – these are
hairlike appendages that help cells adhere to
other cells, move, and to be motile.
2. Nucleoid – this is the region where the cell’s
DNA is located / concentrated
○ Typically, circular chromosomes are
accompanied by ring-like DNA called
plasmids — a coiled DNA.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
The Compartments of Eukaryotic Cells . 6. Nucleoplasm
1. The Structural Support System ★ aka Karyoplasm
➔ Includes the Plasma Membrane, ★ Like the cytosol, it is the semi-solid fluid
inside the nucleus, where we find the
Cytoplasm, and Cell Wall (for some).
chromatin and the nucleolus.
➔ This is a set of structures that allow the
ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL .
existence of the structure of cells.
➢ The DNA is packaged into discrete packets
PLASMA MEMBRANE . called chromosomes that carry these genetic
➢ A phospholipid bilayer embedded with
information.
protein that separates internal content and
➢ Each chromosome contains one long DNA
environment of cells.
molecule associated with many proteins like
➢ It also controls the passage and leave of
histones that help DNA coil to reduce its
nutrients and wastes to and from the cell.
length and fit into the nucleus.
➢ May contain microvilli that are fingerlike
➢ The complex of DNA and proteins making up
projections that increase surface area.
the chromosomes is called the chromatin.
NUCLEOLUS .
➢ This is a prominent structure within the
nondividing nucleus that allows the synthesis
of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), used in synthesis of
ribosomes from the genes in DNA.
➢ Proteins are imported here from the
cytoplasm, assembled with rRNA into large
CYTOPLASM .
subunits of ribosomes, exiting thru pores.
➢ It is the entire region between plasma
➢ The nucleoli may also play a role in controlling
membrane and the nuclear envelope
cell division and the lifespan of a cell.
➢ It is made up of organelles suspended in the
gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various
chemicals
➢ 70% to 80% water, having semi-solid
consistency due to proteins and others
2. The Nucleus
➔ This is the control center of the cell,
housing the cell's genetic material.
➔ It regulates gene expression, controls
cellular activities, and is responsible for
the replication and transcription
processes.
➔ Contains most of the genes and usually
the most conspicuous organelle
PARTS OF NUCLEUS .
1. Nuclear Envelope
★ Envelopes the nucleus, separating it from
the plasma membrane
2. Nuclear Pores
★ aka Pore Complex
★ These are structures that perforate the
nuclear membrane that allows the
passage of proteins and RNAs in and
out of the cell. RIBOSOME .
3. Nuclear Lamina ➢ These are protein-rRNA complexes that carry
★ These are netlike array of protein out protein synthesis.
filaments that lines the nuclear side of ➢ Cells with high rates of protein synthesis
the nuclear membrane
have particularly large numbers of
★ It is responsible for maintaining the
shape of the nucleus by mechanically ribosomes as well as prominent nucleoli.
supporting the nuclear envelope. ○ mRNA, tRNA, and microRNA in cytop.
4. Nuclear Matrix ○ rRNA in nucleolus
★ Although it has evidences, it hasn’t been ➢ Ribosomes carry protein synthesis out in 2 regions
confirmed yet in the cytoplasm:
★ It is a framework of protein fibers ○ Free ribosomes – suspended in cytosol; they
extending throughout the nuclear typically create ribosomes that function
interior within the cytosol themselves.
★ The nuclear lamina and matrix may help organize ○ Bound ribosomes – attached outside the
the genetic material so it functions efficiently. rough ER or the nuclear envelope; they
5. Perinuclear Space synthesize proteins destined for insertion
★ The nuclear envelope is a double into other membranes, packaging, or export
membrane of phospholipid bilayer. ➢ Has a large subunit and small subunit that
★ In between the two layers is a space together function as an interactive workbench,
called the perinuclear space. occurring as a catalyst to facilitate protein
★ aka perinuclear cistern synthesis.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
3. The Endomembrane System
➔ This is a network of membranous
structures within the cell that work
together to modify, package, and
transport lipids and proteins.
➔ They are responsible for the metabolic
functions inside the cell.
VESICLES .
➢ These are small, membrane-bound sacs that
transport and store substances within a cell.
➢ They are formed from segments of
membranes in the endomembrane system
and play crucial roles in various cellular
processes.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM .
