Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222 – 1230

Emotional exhaustion and organizational deviance: Can the right job and a
leader's style make a difference?
Jay Prakash Mulki a,1 , Fernando Jaramillo b,2 , William B. Locander c,⁎
a
College of Business Administration, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
b
College of Business Administration, University of Texas at Arlington, Box 19469, Business Building 221, Arlington, TX 7601-0469, USA
c
Davis Leadership Center, Jacksonville University, 2800 University Boulevard North, Jacksonville, FL 32211, USA
Received 7 December 2005; accepted 4 September 2006

Abstract

Emotional exhaustion and organizational deviance are getting increased attention because of their negative impact on business in terms of lost
productivity, decreased job satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, and decreased performance. In this study, we investigated the
combined effect of leadership style and person–job fit on emotional exhaustion using a sample of employees that provide healthcare and social
benefits to a large metropolitan county. We also explored how the impact of emotional exhaustion on organizational deviance behaviors is
mediated by employee's job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Results indicate that both emotional exhaustion and job attitudes mediate
the effects of participative leadership and person–job fit on organizational deviance. Managerial implications are also provided.
© 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Emotional exhaustion; Organizational deviance; Person–job fit; Leadership style

1. Introduction Emotionally exhausted service employees hold negative job

Emotional exhaustion is a topic of major interest to
practitioners and academics due to its negative impact on
employees and organizations (Halbesleben and Buckley, 2004).
The feeling of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by
one's work has been shown to have a negative effect on job
attitudes and behaviors (Maslach and Jackson, 1981). Managers
are concerned with emotional exhaustion because it affects both
job performance and employee turnover (Lee and Ashforth,
1996). The pervasive effect of emotional exhaustion is
particularly evident in service jobs where employees face
multiple interactions with customers which can affect the service
providers' mental and physical well-being (Rafaeli and
Sutton, 1987).
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 904 256 7672; fax: +1 904 256 7463.
E-mail addresses: j.mulki@neu.edu (J.P. Mulki), Jaramillo@uta.edu
(F. Jaramillo), wlocand@ju.edu (W.B. Locander).
1
Tel.: +1 617 373 5740.
2
Tel.: +1 817 272 2273; fax: +1 817 272 2854.
0148-2963/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.09.001
attitudes which are detected by customers and ultimately result
in lower customer satisfaction with the service encounter
(Grandey et al., 2004). Our research suggests that organizational
deviance is another negative consequence of emotional ex-
haustion. Organizational deviance is described as employee
behavior that violates significant organizational norms and in
doing so threatens the well-being of an organization (Robinson
and Bennett, 1995). Deviance includes actions like withholding
effort, neglecting directions, working slower and indulging in
behaviors that erode organizational values and drain productive
resources (Pearson and Porath, 2005). Organizational deviance
has also received increased attention because of its known
impact on employee productivity and organizational perfor-
mance (Colbert et al., 2004; Dunlop and Lee, 2004). Frustrated
employees have unfavorable impressions of their work situa-
tions and may react by violating organizational norms and
withholding effort thus causing business inefficiencies (Colbert
et al., 2004; Dunlop and Lee, 2004).
Both academics and practitioners are interested in under-
standing emotional exhaustion and finding ways of reducing its
negative impact. The various factors that influence emotional
 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230
exhaustion can be grouped as organizational factors and
individual characteristics. Organizational variables contributing
to emotional exhaustion include role ambiguity, role conflict,
workload, and work pressure (Witt et al., 2004; Wright and
Hobfoll, 2004). Another organizational factor, a participative
leadership style by managers, plays a significant role in creating
a low stress and high performance workplace where satisfied
employees are committed to the firm (Avolio et al., 2004; Harris
and Ogbonna, 2001). Studies have also suggested that social
and personal support, a positive organizational climate, and
team cohesion can ease emotional exhaustion (Cordes and
Dougherty, 1993; Wright and Hobfoll, 2004). An individual
characteristic that can decrease emotional exhaustion is person–
job fit where an employee's abilities match with job require-
ments. Research indicates that employees with the right skills
and training are better prepared to handle increased workloads
and can better cope with job stress (Brkich et al., 2002; Singh
and Greenhaus, 2004). However, no study has examined the
combined impact of manager leadership style and employee–
job fit on emotional exhaustion. Also, there has not been an
empirical study investigating how emotional exhaustion
impacts organizational deviance.
