RAMAKRISHNA MISSON

A review letter on Environmental

Science

Roll No. -- 102

Department -- PHYSICS
Sem. – II
Reg. No. – A01-1152-111-002-2023
Admit Roll-- 2024121009

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Beyond The Shadows: Hazards and Waste
Management (Radioactive Hazards)
Physics Department, Roll-102, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College

CONTENT

1. Hazards & Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Radioactive Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
3.1 Radioactivity Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Sources of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Radiation Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Types of Radiation Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1 Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1.1 Recognition of Ionizing Radiation Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1.2 Evaluation of Ionizing Radiation Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1.3 Control Methods for Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Non-Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Recognition of Non-Ionizing Radiation Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.2 Evaluation of Non-Ionizing Radiation Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.3 Control Methods for Non-Ionizing Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Radioactive Disasters & Safety and Security Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1 Mayapuri, India, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident, Japan, 2011. . . . . . . 15
5.3 Tepojaco, Mexico, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 University of Washington Irradiator Event, 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7. Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8. Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

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1. HAZARDS & DISASTER
1.1 Hazards: A hazard is a potential source of harm. Substances, events, or
circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would allow them, even
just theoretically, to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest
of value. The probability of that harm being realized in a specific incident,
combined with the magnitude of potential harm, make up its risk, a term often
used synonymously in colloquial speech.

Hazards can be classified in several ways; they can be classified as natural,

anthropogenic, technological, or any combination, such as in the case of the
natural phenomenon of wildfire becoming more common due to human-made
climate change or more harmful due to changes in building practices. A common
theme across many forms of hazards in the presence of stored energy that, when
released, can cause damage. The stored energy can occur in many forms:
chemical, mechanical, thermal hazards and by the populations that may be
affected and the severity of the associated risk.

For example, natural hazards may be defined as "extreme events that originate
in the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere or atmosphere" or "a potential threat
to humans and their welfare" which include earthquake, landslide, hurricane and
tsunamis. Technological and human-made hazards include explosions, the
release of toxic materials, episodes of severe contamination, structural
collapses, and transportation, construction and manufacturing accidents etc.

1.2 Disaster: A natural disaster is the highly harmful impact on a society or

community following a natural hazard event. The term "disaster" itself is
defined as follows: "Disasters are serious disruptions to the functioning of a
community that exceed its capacity to cope using its own resources. Disasters
can be caused by natural, man-made and technological hazards, as well as
various factors that influence the exposure and vulnerability of a community."

The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) explains the

relationship between natural disasters and natural hazards as follows: "Natural

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hazards and natural disasters are related but are not the same. A natural hazard
is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative impact. A natural disaster
is the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the
event that it significantly harms a community.

Disaster can take various forms, including hurricane, volcano, tsunami,

earthquake, drought, famine, plague, disease, rail crash, car crash, tornado,
deforestation, flooding, toxic release, and spills (oil, chemicals).

A disaster hazard is an extreme geophysical event that is capable of causing a

disaster. 'Extreme' in this case means a substantial variation in either the positive
or the negative direction from the normal trend; flood disasters can result from
exceptionally high precipitation and river discharge, and drought is caused by
exceptionally low values. The fundamental determinants of hazard and the risk
of such hazards occurring is timing, location, magnitude and frequency. For
example, magnitudes of earthquakes are measured on the Richter scale from 1
to 10, whereby each increment of 1 indicates a tenfold increase in severity. The
magnitude-frequency rule states that over a significant period of time many
small events and a few large ones will occur. Hurricanes and typhoons on the
other hand occur between 5 degrees and 25 degrees north and south of the
equator, tending to be seasonal phenomena that are thus largely recurrent in time
and predictable in location due to the specific climate variables necessary for
their formation.

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2. CLASSIFICATIONS
Hazards can be classified in several ways. These categories are not mutually exclusive
which means that one hazard can fall into several categories. For example, water
pollution with toxic chemicals is an anthropogenic hazard as well as an environmental
hazard.

One of the classification methods is by specifying the origin of the hazard. One key
concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, when released, can
cause damage. The stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical,
thermal, radioactive, electrical, etc.

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) explains that "each
hazard is characterized by its location, intensity or magnitude, frequency and
probability".