➢ From the word endoplasmic – “within the
cytoplasm” and reticulum – “L. little neck”
➢ The cisternal space of the nuclear membrane
is continuous with the lumen of the ER
➢ Have 3 main parts:
○ Cisternae – membranous tubules and
sacs; flattened for rough ER and curvy
for smooth ER
○ ER Membrane – separates internal
compartment of ER from the cytosol
○ ER Lumen – aka cisternal space, this is
the internal compartment or cavity of
ER.
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
★ Termed as smooth because it does not
have any attached ribosomes
★ They are included in the synthesis of
carbohydrates, cholesterol, lipids, and
steroid hormones, as well as the
detoxification of some drugs and toxins
★ Termed as smooth because it does not
have any attached ribosomes
★ In muscle cells, they are specialized SER
are presented and they are called the
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum with functions:
○ Sequesters and releases calcium
ions in muscle cells
○ Regulates muscle contraction
and relaxation
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
★ Termed as rough because of ribosome
attachments on the surface
★ Many cells secrete proteins that are
produced by ribosomes attached in RER.
★ Their cytoplasmic surface of RER
possesses receptor molecules:
○ Ribophorins — for ribosomes and
○ Docking Proteins — for signal
recognition particles (SRPs)
(known
★ It also functions in the synthesis and
modification of proteins that are to be
packaged, as well as in the synthesis of
lipids and proteins found in the plasma
membrane of cells.
======================================================
SEQUENCE OF RER PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
I. As a polypeptide chain grows from a bound
ribosome, the chain is threaded into the ER lumen
through a pore formed by a protein complex in the
ER membrane and anchored there by their
hydrophobic portions.
II. The new polypeptide folds into its functional shape
as it enters the ER lumen. Enzymes built in the ER
membrane allow the modification of these proteins.
III. The proteins can either be incorporated in ER
membrane or secreted out of the cell (secretory
proteins)
IV. After secretory proteins are formed, the ER
membrane keeps them separate from proteins in the
cytosol, which are produced by free ribosomes.
● Transitional ER – this is a specialized region to
which secretory proteins depart from the ER.
The proteins are wrapped in the membranes of
vesicles that bud like bubbles called transport
vesicles.
V. After leaving the ER, transport vesicles travel to the
Golgi Apparatus (warehouse for manufacturing and
modifying proteins) or directly to their destination.
======================================================
GOLGI APPARATUS .
➢ aka Golgi Bodies, these are a series of
flattened membranes (the cisternae)
responsible for modifying, sorting, tagging,
packaging, and distributing proteins and
lipids.
○ cis Face – receiving side
○ trans Face – opposite, shipping side
★ Acc. to Cisternal Maturation Model, the cisternae
of Golgi progress forward from cis to trans face,
carrying and modifying the cargo as they move.
LYSOSOMES .
➢ These are membranous sacs of hydrolytic
enzymes that cells use to digest / hydrolyze
macromolecules
➢ Their enzymes work best in acidic
environment, found in lysosomes, which are
synthesized in RER and altered in GA.
➢ These organelles are formed by the utilization
of late endosomes as an intermediary
compartment, and some arise by budding
from the trans face of the Golgi apparatus.
1. Phagocytosis
★ Lysosomes carry out intracellular
digestion in a variety of circumstances.
I. When cells engulf smaller organisms
or molecules, this process is called
phagocytosis.
II. These substances fuse with the
lysosome, hydrolyzing them.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
III. The waste products pass / exit into
the cytosol and become nutrients for
the cell.
2. Autophagy
★ This is a process where lysosomes use
their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the
cell’s own organic material.
★ It starts because of signals like nutrient
deprivation, stress, or damage.
I. In response to these, a small portion
of the ER, the Golgi, or the Plasma
membrane elongates and curves to
form a double-membrane structure
called the phagophore or isolation
membrane.
II. The phagophore expands and
engulfs a portion of the cytoplasm,
including organelles or other cellular
components targeted for degradation
to form an autophagosome.