This study shows that employees' emotional exhaustion
leads to higher job dissatisfaction and lower organizational
commitment which prompts them to engage in deviant be-
haviors. Hence, job satisfaction and organizational commitment
mediate the relationship between emotional exhaustion and
organizational deviance. Results indicate that employees who
are highly satisfied with their jobs and committed to the
organization are less likely to engage in deviant behaviors even
when they are emotionally exhausted. In this situation, satisfied
Fig. 1. A Hypothesized model. B Structural model. Notes: Standardized paths are shown. t-values are in parentheses. Since all direct paths are statistically significant,
mediating hypotheses H4b, H5b, H6b, H7b, and H7c are also statistically significant at α = 0.01.
1223
and committed employees think positively about the organiza-
tion and engage in actions that enhance the welfare of the firm
rather than harm it. On the other hand, dissatisfied employees
who are not committed to the firm can be indifferent to an
organization's welfare and thus more likely to engage in deviant
behaviors.
This study makes two important contributions to the busi-
ness literature. First, it demonstrates that emotional exhaus-
tion mediates the relationship between participative leadership
and person–job fit with job attitudes. Second, it shows that
job satisfaction and organizational commitment act as me-
diators in the relationship between emotional exhaustion and
organizational deviance. This is the first study that shows
the combined effect of person–job fit and leadership style
on employee emotional exhaustion as well as the mediating
role of job satisfaction and organizational commitment
(Fig. 1A).
2. Hypothesis development
2.1. Emotional exhaustion
Emotional exhaustion is “the feeling of being emotionally
overextended and exhausted by ones' work” (Maslach and
Jackson, 1981, p. 101). It often occurs when employees perform
“people-work” of some kind (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993).
Service professionals are required to promote the welfare of their
clients which imposes a variety of cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral demands (Jonge and Dormann, 2003). For example,
service employees are prone to emotional labor since firms often
require them to exhibit organizationally desired emotions during
1224 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230
interactions with customers (Arnold and Barling, 2003). This
results in job alienation, especially when mandated emotions do
not reflect the employee's true feelings (Adelmann, 1996). In
service industries, the ongoing hassles and excessive customer
demands can lead to both physical and emotional depletion
(Wright and Cropanzano, 1998). Actually, workers in service
industries frequently encounter negative customer reactions and
verbal aggression, which can make them even more prone to
emotional exhaustion (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993).
This study uses conservation resources theory (COR) to
explore the impact of person–job fit and leadership style on
emotional exhaustion. COR theory suggests that emotional
exhaustion occurs when employees perceive that they lack
resources to perform their jobs (Halbesleben and Buckley, 2004;
Janssen et al., 2004). When workers believe that resources are
insufficient to meet job demands or when the investment of
personal effort does not provide expected results, emotional
exhaustion can occur (Lee and Ashforth, 1996; Wright and
Hobfoll, 2004). The above discussion suggests that two factors
can contribute to lowering emotional exhaustion: (1) an
employee's perception that she/he has the ability to perform
well — person–job fit, and (2) the employees' beliefs that a
participative leader will value their inputs in resource allocation
and provide adequate resources to meet job demands — par-
ticipative leadership.
2.2. Person–job fit
Person–job fit relates to how well an individual's knowl-
edge, skills, abilities, needs, and values match job requirements
(Shin, 2004). Good job fit exists when a person has the essential
abilities to perform a job (Kristof-Brown et al., 2002). When
employees perceive that they can meet job demands, they feel
self-confident and develop a sense of accomplishment (Xie and
Johns, 1995). Also, low stress occurs when employees feel that
there is a close fit between their talents and those required by the
job (Singh and Greenhaus, 2004).