A distinction can also be made between rapid-onset natural hazards, technological

hazards, and social hazards, which are described as being of sudden occurrence and
relatively short duration, and the consequences of longer-term environmental
degradation such as desertification and drought.

Hazards may be grouped according to their characteristics. These factors are related to
geophysical events, which are not process specific:

2.1 Areal extent of damage zone

2.2 Intensity of impact at a point
2.3 Duration of impact at a point
2.4 Rate of onset of the event
2.5 Predictability of the event

Now there is a lot of Nature caused hazards…………….

2.6 Natural Hazards: Events like earthquakes, floods, and tsunamis that pose
threats to life, property, and the environment1. Human activities can amplify
these hazards.

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 2.7 Seismic Hazards: The likelihood of earthquakes occurring in a specific area
and their potential intensity, which informs building codes and infrastructure
design.
2.8 Volcanic Hazards: The probability of volcanic events and their impact,
depending on the proximity and vulnerability of nearby populations.
2.9 Anthropogenic Hazards: Human-induced hazards, including sociological
(e.g., war, crime), technological (e.g., industrial accidents), and environmental
hazards.

Now in this letter I mainly want to focus on Radioactive Hazards.

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3. Radioactive Hazards
3.1 Radioactivity Introduction: Ionizing radiation is a type of energy
released by atoms that travels in the form of electromagnetic waves (gamma or
X-ray) or particles (neutrons, beta, alpha). The spontaneous disintegration of
atoms is called radioactivity, and the excess energy emitted is in the form of
ionizing radiation. Unstable elements which disintegrate and emit ionizing
radiation are called radionuclides. Radioactive material has to be handled with
care because exposure to radiation can increase the risk of cancer and has
other harmful effects. Within the nuclear medicine and radiology department,
staff will be exposed to radiation from radiopharmaceuticals, X-ray of patients,
calibration sources, and radioactive waste. The exposure of staff must not be
exceeding legally defined limits for radiation workers. In addition, the exposure
of staff should be "As Low as Reasonably Achievable"(ALARA). This is the
important ALARA principle. In a well-managed department, which take the
ALARA principle seriously, staff will only be exposed to a small fraction of the
legal limit. Exposure to radiation can be external, from radioactive material
outside the body, or internal if the material gets inside the body. Staff must
understand how they are exposed to external radiation from radioactive sources,
and how to avoid radioactive contamination on themselves or their personal
clothing, or on work surfaces such as benches and counting equipment.

3.2 Sources of Radiation: People are exposed to natural sources as well

as man-made sources on daily basis. Natural radiation comes from many
sources including more than 60 naturally-occurring radioactive materials
found in soil, water and air. Radon, a naturally-occurring gas, emanates from
rock and soil and is the main source of natural radiation. Every day,
people inhale and ingest radionuclides from air, food and water. On
average, 80% of the annual dose of background radiation that a person receives
is due to naturally occurring terrestrial and cosmic radiation sources. Human
exposure to radiation also comes from man-made sources ranging from
nuclear power generation to medical uses of radiation for diagnosis or

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 treatment. Today, the most common man-made sources on ionizing radiation
are medical devices, including X-ray machines.

3.3 Radiation Exposure: Radiation exposure may be internal or external.

Internal exposure occurs when a radionuclide is inhaled, ingested or
otherwise enters into the bloodstream. Internal exposure stops when the
radionuclide is eliminated from the body, either spontaneously or as a result
of treatment. External exposure may occur when airborne radioactive material
is deposited on skin or clothes. This type of radioactive material can often
be removed from the body by washing. Radiation exposure can also result
from radiation from an external source, such as medical radiation exposure
from X-ray, CT scan. External radiation stops when the radiation source is
shielded or the person moves outside the radiation field. Radiation exposure can
be classified in to three exposure situation. The first, planned exposure
situation, from the deliberate introduction and operation of radiation sources
with specific purposes, as is the case with the medical use of radiation
for diagnosis or treatment of patients or the use of radiation in industry or
research. The second type of situation, existing exposures, is where
exposure to radiation already exists, and a decision on control must be taken-
for example, exposure to radon in homes or workplaces or exposure to natural
background radiation from the environment. Radiation exposure may be
internal or external. Internal exposure occurs when a radionuclide is inhaled,
ingested or otherwise enters into the bloodstream. Internal exposure stops
when the radionuclide is eliminated from the body, either spontaneously or
as a result of treatment. External exposure may occur when airborne
radioactive material is deposited on skin or clothes. This type of radioactive
material can often be removed from the body by washing. Radiation exposure
can also result from radiation from an external source, such as medical
radiation exposure from X-ray, CT scan. External radiation stops when the
radiation source is shielded or the person moves outside the radiation field.
Radiation exposure can be classified in to three exposure situations. The first,
planned exposure situation, from the deliberate introduction and operation of
radiation sources with specific purposes, as is the case with the medical