III. The autophagosome undergoes a
series of maturation steps, including ENDOSOMES .
fusion with endosomes and ➢ These are intermediate compartments used
lysosomes, to form an autolysosome. for the destruction of endocytosed,
IV. The contents of the autolysosome are
phagocytosed, or autophagocytosed
degraded by lysosomal enzymes..
V. The degraded components are
materials or formation of lysosomes.
recycled back to the cytosol. ➢ They possess proton pumps which acidify
the interior compartment.
○ Early Endosomes — found at the
periphery of cell; contain receptor-ligand
complexes
○ Late Endosomes — found deeper within
the cytoplasm
➢ Receptors allow more concentration to be
endocytosed in a process called
receptor-mediated endocytosis that involves
formation of a clathrin-coated vesicle that
sheds its coat once inside and fuses with an
early endosome.
➢ Receptors are carried into a system of tubular
vesicles, recycling endosomes, from which
the receptors are returned to the
plasmalemma, whereas the ligands are
translocated to late endosomes.

VACUOLES .
➢ These are large vesicles derived from ER and
Golgi Bodies
➢ Its membrane is selectively permeable for
transporting solutes and its interior has a
solution of different composition than cytosol
called the cell sap.
○ Food Vacuoles — formed by
phagocytosis, it allows the storage of food
by the cell
○ Contractile Vacuoles — they pump excess
water out of the cell that maintains ion
balance, used by many unicellular
freshwater protists
○ Plant and Fungal Vacuoles — carry out
enzymatic hydrolysis, hold reserves of
organic compounds, store defensive
poisons against herbivores, and even
pigments to attract pollinating insects
○ Central Vacuoles — typically large in plant
cells which develop by the coalescence of
smaller vacuoles.
★ Vesicles can fuse with other organelles,
while Vacuoles cannot fuse with other
components.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
4. The Metabolic Organelles
➔ They are responsible for generating the
energy required for various cellular
processes.
ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY .
➢ States that an early ancestor of eukaryotic
cells engulfed an oxygen-using non
photosynthetic prokaryotic cell.
➢ They endosymbiosed, merging into one single
organism that later became mitochondrion.
➢ By the same virtue, one ancestor has taken up
a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the
ancestor of chloroplasts.
===================================================
EVIDENCES FOR ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
1. Similarity with bacteria
★ Chloroplasts and Mitochondria are the same size
as prokaryotic cells
★ They divide by binary fission, and have Fts
proteins at their division plane.
★ They replicate autonomously in the cell.
2. Presence of Plastids
★ Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own
DNA that is circular, not linear.
3. Presence of Ribosomes
★ Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own
ribosomes that have 30S and 50S subunits, not
40S and 60S.
4. Double-membrane Structure
★ Unlike the single-membraned endomembrane
system, they have a double membrane.
★ This implies invagination by ancestral eukaryotes
as with endocytosis.
5. Evolutionary Systematics
★ Several more primitive eukaryotic microbes, such
as Giardia and Trichomonas have a nuclear
membrane but no mitochondria.
===================================================
MITOCHONDRIA .
➢ Mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration, hence they are called the
“powerhouses” or “energy factories” of
a cell since they are responsible for
making adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule.
➢ Cells with higher demand for energy
have more mitochondria to produce
ATP, like muscles, through chemiosmotic
coupling mechanisms because of the
enzymes in their cristae.
➢ They generate heat in brown fat instead
of producing ATP, assisting in the
synthesis of certain lipids and proteins
★ When your cells don’t get enough
oxygen, they do not make a lot of
ATP. They carry-out anaerobic
respiration, accompanied by the
production of lactic acid.
○ Cristae — the inner folds of the
mitochondrial membrane
○ Mitchondrial Matrix — the area
surrounded by the folds of the cristae.
CHLOROPLAST .
➢ It is a type of plastid found in plants and
algae as sites of photosynthesis.
➢ It has a very narrow intermembrane
space, housed by a double membrane.
○ Chlorophyll — green pigment that
captures sunlight for photosynthesis.
○ Thylakoid — these are flattened,
interconnected sacs stacked like
pancakes where light-dependent
photosynthesis takes place.
○ Granum — the term used to describe a
stack of thylakoids
○ Stroma — this is a fluid similar to
cytosol that fills the chloroplast.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
PEROXISOMES .