As previously indicated, COR theory suggests that high
stress and emotional exhaustion are the result of employee's
perceptions of a lack of resources to meet job requirements
(Halbesleben and Buckley, 2004; Wright and Hobfoll, 2004).
Our research claims that such perceptions are more likely when
an employee believes that her/his abilities are inadequate for
meeting job expectations — a low level of person job fit. This is
consistent with research indicating that when service employees
perceive that they lack the appropriate skills for meeting the
ever-increasing customer expectations, they are especially
vulnerable to emotional exhaustion (Cordes and Dougherty,
1993; Maslach and Jackson, 1981).
H1. Person–job fit is negatively related to emotional exhaustion.
2.3. Participative leadership
Effective managers employ appropriate leadership skills
such as networking, building social capital, and political ma-
neuvering to access and deploy resources that allow employees
to meet organizational goals (Ahearn et al., 2004). Leadership
style is related to employee attitudes and behaviors; specifically,
it has been linked to role perceptions, job anxiety, job sat-
isfaction, propensity to leave, and turnover (Avolio et al., 2004;
Jones et al., 1996).
Participative leadership is defined as sharing problem
solving with followers by consulting them before making a
decision (Kahai et al., 1997). Participative leaders are seen as
supportive and open because they consult subordinates about
problems and potential actions, encouraging ideas for solutions.
Thus, an organizational climate marked by participative
leadership enhances employees' beliefs in their own abilities,
minimizes the sense of helplessness and loss of self-esteem
(Abraham, 1998), thus lowering emotional exhaustion. Like-
wise, COR theory implies that non-participative leadership
results in higher emotional exhaustion since employees are
likely to feel like helpless bystanders without any voice or
control in the allocation of resources needed to meet job
demands (Halbesleben and Buckley, 2004; Wright and Hobfoll,
2004). Therefore:
H2. Participative leadership is negatively related to emotional
exhaustion.
2.4. Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an attitude reflecting how well people like
or dislike their job (Spector, 1985). Emotionally exhausted
workers often feel helpless, lose self-esteem, and feel a lack of
accomplishment (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993; Moore, 2000).
This can make them anxious about going to work and develop a
sense of frustration about their inability to display the en-
thusiasm and interest in their work (Babakus et al., 1999). Also,
emotionally exhausted employees often develop negative
attitudes about customers, the organization, their job, and them-
selves (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993). This may explain why
emotionally exhausted employees become dissatisfied with their
jobs (Abraham, 1998; Lee and Ashforth, 1996). Hence:
H 3. Emotional exhaustion is negatively related to job
satisfaction.
2.5. Emotional exhaustion
Leadership style can have a direct influence on attitudes such
as job satisfaction but also have an indirect impact through other
variables (Anderson and Huang, 2005; Ruyter et al., 2001). One
such variable is emotional exhaustion. Employees working with
participative leaders have greater job satisfaction because they
feel respected, independent, and able to express themselves
(Kahai et al., 1997). Participative leaders create a work envi-
ronment where individuals are motivated, inspired, challenged,
and feel accomplished (Bass, 1997). In addition, under a parti-
cipative leader, employees have a say in resource allocation
decisions and experience lower emotional exhaustion. Con-
versely, when employees are faced with seemingly insur-
mountable demands and perceive a lack of influence about
 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230
resource allocation, they become frustrated, disappointed, and
dissatisfied. This suggests that participative leadership has both
a direct and an indirect effect on job satisfaction. The indirect
effect is explained by emotional exhaustion.
H4a. Participative leadership has a positive and direct effect on
job satisfaction.
H4b. Emotional exhaustion partially mediates the relationship
between participative leadership and job satisfaction.
The adequateness of the match between an individual's
abilities and the job requirements affects both job satisfaction
and performance (Brkich et al., 2002; Singh and Greenhaus,
2004). When there is a match between employee skills and
abilities and the set of job requirements, employees are able to
do their job well and are happy with their jobs (Brkich et al.,
2002; Singh and Greenhaus, 2004). Conversely, as the
employees begin to realize that that their abilities are not
adequate to meet job demands, over time they develop feelings
of being emotionally exhausted and become unhappy. Empir-
ical research has shown that emotional exhaustion is particu-
larly high when employees think that they lack the necessary
abilities for job completion (Halbesleben and Buckley, 2004;
Janssen et al., 2004; Wright and Hobfoll, 2004). A higher level
of emotional exhaustion can further add to feelings of
dissatisfaction (Babakus et al., 1999; Jaramillo et al., 2006).