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use of radiation for diagnosis or treatment of patients or the use of radiation
in industry or research. The second type of situation, existing exposures, is
where exposure to radiation already exists, and a decision on control must be
taken- for example, exposure to radon in homes or workplaces or exposure to
natural background radiation from the environment. The last type, emergency
exposure situation, results from unexpected events requiring prompt response
such as nuclear accidents or malicious acts. The last type, emergency exposure
situation, results from unexpected events requiring prompt response such as
nuclear accidents or malicious acts.

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4. Types of Radiation Hazards
4.1 Ionizing Radiation:
4.1.1 RECOGNITION OF IONIZING RADIATION HAZARDS: Ionizing
radiation is radiation, which interacts with matter to form ions; high-energy
electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation are capable of producing
ions in their passage through matter. Types of ionizing radiation include
alpha and beta particles, x rays, gamma rays, etc.

4.1.2 EVALUATION OF IONIZING RADIATION HAZARDS:

• Sources of Ionizing Radiation: Radioisotopes
• Commonly used radioisotopes on campus include P-32, S-35, C-14,
H-3 & I-125. They are most often used for tracing biological processes.
• X-ray machines: These are used for geological, metallurgical and
material science analyses, and occasionally for irradiation of biological
samples and x-ray crystallography.

4.1.3 CONTROL METHODS FOR IONIZING RADIATION:

In order to keep exposures to ionizing radiation as low as possible, there is a system
at UC Davis to safely use radioisotopes and radiation-producing machines.
Radiation users should refer to the UC Davis Radiation Safety Manual.
A. Work/Storage Area Identification Each entrance to an area where an ionizing
radiation source is being used or stored must be posted with an appropriate
warning sign which includes the radioactive material/radiation trefoil symbol.
B. Working with Ionizing Radiation Sources It is important to understand the type
(i.e., gamma, beta, alpha, x-ray) and energy of the radiation emitted by the
source you are working with; this determines the handling procedures,
shielding and monitoring equipment to be used.
➢ Those working with ionizing radiation must be trained in radiation
safety; initial training sessions, are given monthly at EH&S. Protection
Section of EH&S.
➢ PI's using radioactive materials must be issued Radiation Use
Authorizations (RUAs). All users must be listed on the RUA. The
RUA indicates the amounts and types of radioactive materials and/or

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 radiation-producing machines being used, by whom, where, how and
with what precautions.
➢ More hazardous or delicate procedures should be handled by more
experienced personnel (i.e., pipetting stock solutions or aligning x-ray
machines).
➢ Regular testing for radioactive contamination must be conducted.
➢ Users may receive a dosimeter badge or ring to monitor radiation
exposure, if deemed necessary by EH&S.
➢ All appropriate lab personnel must be informed of the potential
hazards and safety procedures involved in the use of radiation sources,
including:
• the nature of the radiation hazard, and the properties of other
materials being used which could affect exposure.
• radiation detection instrumentation, and how to use it.
• preventing exposure (shielding, remote handling tools, dry
runs, contamination control, protective clothing).
• appropriate waste disposal practices.
• general lab safety; housekeeping.
• emergency guidelines.
➢ Refer to the UC Davis Radiation Safety Manual, laboratory protocol,
supervising professor or EH&S, if unsure of any of the above.

