Structure of Atom

Class IX
INTRODUCTION
Dalton 1808  Atom smallest indivisible particle of matter
DALTON’S ATOM CONCEPT COULD NOT EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING FACTS: -
 Why do atoms of different elements differ from each other in masses and
properties?
 Why do atoms combine to form molecules?
Electrically charged objects can attract uncharged objects by inducing an
opposite charge in them. This electric charge comes from objects that constitute
matter and matter is made up of atoms, there must be some charged particles
present in matter thus, an atom is divisible.
Atom is not the smallest particle but is still made up of smaller particles called
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES.

Sub-atomic particles

Electrons Protons Neutrons

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON (CATHODE RAYS)

Existence of negatively charged particles  J.J. THOMSON (1897)

COMPONENTS OF DISCHARGE TUBE
 2 plates sealed at ends of glass tube  Electrodes
 Vacuum pump to suck the air or gas present inside the tube to reduce
pressure.
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  Plate connected to the negative terminal of source  CATHODE
Plate connected to the positive terminal of source  ANODE
1. Production of cathode rays (invisible radiations)
 No current flows at ordinary pressure
When air or any gas is taken at normal atmospheric pressure and a
voltage of 10,000 volts is applied between electrodes, no current flows
through the air between the electrodes as air/any gas at normal pressure
is a poor conductor of electricity.

 Glow in the entire tube

Suppose the air is sucked out by the vacuum pump so that pressure falls to 1
mm of mercury and now 10,000 volts is applied. In that case, the current
begins to flow between the electrodes through the air inside and the entire
discharge tube begins to glow uniformly with a magenta-red colour.
(The colour emitted depends upon the gas taken. If Neon gas  light
emitted is Reddish-orange)

 Glow interrupted by dark bands at LOW pressures

If the air inside the tube is sucked so that the pressure inside the tube falls
and high voltage is applied, the glow is interrupted by dark bands at 90° to
the axis of the tube.

 Production of cathode rays at 0.001 mm pressure

When the pressure of air or gas inside the tube falls to 0.001 mm, the
discharge inside the tube disappears (no light emitted by air). The tube
appears completely black. But the glass wall of the cathode glows with a
greenish-yellow light called fluorescence. This shows that the cathode rays
travel in a straight line and strike the glass wall opposite to the cathode.

2. Properties of cathode rays

1. Cathode rays travel in a straight line
Object placed in the path of the cathode rays  cast a sharp shadow of
object at the back.

2. Cathode rays are made up of material particles

If a light paddle wheel is placed in the path of these rays  these rays strike
the blades of the upper of wheel and begin to rotate

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 3. Cathode rays carry a negative charge
When an electric field is applied on these rays  deflected towards the
positive plate of electric field.

4. Cathode rays produce green fluorescence on glass walls of tube as well

as on certain substances such as ZINC SULPHIDE

5. Cathode rays produce heating effect

When these rays strike a metal foil  Hot

6. Cathode rays produce X-rays when they strike against the surface of
hard metals like TUNGSTEN, MOLYBDENUM etc.

ELECTRON
 Negatively charged material particles constituting the cathode rays.
 J.J. Thomson (1897) studied the extent of deflection of cathode rays
under the influence of electric fields and magnetic fields of different
strengths  ratio of charge/mass
 Charge/mass = e/m ratio
 e/m = 1.76 x 1011 coulombs per kg
 Charge was found by R.A. Milliken (1917)  oil-drop experiment
 Charge of electron i.e., e = 1.60 x 10-19 C = 1-unit negative charge
𝒆
 Mass of electron = = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
𝒆/𝒎
 Mass (negligible) = 1/1840 of the mass of the hydrogen atom
Thus,
An electron is a sub-atomic or fundamental particle that carries one-unit
negative charge and has a mass nearly 1/1840th of that of an atom of
hydrogen.
Charge = -1
Mass = negligible
Symbol of electron = 0e-1

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DISCOVERY OF PROTONS (ANODE/CANAL RAYS)

Existence of positively charged particles  Eugen Goldstein (1886)

1. Production of anode rays
 Atom is electrically neutral
 Discharge tube with perforated cathode and a gas at low pressure
 On applying a high voltage between anode and cathode  fluorescence
on glass walls of the tube at the cathode
 They pass through holes or canals in the cathode  Canal rays
 Carry a positive charge  Positive rays

2. Origin of anode rays

 Do not originate from anode
 They are produced from the space between the anode and the cathode.
 High electrical energy supplied between the electrodes splits the molecules of
gas present inside the tube into atoms.
 The electrons in these atoms absorb electrical energy and are knocked out.
They travel towards the anode and form a part of cathode rays.
 The remaining part of the atom becomes a positively charged particle and
travels in a stream towards the cathode.

