CHAPTER 4

4.1 OBJECTIVE 0F AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM

The main objective of an automatic braking system (ABS), also known as Autonomous
Emergency Braking (AEB), is quite different from an Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) and
much more focused on collision avoidance. Here's the breakdown:

4.1.1 Collision Prevention:

The primary goal of an automatic braking system is to prevent a collision entirely by

automatically applying the brakes if the car senses an imminent danger ahead. This can be
another vehicle, a pedestrian, a cyclist, or even a large object in the road.

Here are some additional points to consider:

4.1.2 Reaction Time:

Human reaction time in an emergency can be slow. Automatic braking systems react much
faster, potentially preventing a collision altogether in situations where a driver might not have
time to brake quickly enough.

4.1.3 Driver Assistance:

It's important to remember that automatic braking systems are driver assistance technologies, not
a replacement for safe driving practices. Drivers should always be attentive and focused on the
road.

4.2 Types of ABS Systems:

Different ABS systems might have varying functionalities depending on the manufacturer and
car model. Some systems might provide warnings before applying brakes, while others might
offer pedestrian or cyclist detection.
4.3 SCOPE OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM
Automatic Braking Systems (ABS), also known as Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB),
offer a range of functionalities to enhance car safety, but it's important to understand their
capabilities and limitations:

Collision Targets: While AEB systems are effective, they primarily focus on forward collision
avoidance.

This includes:

* Other vehicles

* Pedestrians

* Cyclists

* Large objects in the road (depending on the system)

Speed Range: The effectiveness of AEB systems can vary depending on the vehicle's speed.
They are generally:

Most effective at lower speeds, typically in city environments.

Less effective at high speeds on highways, where a full stop might not be possible.

Object Detection: The system relies on sensors to detect potential hazards. Here's what to
consider:

Sensor limitations: Radar, LiDAR, and cameras all have strengths and weaknesses in terms
of range and performance in various weather conditions.

Not all objects might be detectable: AEB systems might not be able to detect smaller objects
or those that don't present a strong contrast to the background.
4.4 What ABS Systems Don't Do:

4.4.1 Replace Safe Driving:

These systems are driver assistance features. It's crucial to remain attentive and focused on the
road while driving.

4.4.2 Guarantee Complete Collision Avoidance:

There are situations where a collision might be unavoidable due to factors like high speeds or
unexpected obstacles.

4.4.3 Handle All Situations:

Current AEB systems are primarily designed for forward collision avoidance. They might not
be effective for dangers from behind or the sides.

Overall Scope:

Automatic braking systems are a significant advancement in car safety, offering an extra layer of
protection. They can:

* Help prevent collisions entirely at lower speeds.

* Reduce the impact severity in unavoidable crashes.

* Shorten reaction time compared to human drivers.

 CHAPTER 5

5.1 COMPONENTS OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM

5.1.1 IR SENSOR:

An IR sensor, or infrared sensor, is an electronic device that detects and measures infrared
radiation. Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic wave with a longer wavelength than
visible light. It's invisible to the human eye, but all objects with a temperature above absolute
zero emit infrared radiation.

*Components:

Emitter: This part transmits infrared radiation, typically an infrared LED (light emitting diode).

Detector: This receives the infrared radiation. It can be a photodiode or another type of sensor
sensitive to IR wavelengths.

Operation:

There are two main types of IR sensors based on operation:

Active IR sensor: This type has both an emitter and a detector. The emitter transmits a beam of
infrared radiation. If an object is present, the IR radiation reflects off the object and is detected
by the receiver.

Passive IR sensor: This type only has a detector. It passively detects the infrared radiation
emitted by objects in its field of view.
5.1.2 AMPLIFIER

Amplifier Function:

Amplifiers typically boost weak electrical signals. In an ABS, the sensors (radar, LiDAR,
camera) provide data signals that are strong enough for the control unit to process.

Control Unit:

The ABS core is the control unit, a powerful computer that analyzes sensor data. It doesn't
require amplification on the input side.