➢ These are specialized metabolic
compartments bounded by a single
membrane that houses oxidative enzymes
such as urate oxidase, D-amino acid
oxidase, and catalase.
➢ Peroxisomes contain enzymes that perform
OXIDATION — they remove hydrogen atoms
from various substrates and transfer them to
oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as a
by-product.
➢ Peroxisomes themselves are toxic, but
contain catalase that convert H2O2 to water.
➢ Most of the proteins intended for inclusions
into peroxisomes are synthesized in the
cytosol rather than on the RER.
➢ All peroxisomes are formed by fission from
preexisting peroxisomes
1. Peroxisomes break fatty acids
★ Some peroxisomes use oxygen to break
fatty acids down into smaller molecules
that are transported to mitochondria
and used as fuel for cellular respiration.
2. Peroxisomes detoxify alcohol
★ Peroxisomes in the LIVER detoxify alcohol
and other harmful compounds by
transferring hydrogen from the
poisonous compounds to oxygen.
3. Peroxisomes can store fats
★ Specialized peroxisomes called
GLYOXYSOMES are found in the
fat-storing tissues of plant seeds.
★ They contain enzymes that initiate the
conversion of fatty acids to sugar, which
the emerging seedling uses as a source
of energy and carbon until it can
produce its own sugar by photosynthesis.
PROTEASOMES .
➢ These are small, barrel-shaped organelles that
function in the degradation of cytosolic
proteins.
➢ The practice of cytosolic proteolysis is highly
regulated, and the candidate protein must be
TAGGED by several UBIQUITIN molecules
before it is permitted to be destroyed.
○ 26S Proteasome System — the larger
protease that “splits” the proteins into
smaller subunits.
○ 20S Proteasome System — the smaller
protease that consumes the splitted
protein subunits. It also degrades proteins
that are oxidized by reactive oxygen
species to form protein carbonyls.
5. The Cytoskeleton
➔ This is a dynamic network of protein fibers
that provide structural support to the cell,
maintain its shape, and facilitate
movement.
➔ It is involved in various cellular functions,
including intracellular transport, cell
division, and cell signaling.
● Cell Motility – this is the movement
and change in location of cell parts. It
generally requires interaction of the
cytoskeleton with motor proteins.
MICROTUBULES .
➢ These are hollow rods of 25 nm with 15 nm
lumen in diameter.
➢ It is a protein polymer made up of globular
proteins called tubulin dimers. Their walls
consist of 13 polymerized α- and β-tubulin
monomers.
➢ They grow in length by adding tubulin
dimers that can be disassembled and built
elsewhere.
○ Plus end — mobile end of MT.
○ Minus end — anchored on centrosom.
➢ It functions in:
○ Maintenance of cell shape
○ Cell motility – they serve as tracks along
which organelles equipped with motor
proteins can move
○ Chromosome movements / separation
during cell division
○ Organelle movements – microtubules
guide vesicles from the ER to the Golgi
apparatus and from the Golgi to the
plasma membrane
===================================================
AFFILIATED ORGANELLES OF MICROTUBULES
1. Centrosomes
★ Present in Animal Cells, these
are structures to which
microtubules grow out from,
located near the nucleus.
★ The microtubules function as
compression-resisting girders
of the cytoskeleton.
★ Inside them is a pair of
CENTRIOLES composed of 9 sets
of triplet microtubules arranged
in a ring.
★ Centrosomes with centrioles is
the microtubule organizing
center (MTOC) that helps
organize microtubule assembly
in animal cells.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
2. Cilia and Flagella
★ Present in some eukaryotes, a specialized
arrangement of microtubules is responsible for
the beating of these structures.
★ Their primary functions are for locomotion and
movement through fluids.
★ Motile cilia appear numerously on cell’s surfaces,
having alternating power and recovery strokes,
much like the oars of a racing crew boat.
★ Non Motile cilium may also act as a
signal-receiving “antenna” for the cell, limited to
only one per cell.
★ Flagella only appears limitedly, has an
undulating motion like the tail of a fish.
★ All have a group of microtubules sheathed in an
extension of the plasma membrane.
★ It has 9 doublets arranged in a ring with 2 single
microtubules in the center, called the 9+2
pattern found in eukaryotic flagella and motile
cilia.