Thus, we hypothesize that emotional exhaustion acts as a
partial mediator of the person–job fit and job satisfaction
relationship.
H5a. Person–job fit has a positive and direct effect on job
satisfaction.
H5b. Emotional exhaustion partially mediates the relationship
between person–job fit and job satisfaction.
2.6. Organizational commitment
Mowday et al. (1979) defined organizational commitment
as employees' identification with the firm and its goals. As
such, it is a psychological bond that links an individual to an
organization. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment
are both thought of as emotional states resulting from an
employee's evaluation of his/her job experience (Harrison et
al., 2006). When job conditions are highly stressful, employees
become emotionally exhausted and develop lower job satis-
faction followed by lower organizational commitment (Baba-
kus et al., 1999; Jaramillo et al., 2006). Although researchers
have argued that organizational commitment could lead to job
satisfaction, the reverse chain-of-effects has received greater
empirical and conceptual support (cf., Brown and Peterson,
1993). Organizational commitment is an enduring attitude
which explains an individual's willingness to remain loyal to a
firm (Jaramillo et al., 2005). In contrast, job satisfaction is less
stable and affected by transitory events (Paulin et al., 2006).
Therefore, researchers have noted it requires multiple satisfac-
1225
tory job experiences to create high organizational commitment
(Meyer et al., 1993). This leads to the following hypothesis:
H6a. Job satisfaction has a positive and direct effect on
organizational commitment.
H6b. Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between emo-
tional exhaustion and organizational commitment.
2.7. Organizational deviance
Robinson and Bennett (1995) define workplace deviance as
a lack of compliance with organizational norms and expecta-
tions. Deviant behaviors can be attributed to employees' per-
ceptions of work stressors that create frustration and feelings of
outrage (Colbert et al., 2004). Bennett and Robinson's (2000)
study identified two facets of workplace deviance: (1)
interpersonal deviance directed at other employees and (2)
organizational deviance targeted at the workplace. Interpersonal
deviance takes the form of behaviors directed at fellow
employees and can include abuse, rudeness and physical assault
(Robinson and Bennett, 1995). Deviant behavior toward the
organization can manifest itself in the form of indifference,
nonconformance to organizational norms, or a violation of
organizational polices (Bennett and Robinson, 2000).
Emotional exhaustion resulting from lack of participative
leadership is likely to be directed at the organization rather
than to other employees. This is because employees often per-
ceive supervisors as surrogates of the company who exercise
significant influence in their life (Strutton et al., 1993). Thus,
both supervisors' actions and lack of actions influence employ-
ee's attitudes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment) and
behaviors towards the organization. Research also suggests that
dissatisfied employees often resort to deviant behaviors as a way
of coping with the frustration (Judge et al., 2006). Conversely,
when employees are happy with their jobs, they reciprocate with
efforts that help the firm reach its goal (Organ et al., 2006).
An important premise of attitudinal theory is that attitudes are
proximal antecedents of behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 2001).
Hence, negative job attitudes should exist first in order for
emotional exhaustion to result in higher levels of organizational
deviance. In fact, numerous studies have shown that emotionally
exhausted employees first become dissatisfied with their jobs,
and then become less committed to the organization which leads
to deviant behavioral intentions (e.g., Babakus et al., 1999;
Jaramillo et al., 2006). This chain of effects is in keeping with the
conceptualization depicted in Fig. 1. The present study adds to the
existing knowledge about the negative effects of emotional
exhaustion on job attitudes and behaviors by testing whether
emotional exhaustion ultimately leads to deviant behaviors. This
study claims that employees who are dissatisfied with their jobs
have lower levels of organizational commitment and thus are less
likely to care about the firm's well-being and future. Therefore,
organizational commitment ultimately leads to deviant behaviors.