5.1.3 Braking System and Power:

Hydraulic or Pneumatic Systems:

Modern cars use hydraulic or pneumatic braking systems. These systems use pressurized fluids
or air to apply braking force to the wheels.

5.1.4 Electronic Control Unit (ECU):

The ABS control unit interacts with the existing electronic control unit (ECU) of the braking
system.

No Amplification Needed: The ECU can directly regulate the pressure within the hydraulic or
pneumatic system to control the braking force on each wheel without needing an amplifier.

There might be some very specific, rare scenarios where an amplifier could be involved in an
ABS system:

Experimental Systems:

In highly experimental setups, certain sensor technologies might require amplification before
feeding data to the control unit. However, this wouldn't be a standard feature in production
vehicles.
5.1.5 Aftermarket Modifications:

It's not advisable, but some enthusiasts might attempt non-standard modifications to braking
systems. In such a case, an amplifier might be jury-rigged into the system, but this would be a
dangerous and unreliable practice.
5.1.6 BRAKING CIRCUIT

In an automatic braking system (ABS), the braking circuit itself isn't significantly altered
compared to a traditional car's braking system. The key difference lies in how the electronic
control unit (ECU) interacts with the existing hydraulic or pneumatic system. Here's a
breakdown:

 Traditional Braking System:

* The driver presses the brake pedal.

* This mechanical pressure from the pedal translates to hydraulic pressure in the brake lines.

* The hydraulic pressure pushes the brake pads against the discs or drums, slowing down.

 Automatic Braking System with Electronic Control:

Sensors (radar, LiDAR, camera) detect a potential collision and send data to the ABS ECU.

The ECU analyzes the data and decides if automatic braking is necessary.

If braking is needed, the ECU electronically communicates with the existing ECU.

The Braking ECU modulates the hydraulic pressure within the system based on the instructions
from the ABS ECU. This can involve applying pressure to all wheels, individual wheels, or
varying the pressure for different wheels.

The modulated hydraulic pressure applies the brakes to slow down the vehicle.

The beauty of modern ABS systems lies in their ability to utilize the existing power hydraulic or
pneumatic braking system.

By electronically controlling the pressure within the system, the ABS achieves the desired
braking force without physically modifying the braking circuit itself.
  Benefits of this approach:

Reliability:

Utilizing proven braking components minimizes the risk of introducing new failure points.

Maintainability:

Servicing and repairing the braking system remains familiar to mechanics.

Safety:

The existing braking system's robustness is preserved.

5.1.7 TRANSDUCER:

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. They play a vital role in
many technologies, including automatic braking systems. Here's a breakdown of transducers:

Function: They act as intermediaries, taking energy in one form (like mechanical, electrical,
thermal, or light) and transforming it into a different form. This allows different systems to
communicate and interact.

Types of Transducers: There are many transducer types depending on the energy forms
involved. Here are some common examples:

Sensor: This is a type of transducer that converts a physical quantity (like pressure,
temperature, or light) into an electrical signal. In an automatic braking system, radar, LiDAR,
and camera all function as sensors, converting light or radio waves into electrical signals the
control unit can understand.

Actuator: This converts an electrical signal back into a physical action. In some ABS designs,
a solenoid valve might be used as an actuator. The control unit sends an electrical signal, and the
solenoid valve regulates fluid flow within the hydraulic system, ultimately affecting brake
pressure.

Applications: Transducers are essential components in various fields:

Automatic Braking Systems: As mentioned earlier, sensors like radar and LiDAR act as
transducers, converting light or radio waves into electrical signals for the control unit.

Microphones and Speakers: Microphones convert sound waves into electrical signals, while
speakers convert electrical signals back into sound waves.

Thermometers: These convert temperature variations into electrical signals for display.

Touchscreens: They convert touch pressure into electrical signals for the device to recognize.

Understanding transducers is important because they bridge the gap between different energy
domains. In automatic braking systems, they play a crucial role by converting environmental
data into electrical signals that the control unit can interpret and use to activate the brakes.
5.1.8 DC MOTOR:

A DC motor, or direct current motor, is an electric motor that converts direct current (DC)
electrical energy into mechanical energy. They are widely used in a variety of applications due
to their relatively simple design, controllable speed, and high starting torque.