4.2 Non-Ionizing Radiation:

4.2.1 RECOGNITION OF NON-IONIZING RADIATION HAZARDS:
Non-ionizing radiation is electromagnetic radiation that is not of sufficient
energy to ionize matter, though it is capable of damaging the human body.
Non-ionizing radiation can cause photochemical and thermal effects by
exciting electrons in atoms to higher energy levels, and by producing
molecular excitation. Lasers, radio-frequency and microwave radiation, IR
radiation, and UV radiation are all examples of non-ionizing radiation.

4.2.2 EVALUATION OF NON-IONIZING RADIATION HAZARDS:

Sources of Non-Ionizing Radiation:

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➢ UV Radiation Chronic exposure to UV radiation may cause
premature skin aging, excessive wrinkling of the skin, skin
cancer, and cataracts (opacities in the lens of the eyes).
i. UV-A (315 - 400 nm) - "Black Light". Effects include
tanning (and some burning) of the skin, and fluorescing
of ocular media (corneal and lens effects).
ii. UV-B (280 - 315 nm) - "Erythemal UV". Effects include
"sunburn" of the skin, inflammation of the cornea of eye,
and cataracts.
iii. UV-C (100 - 280 nm) - "Germicidal UV". Principal
effect is inflammation of the cornea of the eye.
➢ IR Radiation
i. IR-A (700 nm - 1.4 mm) - "Near IR". High intensity may
cause skin burns and retinal thermal injury.
ii. IR-B (1.4 - 3.0 mm) and IR-C (3.0 mm - 1 mm) - "Far
IR". High intensity may cause skin burns and corneal
inflammation.
➢ Radio-frequency (RF) and Microwave (MW) Radiation i. RF
(0.3 - 30 MHz) and MW (30 MHz - 300 GHz) - Effects may
include formation of cataracts, neurological effects, male
sterility and possibly cancer
➢ Laser Radiation ("Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation")
i. Lasers may emit UV, visible or IR radiation.
ii. Laser radiation has unique properties: monochromatic
(one wavelength emitted), coherent (all waves in phase),
highly directional (low beam spreading), high energy
density.
iii. Additional laser hazards
• Electrical - most lethal hazard! Only qualified
individuals may perform laser power supply
service or maintenance.
• Chemical - dyes in liquid laser media, toxic gases.

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 • X-radiation - from high voltage vacuum tubes.
• Fire - Class 4 laser beam (generally IR laser).
• Mechanical - ergonomic injuries.

4.2.3 CONTROL METHODS FOR NON-IONIZING RADIATION:

A. UV Radiation: Eye protection (goggles, safety glasses, face shields) and
protective clothing should be worn when working with high-level UV sources,
which should be enclosed or shielded to prevent exposures. When fully
enclosed and interlocked UV sources are used, protective eye-wear and
clothing are not needed.
B. IR Radiation: Same as for UV (eye and skin protection). Measures to avoid
hyperthermia (over- heating of the body) may be needed.
C. Radio-frequency (RF) and Microwave (MW): Radiation Sources must be
properly isolated and shielded
D. Laser Radiation: Lasers are classified Class 1-4, depending upon their capacity
to produce injury. Each class is governed by specific regulations regarding
engineering, administrative and personal protection control measures:
➢ Class 1 (exempt laser) - i.e., laser in CD player
• laser should be labelled.
• laser must be enclosed and interlocked (for fully-enclosed
Class 3b or 4 laser).
➢ Class 2 (low power laser) - i.e., bar code scanner
• laser must be properly labelled.
• do not stare into the beam!
➢ Class 3a (medium power laser) - i.e., laser pointer
• laser must be properly labelled and area sign ("Caution" )
should be posted in some cases.
• do not stare into beam or view directly with optical
instruments.
• eye protection may be needed in rare circumstances.
➢ Class 3b (medium power laser) - i.e., some research lasers
• laser must be properly labelled and area sign ("Danger") must
be posted.