H7a. Organizational commitment has a negative and direct
effect on organizational deviance.
1226 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230

H7b. Organizational commitment mediates the relationship 4. Results

between job satisfaction and organizational deviance.
4.1. Measurement model
H7c. Organizational commitment and job satisfaction mediate
the relationship between emotional exhaustion and organiza- Table 2 shows the correlation matrix along with the means,
tional deviance. standard deviations, and reliabilities of the constructs used in
this study. Of the demographic variables, age and total job
3. Method

3.1. Sample Table 1

Scale items and factor loadings
This study used a sample of employees who provide healthcare Scale/items Factor loadings
and social benefits to a large metropolitan county with about one Emotional Exhaustion, α = 0.89, ρ = 0.87, AVE = 0.50
million residents. The study was conducted with active support I feel emotionally drained from my work. 0.8381
from a county Health Department in the Southeastern United I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and 0.8074
States. A survey questionnaire package was sent to all 510 have to face another day on the job.
I feel burned out from my work. 0.8370
employees of the organization. The package included a survey
I feel frustrated by my job. 0.8170
questionnaire, a letter communicating the study's purpose and I feel used up at the end of the workday. 0.8147
confidentiality of individual responses, and a postage paid return I feel like I'm at the end of my rope. 0.6280
envelope. Ten days after the survey mailings, a reminder card was I feel I am working too hard on my job. 0.6720
sent to all the respondents. A total of 212 questionnaires were Working with people all day is really a strain for me.1 0.5742
Working directly with people directly puts too much 0.4744
returned directly to the researchers (42% response-rate). After
stress on me.1
discarding four incomplete surveys, 208 responses were coded for
analysis. A test for non-response bias was conducted by Organizational Deviance, α = 0.74, ρ = 0.78, AVE = 0.37
comparing the means for the constructs in the model with Spend too much time fantasizing or daydreaming 0.6783
demographic variables. No differences existed between early and instead of working.
I have taken longer break than is acceptable 0.6712
late responses (Armstrong and Overton, 1977).
at my workplace.
Called in sick when I was not. 0.6130
3.2. Sample description I neglected to follow my boss's instructions. 0.6915
I intentionally worked slower than I could have worked. 0.6956
Respondents' ages ranged from 23 to 76 years with a mean I left work early without permission. 0.6243
I came in late to work without permission.1 0.4129
of 45.6 years (SD = 11.9); 68.8% were females, 22.6% were
I put little effort into my work.1 0.3613
males, and 8.6% did not indicate gender. Experience with the
department ranged from less than a year to 30 years with a mean Organizational Commitment, α = 0.85, ρ = 0.78, AVE = 0.54
of 8.4 years (SD = 6.8). Total work experience ranged from 2 to I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization. 0.7699
47 years (μ = 22.2, SD = 11.2 years). Almost equal numbers of I talk up this organization to my friends as a great 0.9079
organization to work for.
responses were received from all six divisions of the department
I feel a sense of “ownership” for this organization rather 0.7775
and represented employees ranging from social workers to than just being an employee.
clinical staff.
Person–Job Fit, α = 0.87, ρ = 0.78, AVE = 0.55
3.3. Measures My skills and abilities perfectly match what 0.8720
my job demands.
My personal likes and dislikes match perfectly what 0.7573
As shown in Table 1, all constructs were measured with my job demands.
published and extensively used scales. Participative leadership There is a good fit between my job and me. 0.8560
was measured with Harris and Ogbonna's (2001) scale. Person–
job fit and organizational commitment were measured using Participative Leadership, α = 0.95, ρ = 0.90, AVE = 0.67
Before making decisions, he/she considers what his/her 0.9029
Speier and Venkatesh's (2002) scales. Job satisfaction was
subordinates have to say.
measured using Spector's (1985) scale of overall job satisfac- Before taking action, he/she consults with subordinates. 0.9614
tion. The above four constructs were measured with 7-point He/she listens to subordinate's advice on which assignments 0.9065
Likert type scales (1 = “strongly disagree” and 7 = “strongly should be made.