Here's a breakdown of how a DC motor works:

Main Components:

Stator: -

The stationary part of the motor. It typically consists of a permanent magnet or an

electromagnet that creates a magnetic field.

Rotor:

The rotating part of the motor. It contains windings of wire that carry the electric current.

Commutator and Brushes:

These parts work together to reverse the direction of current flow in the rotor windings as the
motor rotates. This keeps the motor turning in the same direction.
Working Principle:

When DC current is applied to the motor windings, a magnetic field is generated around.

The interaction between the magnetic field of the stator and the magnetic field generated by the
current in the rotor windings creates a torque (turning force).

This torque causes the rotor to rotate.

The commutator and brushes ensure that the current in the rotor windings flips direction at the
right moment, maintaining a continuous force and rotation.

Speed and Direction Control:

The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by varying the voltage applied to the windings.
Higher voltage leads to faster rotation.

By reversing the polarity of the applied DC voltage, the direction of rotation of the motor can
also be reversed.

Applications of DC Motors:

 DC motors are found in a wide range of applications due to their versatility:

 Power tools (drills, saws, etc.)
 Toys and hobby equipment (remote control cars, drones)
 Disk drives in computers
 Appliance motors

 Limitations of DC Motors:
 Spark from the commutator can limit their use in some environments where sparks pose a
safety risk.
 Brush wear requires periodic maintenance or replacement.
 CHAPTER 6

6.1 ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM

Automatic braking systems (ABS), also known as Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB), offer
a significant range of advantages that enhance car safety on the road. Here are some of the key
benefits:

6.1.1 Collision Prevention:

The primary function of AEB is to prevent collisions entirely. By automatically applying the
brakes when a potential hazard is detected, the system can avoid accidents altogether, especially
at lower speeds in city traffic.

6.1.2 Reduced Impact Severity:

In situations where a collision is unavoidable, AEB can significantly reduce the impact speed.
This can dramatically lessen the severity of injuries and even fatalities for both vehicle occupants
and those involved in the accident.

6.1.3 Faster Reaction Times:

Human reaction times can be slow, especially in emergency situations. AEB reacts much faster
than a human driver, potentially preventing a collision altogether in scenarios where a driver may
not have time to brake quickly enough.

6.1.4 Reduced Driver Stress:

AEB can provide peace of mind and reduce stress levels for drivers, especially on long journeys
or in heavy traffic. The system acts as an extra layer of protection, allowing drivers to focus more
on the road.
6.1.5 Lower Insurance Costs:

Some insurance companies offer discounts to drivers with vehicles equipped with AEB due to
the lower risk of accidents.

Additional Advantages:

Improved Safety for Vulnerable Road Users:

AEB systems with pedestrian and cyclist detection can help prevent accidents involving these
vulnerable road users.

Reduced Traffic Congestion:

By mitigating accidents, AEB can contribute to smoother traffic flow and potentially reduce
congestion.

Potential for Fully Autonomous Vehicles:

AEB is a stepping stone towards the development of fully autonomous vehicles, where similar
technologies will be crucial for safe self-driving cars.

AEB is a driver assistance technology, not a replacement for safe driving practices. Drivers
should always be attentive and focused on the road.

The effectiveness of AEB systems can vary depending on the make and model of the car, as well
as the specific situation. Always consult your owner's manual for details about your car's AEB
system.
6.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF SENSORS
Sensors are the hidden heroes of our technological world. They are like electronic eyes and ears,
constantly gathering information about the physical world around us. Here's a breakdown of the
fundamentals of sensors:

6.2.1 What they do:

Measure the Environment : Sensors detect and measure various physical or chemical properties
of the environment. These properties can include things like:

* Temperature

* Pressure

* Light

* Motion

* Distance

* Presence of chemicals or gases

Convert to Electrical Signals:

The magic of sensors lies in their ability to convert these physical properties into electrical
signals. These signals can be voltage, current, or resistance changes that can be easily processed
and understood by electronic devices.

