Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1.The Context of the Study

Emerging adulthood is a new stage of life that usually lasts from the ages of 18 to 25

and is situated between adolescence and early adulthood. Experiencing a state halfway

between youth and maturity, developing one’s identity, self-focus, instability, and a sense of

boundless possibilities are the five traits that distinguish emerging adulthood .Emerging

adulthood is an age of feeling in-between, since most of them consider they are neither fully

adult nor adolescents anymore (Arnett, 1998, 2001).Because emerging people typically see

this as an optimistic time in their lives, with a wide choice of potential spouses, professional

opportunities, social causes, and other commitments regarded as being available, it is known

as the age of possibilities.

The period of emerging adulthood is characterized by several characteristics that set

it apart from adolescence and young adulthood. These include an age of identity

development, especially in relation to various lifestyle options, career opportunities, and

romantic opportunities. This is the age of extreme self-focus (skill development and self-

sufficiency), of feeling in-between (belonging in between ages), of instability (changing

choices in life and residence shifts), of possibilities (with opportunities to make dreams

come true and an unparalleled chance for improving lives).

Unlike any other developmental phase in life, emerging adulthood is stage of life

when people undergo the most transformations and changes in their life development.

According to Elder and Shanahan (2006), the most frequent changes and difficulties that

arise during the transition from youth to adulthood are those related to relationships,

changes in residence status, finishing school, starting a family, and becoming a parent. In
contrast to discontent and dissatisfaction, the completion of developmental activities during

these stages leads to life satisfaction (Salmela-Aro, et al., 2016).

1.1.1 Comprehensive Thinking

The concept of comprehensive thinking style was developed by Christie Newton,

Justin Feeney & Gordon Pennycook and has evolved from the amalgamation of multiple

thinking style scales.Researchers have explored various dimensions of thinking styles,

recognizing that individuals approach problems, make decisions, and process information in

diverse ways. Comprehensive thinking style emerges as a holistic framework that integrates

and synthesizes insights from these distinct thinking style scales.

The comprehensive thinking styles is a cognitive approach emphasizing the

integration of multiple perspectives and unfolds through key subscales. Close mindedness

characterizes a hesitancy to embrace alternative viewpoints, often leading to a dismissal of

perspectives that challenge existing beliefs. In contrast, open mindedness embodies

receptivity to new ideas, promoting flexibility and adaptability in cognitive processes.

When analyzing decision-making preferences within the context of a comprehensive

thinking style, an effortful thinking preference is characterized by a methodical, deliberate

approach to complicated challenges that takes into account a wide range of elements and

requires in-depth examination. On the other hand, an inclination toward intuitive thinking

demonstrates a dependence on snap decisions and gut instincts, recognizing the significance

of intuition in the process of making decisions.

Finding a balance between open-mindedness and closed-mindedness, as well as

between intentional and intuitive thinking, reveals the many facets of a comprehensive

thinking style and offers important insights into the cognitive preferences of an individual.

1.1.2 Altruism

An act is usually referred to as altruistic behavior when it is motivated by the desire

to assist someone else for their own benefit. The French philosopher and sociologist
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term altruism. He defined it as selfless concern for

the well-being of others. Egoism, which is unsociable, egocentric, and selfish behavior, is

the antithesis of altruism. His writings place a great deal of emphasis on the growth of

“sympathetic instincts” as opposed to egoistic ones.

The term altruism has a genetic foundation according to the technical language of

evolutionary biology (Wilson, 1975). It suggests that because altruism boosts the genetic

fitness of the kind. The term refers to an organism’s actions that increase their chances of

surviving, either themselves or their offspring’s, in favor of other members of the species.

Modeling, nurture (social), number of bystanders, affect(situational), responsibility taking,

role/perspective taking and norms (cognitive) are some of the determinants of altruism.

When an action is driven by the desire to help someone else for their own sake, it is

typically referred to as altruistic behaviour. The phrase is used in opposition to terms such

as “self- interested,” “selfish,” or “egoistic,” which describe actions driven only by the

desire to further one’s own interests.On the other hand, the term is occasionally applied

more widely to actions that beneficial to others, regardless of their motivation. There are

certain non-human. Animal species that exhibit altruism in this wide sense; mother bears,

for instance, risk. Their lives to defend their offspring from harm.

1.2. Need and Significance of the Study

Determining the complex relationship between altruism and cognitive patterns turns

out to be an interesting research project with broad outcome. By revealing the intricate

interactions between personal thought processes and altruistic tendency, this investigation

has the potential to provide significant insights into the cognitive foundations of prosocial

conduct.

To better understand the motivational forces behind acts of compassion, empathy,

and collaboration, it is imperative to investigate the ways in which various thinking types
impact altruism. This information has useful applications across a range of fields in addition

to advancing scholarly understanding of human behavior.

The field of education can benefit from such study by creating customized curricula

based on understandings of the relationship between cognitive patterns and altruism. These

programs can develop cognitive abilities like empathy, critical thinking, and a thorough

approach to problem-solving, which will help to raise a generation of people who are more

likely to act in a prosocial manner.

Additionally, the study directly relates to interpersonal dynamics. Through

investigating the complex connections between cognitive tendency and altruistic behaviors,

scientists can provide insight into how different ways of thinking affect the caliber of

relationships. This knowledge is essential for building strong relationships and promoting

social peace.

