LIE GROUPS

LIE GROUPS

Submitted by:
Advaith R Nair
M0191303

in partial fulfillment of requirements

of 10th semester of integrated MSc

Project Advisor:
Prof. M S Raghunathan
Department of Mathematics
UM DAE CEBS
 Acknowledgements

I sincerely thank my project advisor Prof. M S Raghunathan for helping me complete

the project fruitfully. I also thank the faculty members at UM DAE CEBS for giving me
this amazing opportunity to learn a lot of new things and also for their proper guidance and
motivation in the preceding semesters which has enabled me to undertake this task.
 LIE GROUPS 1

Contents
1. Introduction 2
2 LIE GROUPS

1. Introduction
Definition 1.1. A group G with the structure of an analytic manifold such that the operations (x, y) → xy
and x → x−1 are analytic maps on G and G × G respectively is said to be a Lie group.
Analytic manifold is a manifold with an atlas whose transition maps are analytic. An analytic function on
an open subset U ⊆ Rn is a function such that for every point x ∈ U there exists a neighbourhood in which it
can be represented by a convergent power series. One could have started with a C 1 or C ∞ manifold, but the
imposition of group structure forces the manifold to be analytic. Analyticity of the inverse is a consequence of
analyticity of the group operation (consequence of Implicit Function Theorem).
Example 1.2. A vector space V of dimension n over R is a Lie group under addition, The atlas being the
representation with respect to some basis.
Example 1.3. The Orthogonal Group is a subgroup of GL(n, R). The analytic atlas can be given as follows.
Let B = {g|g is symmetric and (1 ± g) is invertible} and B ∗ = {g|g is orthogonal and (1 ± g) is invertible} The
map C = (1 − A)(1 + A)−1 called Cayley transform is an invertible map from B ∗ to B. One then notes that
{(Lg (B ∗ ), C ◦ (Lg )−1 } is an analytic atlas of O(n) and thus is a lie group of dimension n(n − 1)/2
1.1. Lie Algebras. Given an analytic manifold M one can define M to be the set of analytic vector fields on
M. X ∈ M can be seen as a derivation on C ω (M ) as follows.
X : C ω (M ) → C ω (M )
f → (p → Xp f )
Xp f denotes the directional derivative of f along X(p) ∈ Tp (M ). X is clearly a derivation. Using this view one
may define XY or Y X on C ω (M ) but it is easily seen that this may not necessarily be a derivation and hence
not a vector field. However XY − Y X is a derivation and called lie bracket of X and Y denoted as [X, Y ]. This
operation which is bilinear in R and notably non-associative has the following properties:
[X, Y ] = −[Y, X]
[X, [Y, Z]] + [Y, [Z, X]] + [Z, [X, Y ]] = 0
A vector space (in this case M) endowed with such a product is called a Lie algebra . Given a Lie group G, for a
choice of vector v0 in Te (G) one can define a vector field given by X(g) = (dlg )(v0 ) where lg : G → G is the left
multiplication by g. Such vector fields are called left invariant that is dlg (X) = X (Collection denoted from here
on as g). g is isomorphic to Te (G) as a vector space. Left invariant vector fields are analytic due to analyticity
of group operation. One also notes that since for any diffeomorphism ψ : M → M ′ where M and M’ are smooth
manifolds, ψ∗ ([X, Y ]) = [ψ∗ (X), ψ∗ (Y )], g is closed under lie bracket. It is thus a lie subalgebra of lie algebra
of analytic vector fields of G and called the lie algebra of G. Thus there exists a Lie algebra corresponding to
every Lie group. The converse will be proved by the end of this text.
Example 1.4. The Lie algebra of GL(n, R) is M (n, R), The Lie bracket operation is given by [A, B] = AB−BA.
The lie algebra of a vector space V over R is the vector space itself endowed with the trivial lie bracket.
1.2. Exponential Map. The following theorem stems from the theorem of existence of Analytic solutions for
an ordinary differential equation corresponding to an analytic vector field which depends analytically on the
initial conditions.
Theorem 1.5. Given an analytic vector field X on G and a co-ordinate chart (U, Θ : U → Bd (0)) mapping 0
to 1 at 1, there exist δ > 0 and an analytic map ΦX : Iδ (0) × U → G such that:
1) ΦX (0, x) = x for all x ∈ U .
2) ∃ b > 0, b ≤ δ, U ′ = Θ−1 (Bb (0)) such that ΦX (Iδ (0)U ′ ) ⊂ U .
3) For each t ∈δ (0), the map x → ΦX (t, x) is injective on U ′ .
4) If t,t′ and t + t′ ∈ U ′ , and x and ΦX (t, x) ∈ U then ΦX (t′ , ΦX (t, x)) = ΦX (t + t′ , x)
5) If f is an analytic function defined on an open subset W ⊆ U , d/dt(f (ΦX (t, x)))|t=0 = (Xf )(x)
The maps ΦX,x : R → G is a one parameter subgroup (ΦX,x being a Lie-group homomorphism on R) of G.
The map X → ΦX (1, 1) is an analytic map on an open set Ω ⊆ g (denoted expG (X)) which is known as the
exponential map. An analytic group homomorphism of lie groups gives rise to a lie algebra homomorphism of
their respective lie algebras. These maps commute with the exponential map. Given s, t ∈ R and [X, Y ] = 0
the following holds exp(sX) · exp(tX) = exp(sX + tY )
Definition 1.6. Lie subgroup H of a Lie group G is an algebraic subgroup of G which has a topology such that
the injective homomorphism i : H → G is an analytic immersion.
A topology of the kind mentioned in the above definition is called the submanifold topology on the submanifold
induced by the injective immersion. This topology is usually finer than the subspace topology induced by the
manifold. In case these topologies coincide, the submanifold is said to be embedded in the manifold. Cartan
showed that a closed subgroup of a Lie group is an embedded Lie subgroup. The proof is as follows.
 LIE GROUPS 3