agree”). Emotional exhaustion was assessed with a Maslach and When faced with a problem, he/she consults with subordinates. 0.9001
He/she asks subordinates for their suggestions. 0.8706
Jackson (1981) scale. A measure of deviance was created using
eight high loading items from an organizational deviance scale Overall Job Satisfaction, α = 0.83, ρ = 0.75, AVE = 0.50
developed by Bennett and Robinson (2000). Emotional In general, I don't like my job (R). 0.7065
exhaustion and organizational deviance were measured using All in all, I am satisfied with my job. 0.8172
a 6-point scale asking for the frequency of occurrence In general, I like working here. 0.8171
(1 = “Never” and 6 = “Very Often”). Note: 1Items in italics were deleted from the final measurement model.
 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230 1227

Table 2
Correlations and descriptive statistics
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Participative Leadership 0.95
2 Person–Job Fit 0.24* 0.87
3 Emotional Exhaustion − 0.27* − 0.45* 0.89
4 Overall Job Satisfaction 0.43* 0.45* − 0.48* 0.83
5 Organizational Deviance − 0.17* − 0.08 0.29* 0.19* 0.74
6 Organizational Commitment 0.50* 0.46* − 0.37* 0.60* − 0.19* 0.85
7 Age − 0.05 0.10 − 0.17* 0.13 − 0.11 0.07
8 Gender − 0.11 − 0.05 − 0.02 −0.03 0.21* − 0.11 −0.02
9 Experience in Current Job − 0.06 − 0.09 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.34* − 0.10
10 Total Job Experience 0.09 0.12 − 0.16* 0.04 − 0.11 0.09 0.80* 0.00 0.29*
Mean 5.01 5.09 3.24 5.40 1.52 4.93 45.65 8.38 22.16
Standard deviation 1.60 1.36 1.40 1.50 0.66 1.50 11.09 6.84 11.23
Notes: *The correlation is significant at α = 0.01. Cronbach alphas in matrix diagonal.

experience showed significant negative correlations with emo-
tional exhaustion while gender (females = 0, males = 1) showed
a positive correlation with deviance.
A measurement model was used to assess the properties of the
latent variables. Results indicated a marginal overall fit
(RMSEA = 0.073 CI90% = 0.065–0.081, χ2 = 794.62, df 419,
CFI = 0.89, NNI = 0.88). A combination of criteria was employed
to identify and select scale items retained as part of the final
measurement model. Deleted items were those loading on
multiple constructs and those with factor loadings of 0.60 or
lower. Retention of scale items with the highest factor loadings
during the scale purification process was used to increase the
amount of common variance among the items (Bhuian et al.,
2005). After making these adjustments, a final measurement
model was developed. The results show that all indicator
loadings (λ) were significant at α = 0.05 (t-values Nof 1.96)
providing evidence of convergent validity (Diamantopoulos and
Siguaw, 2000). Fit indices for the final measurement model were
in the acceptable range (RMSEA = 0.073 CI90% = 0.064–0.081,
χ2 = 590.55, df 309, CFI = 0.91, NNI = 0.91) indicating measure
adequacy (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000).
Discriminant validity was assessed with Fornell and
Larcker's (1981) test which showed that the average variance
extracted for each of the constructs was greater than squared
correlations for all pairs of constructs. Internal consistency
reliabilities (Cronbach α), composite reliabilities (CR), and
average variance extracted (AVE) for the constructs used in the
model were above the 0.70, 0.60 and 0.50 threshold respec-
tively, except for organizational deviance which had an AVE of
0.38 (Table 1).
Common method variance (CMV) constitutes a serious
threat to validity when the majority of the variance can be
accounted by a single factor (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Harmon's
CFA one-factor test was used to assess whether CMV threatens
the validity of our findings (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The one-
factor model yielded a χ2 of 1457, df = 209 compared with
χ2 = 591, df = 309 for the measurement model. Since the one-
factor model is significantly worse than the measurement model
(Δχ2 = 866, Δdf = 100 vs. with critical χ2 = 135 at α = 0.01),
CMV is not a serious threat to this study (Podsakoff et al.,
2003).