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 • laser operators must be adequately trained (including laser
safety).
• written operational safety procedure is highly recommended.
• many engineering controls are required (keyed master switch,
beam stops, laser interlocks, etc.).
• laser controlled area must be established.
➢ Class 4 (high power laser) - i.e., most medical & research lasers
• all measures listed above for Class 3b lasers.
• avoid eye or skin exposure to direct or scattered (specular and
diffuse) radiation.
• eye protection (and occasionally skin protection) is essential.
• activation warning systems (alarms, lights) must be installed
in most cases.
E. Ten Most Common Causes of Laser-Produced Eye Injuries
➢ Unanticipated eye exposure during alignment.
➢ Fatigue, leading to carelessness or inappropriate shortcuts; horseplay.
➢ Misaligned optics, upward directed beams, or beams at eye-level.
➢ Available eye protection not worn, or the wrong eyewear worn.
➢ Overconfidence; feeling of complacency or invincibility.
➢ Equipment malfunction.
➢ Operator unfamiliar with laser equipment (not sufficiently trained).
➢ Improper restoration of equipment following service.
➢ Failure to follow standard operating procedures due to rushing, etc.
➢ Manufacturer-installed safety features by-passed.

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5. Radioactive Disasters & Safety and Security Events
This section summarizes safety- and security-related radiological events that have
occurred over the past 10–15 years, that is, since the 2008 National Academies report
was released. Major events that occurred prior to 2008, including the events in Juarez,
Mexico (1983); Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986); Goiânia, Brazil (1987); Acerinox, Spain
(1988); and Nigerian oil fields (2002 and 2004), and resulted in relevant lessons learned
are described elsewhere (see, e.g., IAEA, 1988, 1998; NRC, 2008). Brief descriptions
of the events at Mayapuri, India (2010); Fukushima, Japan (2011); Tepojaco, Mexico
(2013); and the University of Washington, United States (2019) follow.

5.1 Mayapuri, India, 2010:

In February 2010, a research irradiator at Delhi University containing about
3,600 Curies (Ci) or 1.33 × 1014 becquerel (Bq) of cobalt-60 was auctioned to
the Mayapuri scrap market in New Delhi. The irradiator had been purchased in
1968 but had not been used since 1985 and was in storage at the university’s
chemistry department. The auction violated national regulations for radiation
protection and safety of radioactive sources.
At the scrap market, the source was dismantled by workers who were unaware
of the hazardous nature of the device. Seven people were exposed to radiation
doses ranging from 0.6 to 6.8 Gray (Gy), and one person died. India’s Atomic
Energy Regulatory Board and national emergency response agencies were
involved at the source recovery operations (IAEA, 2013a). All 16 cobalt-60
pencils were recovered, of which 4 were recovered intact and the rest scattered
in pieces. The event highlights the risks associated with inappropriate disposal
of radioactive sources.

5.2 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident, Japan, 2011:

On March 11, 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent 15-meter
tsunami led to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster, one of the
most severe nuclear accidents in history. The natural disasters damaged the
power supply and cooling system of the three operational reactors at the plant,
leading to a significant release of radioactivity.

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 The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) estimated that about 120 petabecquerels (PBq) for iodine-131 and
10 PBq for cesium-137 were released. These estimates are about 7 and 12
percent, respectively, of the corresponding releases estimated for the 1986
Chernobyl accident. Much of the released material was dispersed over the
Pacific Ocean, but a significant fraction was dispersed over eastern mainland
Japan.
In the aftermath of the accident, there were no immediate radiation-induced
health effects among plant workers or members of the public. However, the
psychological effects among the evacuees and residents of Fukushima were
significant due to loss of family and friends, homes, employment, drastic
relocations, and the perceived health risk due to radiation exposure. To address
these effects, the Fukushima Prefecture government implemented the
Fukushima Health Management Survey and established the Fukushima Mental
Health Care Centre.
The economic consequences of the natural disasters and the nuclear accident
were enormous for the Fukushima prefecture and Japan overall. Severe losses
in agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism were experienced. Over the past
decade, there has been gradual progress in the economic reconstruction of
Fukushima, including cleanup of the nuclear site. However, it has been a
difficult and costly process. The cost for cleanup of the nuclear site is estimated
to reach 35 trillion to 80 trillion yen (approximately $350 billion to $800 billion)
over 40 years.
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident demonstrated that an event
involving radiation can have large socioeconomic consequences even if it does
not cause any immediate deaths due to radiation. It highlighted the importance
of preparedness and the need for robust systems to mitigate the effects of such
disasters. The lessons learned from this disaster continue to inform nuclear
safety and disaster management policies worldwide. This summary provides a
comprehensive overview of the disaster, its aftermath, and its ongoing impact.