3. Properties of anode rays

1. Anode rays travel in a straight line
An object placed in the path of the cathode rays  cast a sharp shadow of
the object at the back. (speed is much less than the cathode rays)

2. Anode rays are made up of material particles

If a light paddle wheel is placed in the path of these rays  these rays strike
the blades of the upper of wheel and begin to rotate

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 3. Anode rays carry a positive charge
When an electric field is applied to these rays  deflected towards the
negative plate of the electric field.

4. Charge/mass ratio of positively charged particles in anode rays

By applying a method similar method to that of J.J. Thomson i.e., by studying
the extent of deflection of anode rays by applying electric fields and
magnetic fields of different strengths the ratio of charge/mass (i.e., e/m) of
positively charged particles constituting the anode rays was determined.
The ratio is not constant but depends upon the nature of the gas taken in
the tube.

5. The mass of positively charged particles constituting the anode rays

also depends upon the nature of the gas.

6. Charge on positively charged particles constituting the anode rays is

also found to depend upon the nature of the gas and the voltage applied.

PROTON
 Charge of proton i.e., e = 1.60 x 10-19 C = 1-unit
 e/m = 9.58 x 108 coulombs per kg (max)
 Mass is minimum
𝒆
 Mass of proton = = 1.67 x 10-27 kg = 1 amu
𝒆/𝒎
 It is an ionized hydrogen atom i.e.; it is obtained by removal or loss of the only
electron present in hydrogen atom.
 An atom contains whole number of protons.
Thus,
A proton is a sub-atomic or fundamental particle that carries a one-unit
positive charge and has a mass nearly equal to that of an atom of hydrogen.
Charge = +1
Mass = 1u
Symbol of proton = 1p1

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MODELS OF ATOMS
1. Thomson’s Model of Atom

 J.J. Thomson in 1904 proposed that an atom

was a sphere of positive electricity in which an
embedded number of electrons was sufficient
to neutralize the positive charge.
 This may be compared with a watermelon in which
seeds were embedded or with a pudding
containing dry fruits.
 It could not explain the results of the scattering
experiments carried out by Rutherford in 1911
and was rejected.

2. Rutherford’s model of atom

 Rutherford in 1911 bombarded a thin foil of a heavy metal like gold with a
beam of fast-moving alpha (α)-particles which are double-charged helium
ions (He2+) each having 2 units of +ve charge and 4 units of mass (4u).
 These were obtained from radium placed in the cavity of block of lead and
made into a fine beam with a slit.
 He observed the scattering of α-particles after hitting the foil by placing a
circular Zinc Sulphide (ZnS) screen around the metal foil. Wherever the
α-particles strike, a flash of light is produced on the screen.

Observations
1. Most α-particles pass through foil without undergoing any deflection.
2. Some α-particles were deflected through small angles and a few were deflected
through large angles.
3. Very few were deflected back i.e., through an angle greater than 90°.
Conclusions

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 1. Since most of the α-particles passed through foil without undergoing any
deflection, there must be sufficient empty space within the atom.
2. Since some α-particles were deflected through small angles or a few were
deflected through large angles and α-particles were positively charged bodies
in the atom. The α-particles deflected through small angles were those that
passed close to this +ve body. The α-particles deflected through large angles
were those that passed very close to this +ve body.
3. Since some α-particles were deflected back and α-particles are heavy particles.
They could be deflected back only when they strike a heavier body inside the
atom.
4. Since the number of α-particles deflected back is very small, this shows that the
heavy body in the atom must occupy a very small volume.
Thus,
The small heavenly body present within the atom is called Nucleus. (does not
take part in a chemical reaction)

Rutherford’s Nuclear model of Atom

Based on scattering experiment, Rutherford put forward a model of atom known as
“Rutherford’s nuclear model”
i.

Atom

Nucleus Extranuclear part

Nucleus The small heavenly body present within the atom.