1.3. Proof of Cartan’s theorem: Given a closed subgroup H of G, one wishes to find a chart of H such
that the inclusion becomes an immersion, for this one can use the exponential map of G via a suitable vector
subspace of g corresponding to H. Define S ⊂ g to be the set of X such that ∃ Xn ∈ g with Xn → 0 and tn ∈ R
with tn → 0 and exp(tn Xn ) ∈ H. By the virtue of closedness of H in G and property of exponential map,
one deduces that h = span(S) = {X ∈ g|exp(t · X) ∈ H, ∀t ∈ R}. Let h′ be a vector subspace of g such that
g = h ⊕ h′ . Define Φ : g → G by Φ(X + Y ) = exp(X) · exp(Y ) for X ∈ h and Y ∈ h′ . Φ is a diffeomorphism
(inverse function theorem) from a neighbourhood Ω of 0 ∈ g to neighbourhood U of 1 ∈ G. If one could show
that this property is also true when restricted to h (resp. H), we will get a chart for H. If this was not true, there
would exist Xn ∈ h and Yn ∈ h′ with Xn + Yn → 0 and Yn ̸= 0 such that Φ(Xn + Yn ) ∈ H. Let Z be a limit
point of Zn = Yn /||Yn ||, then Z ∈ S thus Z ∈ h but since Z ∈ h′ by definition Z = 0 which is a contradiction
since ||Z|| = 1.
To prove that i is an embedding it is enough to show that a neighbourhood of unity in H gets mapped to a
neighbourhood of unity in i(H) in the subspace topology induced by G. Let U be a neighbourhood of 1 in H.
Let V be a compact neighbourhood of 1 such that V · V −1 ⊂ U . There exist a countably dense subset of H, say
D such that D · V = H. i(H) being closed in G is locally compact in subspace topology. Since i(D) · i(V ) = i(H)
is a countable union of closed subsets (isomorphic to i(V )), by Baire Category Theorem i(V ) as a subset of i(H)
has non-empty interior. Thus for some x ∈ i(V )o , x−1 i(V ) ⊂ i(U ) is a compact neighbourhood of 1 in i(H)
and hence i(U) is a neighbourhood of 1.
Given a Lie subgroup H of a Lie group G, its corresponding Lie algebra h is a sub-algebra of the lie algebra
g (Lie algebra corresponding to G) is given by
{X ∈ g|∃δ > 0, expG (Iδ (0)X) ⊂ H}
The connected component of the Lie Group G containing identity is generated by exp(g) and it has an
exponential chart. The following is an immediate corollary of Cartan’s theorem.
Corollary 1.7. ϕ : G → H is a Lie group homomorphism then kerϕ is a closed subgroup whose Lie algebra is
ker(dϕ)
Given a Lie group G, one can assign an analytic automorphism on it corresponding to an element g ∈ G
given by conjugation. The differential of this map gives a representation of G on g. This representation is called
adjoint representation of G, denoted Ad : G → EndR (g). The derivative of this map gives a representation of
the Lie algebra denoted by ad. Using properties of exponential map, one gets that Ad(exp(tX)) = exp(tad(X))
and g(exptX)g −1 = exp(tAdg X). It can be shown that ad(X)(Y ) = [X, Y ]. The following theorem by de-Rham
is useful in proving the fundamental theorem of Lie theory.
Theorem 1.8. Let M be an analytic manifold, then there exists isomorphism of the de-rham cohomology of M