★ 9+0 pattern is observed in nonmotile cilia,
lacking a pair of microtubules.
● Basal Body – this is where the MTOC of a
cilium or flagellum is anchored in the
cell. It is structurally very similar to a
centriole, with microtubule triplets in a
“9 + 0” pattern. In fact, in many animals,
the basal body of the fertilizing sperm’s
flagellum enters the egg and becomes a
centriole.
★ Bending involves large motor proteins called
DYNEINS that are attached along each outer
microtubule doublet.
★ The outer doublets and two central
microtubules are held together by flexible
cross-linking proteins; the walking movement is
coordinated so that it happens on one side of the
circle at a time.
★ If the doublets were not held in place, the walking
action would make them slide past each other.
★ Instead, the movements of the dynein feet cause
the microtubules—and the organelle as a
whole—to bend.
===================================================
MICROFILAMENTS .
➢ aka Actin Filaments
➢ These are thin solid rods made of two
intertwined strands of actin (a globular
protein), of 7 nm diameter.
➢ It functions in the maintenance of cell shape,
changes in cell shape, muscle contraction,
cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells, cell
motility, and cell division in animal cells.
➢ They can have a linear or branched structure
when protein binds along in the side,
extending as a new network of filaments.
➢ Their role is to bear tension to support shape
and their role for cellular motility:
○ Cortical Microfilaments – a 3D network
formed by microfilaments inside,
adjacent to the plasma membrane to
help support the cell’s shape.
○ Microvilli – microfilaments make up its
core that increases its SA, allowing it to
absorb more nutrients.
○ Actin and Myosin – thousands of actin
filaments and thicker filaments made of
a protein called MYOSIN interact to cause
contraction of muscle cells.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
○ Pseudopodia – these are extensions that
cells use to crawl along a surface. It is
especially prominent with unicellular
protist Amoeba and some of our white
blood cells. Localized contractions
brought by actin and myosin are involved
in the amoeboid (crawling) movement.

6. The Extracellular Matrix

➔ This is a complex network
of proteins and
polysaccharides outside
the cell that provides
structural support,
segregates tissues and
regulates intercellular
communication.
➔ It plays a crucial role in tissue
development, wound healing,
maintaining the physical properties of
tissues, and even cell differentiation.
○ Cytoplasmic Streaming – this is a circular ➔ Collagen fibers are interwoven with
flow of cytoplasm within (large plant) carbohydrate-containing protein
cells. It is brought by actin-protein molecules called proteoglycans.
interactions, speeds up the movement of ★ Cells have protein receptors on their plasma
organelles and the distribution of
membrane, changing its molecular structure
materials within the cell.
when a molecule binds within the matrix.
★ The receptor, in turn, changes the
conformation of the microfilaments
positioned just inside the plasma membrane.
★ These conformational changes induce
chemical signals inside the cell that reach the
nucleus and turn “on” or “off” the transcription
of specific sections of DNA, which affects the
production of associated proteins, thus
changing the activities within the cell.

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS .
➢ These are fibrous proteins coiled into cable
shapes of 8–12 nm found in only animal cells.
➢ They are specialized for bearing tension, and
have a diverse class of cytoskeleton.
➢ Each type is constructed from a particular
molecular subunit belonging to a family of
proteins whose members include the keratins.
➢ It functions in the maintenance of cell shape,
anchorage of nucleus and certain, other
organelles, and formation of nuclear lamina
○ The nucleus typically sits within a cage
made of intermediate filaments.
○ Other intermediate filaments make up ○ Intercellular Junctions – allow plant cells
the nuclear lamina. to communicate through direct contact.
○ In general, the various kinds of ★ Plasmodesmata are junctions between plant
intermediate filaments seem to function cells, whereas animal cell contacts include tight
together as the permanent framework of junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.
the entire cell.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
CELL WALL .
➢ It is a rigid covering that protects the cell,
provides structural support, gives shape to
the cell, and prevents excessive uptake of
water.
➢ At the level of the whole plant, the strong
walls of specialized cells hold the plant up
against the force of gravity.