6.2.2 Basic Building Blocks :

Sensing Element:

This is the part of the sensor that directly interacts with the physical property being measured.
For example, a thermistor (temperature sensor) might use a material whose resistance changes
with temperature.
Signal Conditioning Circuit:

This circuit takes the raw signal from the sensing element and amplifies, filters, or converts it
into a format usable by electronic devices.

Types of Sensors:

There's a vast array of sensors, each tailored to measure specific properties. Here are some
common classifications:

6.2.3 By Measurement Type:

* Temperature sensors (thermistors, thermocouples)

* Pressure sensors (piezoelectric sensors)

* Light sensors (photodiodes, photoresistors)

* Motion sensors (accelerometers, gyroscopes)

* Distance sensors (LiDAR, ultrasonic sensors)

By Operating Principle:

Passive sensors: These simply detect and measure existing energy in the environment, like

Active sensors: These emit some form of energy, like sound or light, and then measure the
reflections or interactions with the environment, like radar or LiDAR.

6.2.4 Applications of Sensors:

Sensors are ubiquitous in modern life. Here are just a few examples:

Automobiles:

ABS systems (anti-lock braking) use wheel speed sensors, and airbags rely on acceleration
sensors for deployment.
Consumer Electronics:

Smartphones use touchscreens with pressure sensors, and cameras have light sensors to adjust
exposure.

Medical Devices: Thermometers measure body temperature, and blood pressure cuffs use
pressure sensors.

Environmental Monitoring: Sensors track air quality, water pollution, and weather conditions.

Choosing the Right Sensor:

Selecting the appropriate sensor depends on the specific application and the property you want
to measure. Here are some key factors to consider:

Measurement Range:

The sensor should be able to detect the full range of values you're interested in.

Sensitivity:

How well the sensor can detect small changes in the property being measured.

Accuracy:

How closely the sensor's measurement reflects the actual value.

Cost and Size:

These factors can vary depending on the sensor type and complexity.
 CHAPTER 7

7.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING

SYSTEM

7.1.1 The Core Components:

Sensors:

These are the eyes of the system, constantly scanning the road ahead for potential obstacles.
There are three main types commonly used:

Radar:

This sensor emits radio waves and detects reflected waves from objects in front of the car. It
works well in various weather conditions and has a good range.

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging):

This sensor emits pulsed laser light and measures the reflected light to determine the distance
and position of objects. It provides high-resolution data but may be less effective in fog or heavy
rain.

Camera:

A camera captures visual information about the road ahead. While it may struggle in low-light
conditions, it can be helpful in detecting objects like pedestrians and cyclists.

Control Unit:

This is the brain of the system. It receives data feeds from all the sensors and analyzes them
using complex algorithms. The control unit determines if a collision is imminent based on
factors like:

* Distance to the object

* Relative speed between the car and the object

 * Time to impact

Hydraulic or Pneumatic Braking System:

This is the standard braking system of the car with pistons, calipers, brake pads, and
rotors/drums. The ABS doesn't modify this core braking system itself.

7.1.2 How it Works:

Sensor Detection:

The sensors continuously scan the road ahead. If they detect a potential obstacle (another vehicle,
pedestrian, cyclist, etc.), they send data about the object's distance, position, and relative speed to
the control unit.

Collision Risk Assessment:

The control unit analyzes the sensor data using sophisticated algorithms. It calculates the
probability of a collision and the severity of the potential impact.

Automatic Braking

:If the control unit determines a collision is imminent and the driver hasn't reacted, it triggers the
automatic braking sequence. This involves:

Sending electronic signals to the car's existing Hydraulic or Pneumatic Electronic Control Unit
(ECU).

The Braking ECU modulates the hydraulic pressure within the braking system based on the
instructions from the ABS control unit. This might involve applying full braking force to all
wheels, individual wheels, or varying the pressure for different wheels for optimal control.

Driver Override: Most AEB systems allow the driver to override the automatic braking if they
take evasive action. For example, if the system detects a car stopped ahead but the driver can
safely swerve around it, they can apply the accelerator to cancel the automatic braking.