on the singular cohomolgy of M. Given another smooth manifold N and an analytic map F : M → N these
respective isomorphisms commute with the maps induced by F between their p-th cohomology groups for all
p ∈ N.
Theorem 1.9. Given a lie group G with lie algebra g and its Lie sub-algebra h, there is a Lie subgroup of G
with the lie algebra h
Proof. Part(i): Consider N = {g ∈ G|Ad(g)(h) = h} which by Cartan’s theorem is a Lie subgroup of G with
lie algebra n = {X ∈ g|[X, h] ⊂ h} which contains h. Thus replacing G with the connected component of N
with identity, one can assume h to be Ad(G)-stable. Further, for such an h one gets a representation of G on
g/h induced by Ad. The kernel B of this map is a Lie subgroup (again by Cartan’s theorem) with Lie algebra
b = {X ∈ g|[X, Y ] ∈ h ∀Y ∈ g}. Clearly b ⊃ h ⊃ [b, b]. Replacing G again by B, one may further assume
g ⊃ h ⊃ [g, g]
Part(ii): With the above assumptions the 1-forms {ωr |1 ≤ r ≤ q = dimR (g/h)} induced by a fixed basis of
g/h are closed. To see this one needs to show dωr (X, Y ) = 0 for all left invariant vector fields X and Y since
all analytic vector fields are linear combinations over C ω (G) of left invariant vector fields over G, but for a
smooth 1-form ω, dω(X, Y ) = X · ω(Y ) − Y · ω(X) + ω([X, Y ]) hence for ωr are closed (since first two terms
are 0 since ω(X) and ω(Y ) are constant functions as X and Y are left invariant and third term is zero from the
assumption made in part (i)). Since all analytic forms are locally exact, there is an open set U containing 1 and
analytic functions {fr : U → R|1 ≤ r ≤ q} such that dfr = ωr|U with fr (1) = 0 so that the map f : U → Rq ,
f = (f1 , f2 , ...fr ) is an analytic map. Now consider V ⊂ U such that V · V ⊂ U . (U ∈ U such that 1 ∈ U ). The
left invariance of ω causes the map fy : V → Rq , for a fixed y ∈ V , fy (x) = f (x · y) − f (x) − f (y) to be such
that dfy = 0 on entirety of V for all y ∈ V implying that fy is locally constant on V. But since f (1) = 0 that
would imply, f (x · y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y ∈ V . When G is simply connected every global 1-form is of the
form du where u is an analytic function on entirety of M, Thus by analytic continuity we can extend f to all
of G such that f (x · y) = f (x) + f (y) making f a lie group homomorphism. The kernel of this map has the lie
algebra to be the kernel of its differential at unity which is precisely h. If G is not simply connected one can
find a Lie subgroup of the universal cover G̃ say H̃ with the lie algebra h. The group H = H̃/H̃ ∩ ker(p) (p
4 LIE GROUPS

being the covering map) has a natural lie group structure (ker(p) ∩ H̃ being discrete subgroup) with lie algebra
h. □
Corollary 1.10. Ado’s theorem states that every finite dimensional lie algebra is a sub-algebra of Lie algebra
of a large enough general linear group. This combined with the Lie theorem concludes that there is a Lie group
corresponding to every finite dimensional Lie algebra. Although it is not necessarily unique.