5.3 Tepojaco, Mexico, 2013:

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 In December 2013, a truck transporting a cobalt-60 teletherapy source from a
hospital in the northwestern city of Tijuana to a radioactive waste storage center
was stolen in Tepojaco near Mexico City. The hijackers were unaware that the
truck was carrying a high-activity (about 1,800 Ci or 70 TBq) source; their goal
was to steal the truck (IAEA, 2013a). Law enforcement authorities recovered
the truck and the teletherapy machine 2 days after the event. The radioactive
cobalt-60 source had been removed from its protective shielding, but it
remained intact (IAEA, 2013a). The six men who were arrested by the
authorities on suspicion of stealing the truck did not appear to be exposed to
high levels of radiation. This event highlights the risks associated with
transportation of radioactive sources.

5.4 University of Washington Irradiator Event, 2019:

On May 2, 2019, a recovery operation at Harborview Research and Training
Facility in Washington State led to a small release of cesium-137, causing
contamination and disruptions. This article examines the incident, its aftermath,
and key takeaways.
During the operation, challenges arose, resulting in an unintended release of
approximately 1 Ci (37 GBq) of cesium-137. Thirteen workers were
contaminated, and the facility was compromised, necessitating the relocation of
over 200 staff members and impacting 80 research programs.
A nine-month investigation by a Joint Team identified inadequate training and
unclear organizational responsibilities as primary factors.
The incident emphasized the need for thorough training and clarified roles
during recovery operations. Consequently, the NNSA implemented mandatory
hazard analysis for all recovery work to enhance safety.
Remediation efforts are ongoing, with reoccupation expected by fall 2021.
However, the incident's economic toll exceeds $100 million, highlighting the
substantial cost of even minor radioactive releases.
The University of Washington cesium-137 incident underscores the importance
of stringent safety protocols and organizational clarity in handling radioactive
materials. As recovery continues and lessons are applied, it will inform future
practices to mitigate risks and ensure worker and facility safety.

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6. Conclusion
Radiation safety is a major concern in this modern era of diagnostic and therapeutic
Radiology and Nuclear Medicine as well. Radiation protection is an integral
component of the working infrastructure of any radiology and nuclear medicine
department. The main principles of radiation protection are to provide adequate
protection from undue exposure of radiation to personnel directly or indirectly
involved with radiation, without unduly limiting the benefits of radiation exposure.
The components of radiation protection include justification of the procedure
involving the radiation exposure, use of minimum radiation exposure compatible
with the procedure with provides adequate diagnostic information, shielding of the
personnel and patient from unwanted radiation exposure and monitoring of
radiation exposure to the occupational workers and the working environment.
Regular surveillance of the concern department for radiation levels and monitoring
of the radiation protection programmers and regular educational activities form an
integral part of the responsibilities of the RCO and other administrative authorities
of the department/hospital.

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7. Acknowledgement
I, SPANDAN MANDAL, a student of Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary
College, Rahara, currently pursuing BSc. Honours in Physics, have successfully
completed this project under the guidance of my botany professor sir Anirban Kundu,
on the topic “Hazardous wastes Radioactive and its different sources. Under his
guidance I was able to understand what hazardous radioactive wastes actually are,
how these are different from other wastes, what are the different sources and how we
can identify them, how we can be safe from future such radioactive hazards.

8. References
• Hazard - Wikipedia
• Radioactive Source Uses, Risks, and Control - Radioactive Sources - NCBI
Bookshelf (nih.gov)
• (PDF) Radiation Hazard, Safety, Control and Protection (researchgate.net)
• Radiation_Hazards_07302020.pdf (ucdavis.edu)
• Safety Management - Hazard Prevention and Control | Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (osha.gov)
• hazard-recognition.pdf (nsc.org)
• Radiation and health (who.int)
• Radiation | Nuclear Radiation | Ionizing Radiation | Health Effects - World
Nuclear Association (world-nuclear.org)
• Radiation Hazard Scale | CDC

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