Important Points:

AEB is a driver assistance technology, not a replacement for safe driving practices. Drivers
should always be attentive and focused on the road. The effectiveness of AEB systems can vary
depending on the make, model, and specific sensor configuration of the car. Always consult your
owner's manual for details about your car's AEB system.

AEB systems typically work best at lower speeds, especially in city environments. At high
speeds, a full stop might not be possible.

7.2 WHY AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM NEEDED OVER

TRADITIONAL BRAKING SYSTEM ?

Traditional braking systems, where the driver controls the pedal application force, are very
effective for skilled drivers in ideal conditions. However, Automatic Braking Systems (ABS)
offer several advantages that enhance safety in various situations:

 Reaction Time:

Human Limitations: Drivers have a reaction time of about 1 second (or more) in emergency
situations. AEB systems react much faster, on the order of milliseconds, potentially preventing
collisions entirely where a human driver might not be able to brake quickly enough.

 Collision Prevention:

Primary Goal: Traditional systems rely on driver awareness and reaction. AEB systems take a
proactive approach. They can autonomously apply brakes to prevent a collision altogether,
especially at lower speeds in city traffic.

 Reduced Impact Severity:

Unavoidable Collisions: Even with the best reaction times, accidents can still happen. AEB can
significantly reduce the impact speed in unavoidable situations. This can lessen the severity of
injuries for occupants of both vehicles and potentially save lives.

 Driver Assistance:

Focus and Awareness: AEB acts as an extra layer of protection, allowing drivers to focus more
on the road and react to unexpected situations. This can be especially helpful in heavy traffic or
on long journeys where fatigue can impair focus.
Additional Considerations:

Vulnerable Road Users: AEB systems with pedestrian and cyclist detection can help prevent
accidents involving these at-risk groups.

Autonomous Vehicle Development: AEB is a stepping stone towards fully autonomous vehicles,
where similar technologies will be crucial for safe self-driving cars.

Traditional Braking Systems Remain Important:

Driver Control: Traditional systems provide skilled drivers with maximum control over braking
in ideal conditions (e.g., racing, maneuvering on slippery surfaces).

Cost Factor: Currently, AEB systems might add to the cost of a vehicle. As the technology
becomes more widespread, the cost is likely to decrease.

Automatic Braking Systems are not meant to replace traditional brakes entirely. They are an
enhancement that provides significant safety benefits by:

* Reacting faster than humans

* Potentially preventing collisions

* Reducing accident severity

* Assisting drivers and promoting safer roads

7.3 CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS:

Automatic Braking Systems (ABS), also known as Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB), are
a major advancement in car safety, but they do have some challenges and limitations to consider:

7.3.1 Sensor Limitations:

Range and Conditions: The effectiveness of AEB systems heavily relies on the capabilities of
the sensors (radar, LiDAR, camera). Each sensor type has limitations:

Radar: Excellent range but might struggle to differentiate between objects.

LiDAR: High-resolution data but may be affected by fog or heavy rain.

Camera: Good for detecting objects like pedestrians but can struggle in low-light conditions.

False positives: Sensors might misinterpret shadows, oncoming headlights, or road markings as
obstacles, leading to unnecessary braking.

7.3.2 System Performance:

Speed: AEB systems are typically most effective at lower speeds in city environments. At high
speeds on highways, a full stop might not be possible using AEB alone.

Object Detection: Current AEB systems primarily focus on forward collision avoidance. They
might not be effective for dangers from behind, the sides, or unseen hazards around corners.

7.3.3 Driver Dependence:

Over-reliance: Drivers may become over-reliant on AEB and neglect safe driving practices like
maintaining awareness and following safe distances.

Unexpected Braking: A sudden automatic braking event can surprise drivers and passengers,
potentially causing whiplash or other injuries.
7.3.4 Other Limitations:

Cost: AEB systems can increase the cost of a vehicle.

Maintenance: Sensors and the control unit require proper maintenance to function optimally.

System Complexity: The technology is complex and might not be available in all car models or
trims.

Important Considerations:

* AEB is a driver assistance technology not a replacement for safe driving. Drivers should
always be attentive and focused on the road.