4.2. Structural model
A structural model was used to test the relationships shown
in Fig. 1A. The parameters of the structural model were
estimated with the maximum likelihood (ML) method using a
covariance matrix (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000). Results
showed that the key fit index, RMSEA 0.074 (CI90% 0.066–
0.083), was in the acceptable range, suggesting a good fit
(Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000). The acceptable level of
fitness was also confirmed by other indices (χ2 = 619.05,
df = 316, CFI = 0.91, and NNI = 0.91). The statistical power of
the model was high (π = 0.95). When power is high, the
likelihood of not rejecting a truly bad model and theory is low
(McQuitty, 2004). Given the satisfactory fit and power of the
model, the significance and signs of the structural paths was
used to evaluate the hypotheses. As shown in Fig. 1B, all
hypotheses were supported.
The data showed that person–job fit and participative
leadership are key factors in reducing emotional exhaustion,
bringing support for H1 (γ = − 0.43, t = − 5.4) and H2 (γ =
− 0.26, t = − 3.5). In addition, participative leadership (H4a:
γ = 0.34, t = 4.2) and person–job fit (H5a: γ = 0.34, t = 3.7) lead
to higher job satisfaction. Taken together, our findings bring
support to our claim that emotional exhaustion partially
mediates the effect of participative leadership and person–job
fit on job satisfaction (H4b and H5b respectively). Results also
show that a high level of emotional exhaustion leads to lower
job satisfaction (H3: β = − 0.28, t = − 3.1) which, in turn,
positively impacts organizational commitment (H6a: β = 0.78,
t = 6.5). Our findings also indicate that higher organizational
commitment results in lower organizational deviance (H7a: β =
− 0.34, t = − 3.7). Overall, the structural model explained
60.2%, 52.5%, 31.8% and 11.8% of the variance in organiza-
tional commitment, job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion and
organizational deviance respectively.
We also tested an alternate partially mediated model that
examined the direct relationship between emotional exhaustion
and job satisfaction on organizational deviance. However, the
additional direct paths were not statistically significant (EE
to OC, β = − 0.08, t = − 0.95, EE to OD, β = 0.20, t = 1.8, and JS
to OD, β = − 0.28, t = − 1.55). A χ2-difference test used to
1228 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230
compare the original and alternative models showed that the
additional paths did not improve the model fit (Δχ2 = 5.4,
Critical χ2df=3, α 0.05 = 7.8). Thus, the hypothesized and more
parsimonious model was retained (Morgan and Hunt, 1994).
This analysis provides further evidence to our claim that job
satisfaction fully mediates the EE–OC relationship (H6b). Also,
findings show that emotional exhaustion ultimately results in
lower organizational deviance via job satisfaction and organi-
zational commitment (H7b and H7c).
5. Discussion
As expected, results showed that person–job fit and
participative leadership were negatively related to emotional
exhaustion. The findings also demonstrated that emotional
exhaustion impacts organizational deviance through employee
job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Employee
overall job attitudes act as a filter and determines whether or not
emotional exhaustion will lead to deviant behaviors.
This research found significant support for the effect of
participative leadership and person–job fit on emotional
exhaustion. This suggests that employees' ability to deal with
emotional exhaustion is enhanced when they believe their
supervisor consults with them and considers their opinions
before making decisions. In addition, when employees think
that they have adequate personal capabilities to deal with
work demands, they are better able to cope with emotional
exhaustion. Results also confirm previous findings that par-
ticipative leadership impacts job satisfaction directly as well as
indirectly through emotional exhaustion (Kahai et al., 1997;
Yousef, 2000). Similarly, findings indicate that in addition
to the direct effects on job satisfaction, person–job fit influences
job satisfaction indirectly due to its impact on emotional
exhaustion.