Extranuclear part  space around the nucleus in which the electrons are
distributed
ii. The entire mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Since the mass of
electrons in negligible, the entire mass of atom is due to protons. Hence,
protons must be present in nucleus. So, nucleus is positively charged.
After discovery of neutrons, the mass of nucleus was due to protons
and neutrons.
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 iii. Rutherford suggested that electrons were revolving around the nucleus
in certain circular orbits. That is why electrons are also called planetary
electrons as they are like a solar system.

Drawbacks
 Could not explain the stability of the atom.
 It states that an atom consists of a small heavy positively charged
nucleus in the centre and electrons revolving around it.
 However, whenever a charged particle like an electron is revolving around a
central force like that of the nucleus, it loses energy continuously in the form
of radiations.
 Thus, the orbit of the revolving electron will keep on becoming smaller
and smaller following a spiral path, and ultimately the electron should
fall into the nucleus.
 The atom would collapse but it does not happen and the atom is quite
stable.

3. Bohr’s model of atom

 To explain the stability of atom  Neils Bohr (1913)
 Electrons would revolve only in certain fixed orbits around the nucleus
without losing energy in the form of radiations.
Postulates of Bohr’s model of atom
 An atom consists of a small heavy positively charged nucleus in the centre
and the electrons revolve around it in circular paths called orbits.
 The orbits in which the electrons revolve are the discrete orbits having fixed
radii and energy are called energy levels or shells.
 The shell is used to indicate that the atom is 3D
 As the energy of orbits is fixed, these are also called stationary states. These
are represented as K, L, M, and N, etc. The energy of these shells increases
as we move outwards from the nucleus.
 The state of energy with the lowest energy is called ground state.

NEUTRON
Rutherford suggested that there must be some neutral particles with definite
particles present in the nucleus along with protons.

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  Existence of neutron Chadwick (1932)
 Chadwick bombarded the nuclei of some light elements like beryllium
and boron with fast-moving α-particles
 Some neutral particles were ejected from the nucleus.

Thus,
A neutron is a sub-atomic or fundamental particle that carries no charge i.e., it
is a neutral particle but has a mass nearly equal to that of proton (i.e., 1 amu).
Charge = 0
Mass = 1u
Symbol of proton = 1n0

Nucleus contains not only protons but also neutrons.

For example,
Helium  nucleus contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons relative mass is 4amu
**Relative mass of Hydrogen 1 u 1 proton and 0 neutron

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Atomic number = no. of protons present in nucleus = no. of electrons in
extranuclear part (in neutral atom)
Example,
Chlorine has 17 protons and 17 electrons = Atomic number 17
But, in ions, no. of electrons may be less or more than number of protons.
Example,
Na = 11 protons = 11 electrons
Na+ = 11 protons = 10 electrons
Cl = 17 protons = 17 electrons
Cl- = 17 protons = 18 electrons
So, the atomic number should always be calculated from no. of protons.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

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Protons and neutrons are collectively called Nucleons. So, nucleus has
nucleons on them.
Atomic number denoted by Z
Mass number denoted by A

 Z=p=e
 A=p+n
p=Z
A = Z + n OR n = A – Z

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS

The distribution or arrangement of electrons in different shells of the atom is called
the electronic configuration of the element.
 Lower energy  Greater stability
 K-shell is closest to the nucleus
 K-shell has minimum energy
 No. of electrons = No. of protons = Atomic Number for a neutral atom
 Max. no. of electrons  given by the Bohr-Bury scheme
 Max. no. of electrons = 2n2
 Max. electrons
o K-Shell = 2 electrons
o L-Shell = 8 electrons
o M-Shell = 18 electrons
o N-Shell = 32 electrons
Element Symbol Atomic No. Atomic Mass E.C. Latin names Valency
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 Hydrogenium 1
Helium He 2 4 2 - 0
Lithium Li 3 7 2,1 - 1
Beryllium Be 4 9 2,2 - 2
Boron B 5 11 2,3 Borium 3
Carbon C 6 12 2,4 Carbonium 4
Nitrogen N 7 14 2,5 Nitrogenium 3