* The capabilities of AEB systems can vary depending on the make, model, and year of your car.
Always consult your owner's manual for specific details about your car's AEB system.

Future Advancements:

* As sensor technology improves and becomes more affordable, the range, accuracy, and
reliability of AEB systems are expected to increase.

* Integration with other driver assistance systems like lane departure warnings and blind spot
detection can create a more comprehensive safety net.
 CHAPTER 8

8.1 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy
from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly
using concentrated solar power. Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to convert light into
an electric current. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight to a hot spot, often to drive a steam turbine.

Photovoltaics (PV) were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-
sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered
by an off-grid rooftop PV system.
8.2 PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR ENERGY GENERATION

When the sun shines onto a solar panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV cells in
the panel. This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical

field in the cell, causing electricity to flow.

Concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) systems use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight
onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat, which can then be used to produce

electricity or stored for later use. It is used primarily in very large power plants .

8.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR PANEL

Power generation principle

 A solar cell is essential a PN junction with a large surface area. The N-type material is
kept thin to allow light to pass through to the PN junction.

 The sunlight shines on the pn junction of the semiconductor to form a new hole-electron
pair.

 The holes flow from the p region to the n region under the action of the PN junction
electric field, and the electrons flow from the n region to the p region. After the circuit is
turned on, a current flows . This is the working principle of photoelectric effect solar
cells.
Solar power generation Solar power generation in two ways, one is the light - heat - electricity
conversion, the other is the light - electricity direct conversion.

Light-Heat-Electric Conversion Method By utilizing the heat generated by solar radiation to

generate electricity, it is common for solar collectors to convert all absorbed heat energy into

vapor of working fluid to drive the steam turbine to generate electricity.

The direct conversion between light and electricity uses the photoelectric effect to directly
convert solar radiation into electric energy, and the basic device for photoelectric conversion is a
solar cell. A solar cell is a device that directly converts sunlight energy into electricity due to the
photovoltaic effect. It is a semiconductor photodiode.

When the sunlight shines on the photodiode, the photodiode turns the light energy of the sun into
electricity and generates Current. When many batteries in series or in parallel can become a
relatively large output power of the solar square.
FINAL MODEL
CONCLUSION :
The concept of an automatic regenerative braking system with solar charge presents an intriguing
possibility for the future of electric vehicles. By combining regenerative braking with solar
energy harvesting, this system could offer several potential benefits:

Increased Range: Regenerative braking captures energy that would otherwise be lost during
braking, potentially extending the driving range of electric vehicles.

Reduced Reliance on Grid-Based Charging: Solar energy harvested by the system could
contribute to a portion of the vehicle's charge, reducing dependence on traditional charging
infrastructure and potentially lowering reliance on fossil fuels for electricity generation.

Enhanced Sustainability: By incorporating renewable energy through solar charging, this system
could contribute to a more sustainable transportation ecosystem.

However, there are also challenges to consider:

Technical Feasibility: Integrating solar panels effectively into the design of a vehicle while
maintaining efficiency and aesthetics requires further research and development.

Energy Storage Limitations: Current battery technology might limit the amount of solar energy
that can be realistically stored and utilized in an electric vehicle.

Environmental Dependence: The effectiveness of solar charging would depend on factors like
weather conditions and sunlight availability.
 REFERANCE

Referance 01

https://www.seia.org/initiatives/about-solar-energy#:~:text=Solar%20power%20is%20energy
%20from,solar%20resources%20in%20the%20world.

Referance 02

https://smartxprokits.in/automatic-breaking-system-using-ir-sensor-kit-assembled-100-tested/
#:~:text=A%20Automatic%20break%20indicator%20is,unit%2C%20which%20generate
%20indication%20alarm.

Referance 03

https://www.tiresplus.com/blog/brakes/what-is-regenerative-braking-in-electric-vehicles/

Referance 04

https://www.bosch-mobility.com/en/solutions/driving-safety/regenerative-braking-systems/

Referance 05

https://www.cars24.com/blog/brake-system-in-cars/