Another important finding from this study is the chain of
effects from emotional exhaustion to deviant behavior though
employee's overall job attitudes — job satisfaction and
organizational commitment. Because attitudes like organiza-
tional commitment are stable over time (Ajzen, 2001), our
finding that commitment has a negative relationships with
deviance shows the importance of retaining committed employ-
ees. Employees with high commitment engage in behaviors that
are consistent with organizational objectives and align them-
selves with organizational norms, guidelines and policies. They
resist the temptation to engage in deviant behaviors even in the
face of disappointment, frustration, and emotional exhaustion.
Highly committed employees demonstrate their attachment to
the organization by following organizational guidelines and by
avoiding behaviors that can bring harm to the organization or
project a negative image of the company.
The findings presented here show that when job satisfac-
tion and organizational commitment are low, employees lose
interest and withdraw from work. When they perceive that
their supervisor, who is often seen as the surrogate for the
organization, does not invite input into the resource allocation,
lower organizational commitment occurs (Yousef, 2000). In
turn, this prompts employees to write off their personal in-
vestment in the firm which leads to less interest in organizational
citizenship activities (Harrison et al., 2006) and an increase in
deviant behaviors.
Our findings bring additional support to exchange theory's
premise that employees with lower commitment respond by
using tactics such as lateness, absenteeism, and slowing work
pace as a way of withholding efforts or inputs (Harrison et al.,
2000). Tardiness, working slower and absenteeism are beha-
viors used to avoid encounters that cause emotional exhaustion
(Harrison et al., 2006). Service employees with low commit-
ment are also motivated to indulge in unproductive behaviors
because frustration leads them to disregard organizational
norms and policies (Bennett and Robinson, 2000).
This study provides several important managerial implica-
tions. The findings show the importance of involving employ-
ees by seeking ideas before decision making. Managers
interested in creating a high performance workplace with
satisfied and committed workers need to be open to employee
participation. In a service setting, being closer to customer
interactions, employees have greater access to customer input.
This knowledge can be used to orchestrate creative solutions to
customer related problems.
The results also show the importance of selecting both the
right managers and service employees. Leaders should be chosen
for their ability to inspire employees with a sense of being part of a
team where their opinions are valued (Anderson, 1996). Effective
leaders use their organizational skills, connections and social
capital to access and deploy resources to help their employees
meet organizational goals (Ahearn et al., 2004). Managers should
be aware of the importance of selecting employees with the
attitudes and skills that match with job demands. This will
facilitate creating a productive work environment that promotes
job satisfaction and high employee commitment.
6. Limitations and future research
This study has certain limitations that need to be considered
when interpreting results. The first is the use of subjective scales
and self-reports to assess attitudes and behaviors, which can
inflate the correlation between constructs due to common method
bias (CMV). While these limitations are true of most survey-
based behavioral research (Cote and Buckley, 1987), steps were
taken during the data collection process to minimize CMV,
namely guaranteeing anonymity and carefully dispersing reversed
items. We also conducted a test for CMV and found that it did not
significantly impact our findings (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Second,
socially desirable response was diminished by asking respondents
to mail the responses directly back to the researchers as well as
guaranteeing anonymity of individual responses.
This study found that participative leadership creates several
positive organizational outcomes. However, other leadership
styles such as transformational leadership can also be beneficial to
the well-being of both the employee and the organization (Bass,
1997). Future research could investigate whether transformational
leadership ultimately leads to less deviant behaviors.
Finally, an SEM model has an infinite number of statistically
equivalent models with equal fit (MacCallum et al., 1993).
 J.P. Mulki et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 1222–1230
Hence, we used theory, prior research, and meaningfulness of
the model to justify the hypothesized causal links (MacCallum
et al., 1993). Further research using experimental designs or
longitudinal data may be used to further investigate the causal
links among the model constructs.
This study relies on data collected from a single company.
Additional research is needed to investigate if the model
relationships hold in other settings. We found that emotional
exhaustion had a negative relationship with age and total job
experience. This suggests that as employees gain job experience,
they begin to accept that they may not always have satisfactory
solutions to all problems and that doing their best within
constraints is the emotionally intelligent course of action. Also,
even though this was not stated a priori, male workers seem to
show a positive correlation with organizational deviance.
However, these two findings need to be explored further.
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