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 Oxygen O 8 16 2,6 Oxygenium 2
Fluorine F 9 19 2,7 Fluorum 1
Neon Ne 10 20 2,8 - 0
Sodium Na 11 23 2,8,1 Natrium 1
Magnesium Mg 12 24 2,8,2 - 2
Aluminium Al 13 27 2,8,3 - 3
Silicon Si 14 28 2,8,4 Silicium 4
Phosphorus P 15 31 2,8,5 - 3
Sulphur S 16 32 2,8,6 Sulphurium 2
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5 2,8,7 Chlorium 1
Argon Ar 18 40 2,8,8 - 0
Potassium K 19 39 2,8,8,1 Kalium 1
Calcium Ca 20 40 2,8,8,2 - 2
 Helium is stable as its duplet is completed.
 Argon and Neon are stable as their octet is completed as their outermost
shell has 8 electrons.
 1,2,3 electrons= lose, so acquire a (+) positive charge
 4 electrons = share
 5,6,7 electrons = gain, so acquire a (–) negative
charge
 8 electrons = stable

Explanation of E.C. of K and Ca

With the increase in atomic number, the difference in
energy between the successive shells decreases. Thus,
the M and N energy shells come so close that they
overlap. When M-Shell has acquired 8 electrons, it shifts
to higher energy than N-Shell, and hence filling of N-shell
starts. When N-shell acquires 2 electrons, it shifts higher
in energy than M-shell and hence filling again starts in M-
shell (e.g., Scandium, Z = 21, E.C.
S, P, = 2,8,9,2).
D, and F energy levels are present in K, L
energy shells.
The least energy is near K-shell which has 1s
This means the electrons will first be accommo
energy level which can max. accommodate 2 el
move to the L-shell.
L-shell has 2s and 2p energy levels. 2s can m
accommodate 2 electrons and 2p can accomm
electrons and then the electrons move to the M
3s, 3p, and 3d energy levels. After the electron
L-shell, 3s is filled with max. 2 electrons, then 3
electrons. SOMANSHU JAIN 11

But 3d energy level is not filled as the energy

4s which is of N-shell, so electrons directly mo
level after filling in 3p level. Then the 3d energy
VALENCE ELECTRONS AND VALENCY
1. Valence Electrons
 Electrons present in the outermost shell are farthest from the nucleus and take
part in a reaction.
 Force of attraction by the nucleus is min.
 The electrons present in the outermost shell of the atom of an element are
called Valence Electrons.
 The outermost shell is called the Valence Shell.
 They decide the valency of an element.

2. Valency
 The concept arises from the study of noble gases as they are stable and have
8 electrons in their valence shell, called octet (except helium which has 2
electrons in its valence shell called duplet).
 To attain stability, atoms will lose, share, or gain electrons to complete their
octet.
The number of electrons gained, lose, or shared by the atom of an element to
complete its octet (or duplet in the case of elements having only K-shell) is called
the Valency of the element.
CONDITIONS
 If valence electrons = 1, 2, 3
Valency = Valence electrons
 If valence electrons = 5, 6, 7
Valency = 8 - Valence electrons
 If valence electrons = 4
Valency = 4
 If valence electrons = 8

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 Valency = 8 – 8 = 0
For noble gases (He, Na, Ar), valency is 0 {complete octets or duplets}. They
are monoatomic molecules that exist as free state i.e., as single atoms.
Phosphorus shows variable valency
 Valency = No. of electrons in the valence shell
OR
8 – valence electrons
 Valency of Phosphorus = 5, 8 – 5 = 3

ISOTOPES
Same element, same atomic number (same p or same e), different mass
numbers (diff. n)
1. Isotopes of Hydrogen
3 isotopes of hydrogen  protium (ordinary), deuterium (heavy), tritium
(radioactive)
Each contain 1 proton and 1 electron and differ in neutrons
Protium has 0 neutron
Deuterium has 1 neutron
Tritium has 2 neutrons
2. Isotopes of carbon 
2 isotopes mass number 12 and 14
3. Isotopes of oxygen 
3 isotopes mass number 16, 17 and 18
4. Isotopes of chlorine 
2 isotopes mass number 35 and 37

Application of isotopes
Radioisotopes  emitting alpha, betta, and gamma rays spontaneously
1. Nuclear fuel – isotope of uranium (U-235)
2. Treatment of cancer – Cobalt–60 isotope
3. Treatment of leukaemia (blood cancer) – Phosphorus-32 isotope
4. Treatment of thyroid disorders (goitre) – iodine-131 isotope

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 5. Detect blood clot – Sodium-24
6. Detect tumour – Arsenic-74
7. Carbon dating – Carbon-14
8. Industry
9. Geological dating
ISOBARS
Diff. element, diff. atomic number (diff. p or diff. e), same mass numbers (diff.
n as diff. p).
Example, Argon-18 and Calcium-20 Mass number 40.

SOMANSHU JAIN 14