○ Prokaryotic cell walls are made of
peptidoglycan
○ Plant cell walls are made of cellulose
○ Fungal cell walls are made of chitin
○ Protistan cell walls are made of other
sugars and proteins, not having a fixed
composition
PARTS OF PLANT EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
1. Microfibrils
★ They are made of cellulose, synthesized by
an enzyme called cellulose synthase and
secreted to the extracellular space, where
they become embedded in a matrix of
other polysaccharides and proteins.
★ Hydroxyl groups are free to hydrogen bond
with the hydroxyl groups of other cellulose
molecules lying parallel to it.
2. Ground Substance
★ It is an amorphous gel-like substance in the
extracellular space of animals that contains
all components of the extracellular matrix
(ECM) except for fibrous materials such as
collagen and elastin.
3. Primary Cell Wall
★ It is the flexible wall that young plant cells
first secrete.
★ It is relatively thin, whose main functions are
to protect the plasma membrane, maintain
turgor pressure, and allow for growth.
4. Middle Lamella
★ A thin layer between the adjacent primary
cell walls; it is rich is sticky polysaccharide
called pectin.
★ It glues adjacent cells together,
strengthening the plant once it stops grow.
5. Secondary Cell Wall
★ Some cells strengthen middle lamella, while
some add a secondary cell wall.
★ It is deposited in several laminated layers,
has a strong and durable matrix that affords
cell protection and support.
★ The primary function of the secondary cell
wall is to strengthen the cell and prevent it
from bursting under high water pressure.
ANIMAL EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX .
➢ The main ingredients of the ECM are
glycoproteins and other
carbohydrate-containing molecules secreted
by the cells.
COMPONENTS OF ANIMAL ECM
★ Collagen forms strong fibers
extracellularly
★ Large proteoglycan complexes can form
when many proteoglycan molecules
become noncovalently attached to a
single long polysaccharide molecule.
INTEGRINS .
★ These are surface receptor proteins to
which fibronectins and other ECM proteins
bind.
★ They span the membrane and bind on their
cytoplasmic side to associated proteins
attached to microfilaments in the
cytoskeleton.
★ Integrins are in a position to transmit
signals between the ECM and the
cytoskeleton and thus to integrate changes
occurring outside and inside the cell.
➔ Current research on fibronectin, other ECM
molecules, and integrins reveals the influential
role of the ECM in the lives of cells.
➔ By communicating with a cell through
integrins, the ECM can regulate a cell’s behavior.
➔ Researchers have also learned that the
extracellular matrix around a cell can influence
the activity of genes in the nucleus.
➔ Information about the ECM probably reaches the
nucleus by a combination of mechanical and
chemical signaling pathways.
CELL JUNCTIONS .
➢ These are sites of physical contacts to which
cells communicate upon.
1. Plasmodesmata
★ Plant cell walls are perforated with
plasmodesmata — channels that
connect cells, lined with membranes.
★ Although not connected directly,
plants use vascular tissues and
plasmodesmata to transport
materials, with aid from cytoskeleton,
cell-to-cell and throughout the plant.
★ They are continuous and they unify
most of the plants in a one continuum.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY I & II
2. Tight Junctions
★ In these junctions, the plasma
membranes are very tightly pressed,
bound together by proteins, primarily
claudins and occludins.
★ They form continuous seals around cells
that establish a barrier preventing the
leakage of extracellular fluid across a
layer of epithelial cells.

FORMATION OF GAP JUNCTIONS .

★ They develop when a set of six proteins called
CONNEXINS in the plasma membrane arrange
themselves in an elongated donut-like
configuration called a CONNEXON.
★ When the pores of connexons in adjacent animal
cells align, a channel between the two cells forms.

3. Desmosomes
★ Is a type of an ANCHORING junction
★ aka Adhesion Junctions
★ It functions like rivets that fasten cells
together into strong sheets.
★ Sturdy keratin protein called cadherins
typically allow this anchoring by
connecting the intermediate filaments
of adjacent cells..

END OF LECTURE 1.

4. Gap Junctions
★ aka Communicating Junctions
★ They provide cytoplasmic channels from
two adjacent cells, functioning similar to
plasmodesmata in plants.
★ Membrane proteins extend to two
membranes that create pores through
which small molecules may pass.
★ They are necessary for communication
of cells