1.3. Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to asses the relationship between comprehensive thinking

styles and altruism among young emerging adults .

 Chapter 2

Review of Literature

2.1. Theoretical Review

2.1.1. Comprehensive Thinking

Gross'scomprehensive thinking styles refers to the variety of techniques and mental.

Operations people use to evaluate information, draw conclusions, and solve problems. It

consists of four different kinds of thinking: effortful thinking, closed-minded. Thinking,

open-minded thinking, and intuitive thinking. Being closed-minded is defined as being

reluctant to accept different points of view, which frequently results In the rejection of

ideas that contradict pre-existing convictions. On the other hand, open-mindedness fosters

cognitive processes’ flexibility and adaptability by embodying sensitivity to new ideas. A

thoughtful, methodical approach to difficult problems that includes careful study and

evaluation of numerous variables is a sign of effortful thinking. In contrast, a preference for

intuitive thinking recognizes the importance of intuition in decision-making but also

demonstrates a dependence on Snap decisions and gut instincts.The first theory of cognition

includes Piaget theory of cognitive development which consist of 4 stages such as

sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), pre-Operational stage (2 to 7 years), concrete

operational stage (7 to 12 years), formal operational stage (from 11 years and above).

Sullivan’s concept of modes of thinking suggest that there are three models of

thinking such as prototaxic, parataxic, syntaxic. The prototaxic is characterized by the

capacity of an individual to experience the world as a collection of disjointed feelings.

Parataxic refers to the capacity of an individual to view the universe as a sequence of cause-
and-effect connections and lastly the syntaxic which refers to a person’s capacity for

rational and logical perception of the outside environment.

Bruner’s theory proposes of three models of representation such as enactive,

symbolic and iconic. In enactive mode of representation, it is defined by an individual’s

capacity to demonstrate knowledge via behavior. Symbolic mode of representation refers to

the capacity to express knowledge through symbols is what defines representation. Iconic

refers to the capacity of a person to convey information through pictures.

The psychoanalytic theory of thinking proposes three level of consciousness such as

conscious, preconscious and unconscious. The conscious level refers to a person’s

awareness of their thoughts and feelings. Preconscious or subconscious refers to the

capacity of an individual to access ideas and emotions that are not presently accessible to

them and unconscious refers to the incapacity of a person to access suppressed or forgotten

ideas and feelings.

2.1.2. Altruism

Relational to different forms of prosocial action, altruism is a social and interpersonal

term. A common definition of altruism is an action taken with the aim of Assisting another,

though this might vary based on the profession. In other words, while psychologists are

interested in comprehending the motive behind a behavior, biologists and evolutionary

scientists frequently concentrate on the advantages of a given behavior. An act of altruism

reduces the genetic contribution or fitness of one individual while boosting the fitness of

another, as seen from a biological or evolutionary standpoint. In psychological study, the

motivational state of altruism is defined as one in which an individual seeks to improve the

wellbeing of another individual. Therefore, egoism, which is the drive to maximize profits,

opposes altruism. Egoism, or the desire to maximize one’s own prosperity, is thus in

opposition to altruism.
 There are certain theories associated with altruism, The empathy-altruism theory which

focuses on empathy, which is our capacity to experience other’s emotional states, feel

sympathetic towards them and take their perspective. This theory propose that at least some

prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need. Such motivation

can be sufficiently strong that the helper is willing to engage in unpleasant, dangerous and

even life threatening activities. Compassion for other people may outweigh all other

consideration(Goetz,Keltner, &Simon-Thomas, 2010).

The negative-state relief which is a second theory of motivation which puts forward that

we assist in helping because it lessens our own unpleasant emotions, not because we are

concerned about the well-being of the other person, comprehend their feelings, and share

them. To put differently, we act morally to overcome negative emotions. It might be

upsetting to realize that people are suffering or, more generally, to see people who are in

need. we assist others in order to lessen our own discomfort.

The empathetic joy hypothesis view suggest that helpers are motivated to engage in

helping behavior because they enjoy the positive reactions shown by others whom they

help. An important implication of this idea is that it is crucial for the person who helps to

know that his actions had a positive back on the victim. Research findings support the

general proposal that one reason individuals engaged in prosocial behaviour is that doing by

sue makes them feel happier. The competitive altruism approach suggest that one important

reason that people due to the fact that it increases their reputation and status as a result it

brings Them a huge benefits, once that more offset the cost of engaging in prosocial actions.

Often helping others is costly and this suggests two other people that individuals who

engage in such behaviour has desirable personal qualities type of people society wants to

have around. Research findings show that people engage in prosocialbehaviour which boost

their social status, especially the ones that bring public recognition.
 There is an different theoretical approach in understanding prosocial behaviour which is

the kin selection theory which suggests that people help others to whom they are closely

related than those who are not closely related. Research studies was conducted in which

participants were asked whom they would choose to help in an emergency, the participants

are more likely to choose a close relative than a distant relative.

Another view of altruism suggest that people help others not just because of primary

objective to help but rather to put them down in subtle ways to reduce the threat to in group

status. Helping does not stem from empathy or positive reactions to joy rather it’s an selfish

motive. When a group who is more superior seek the help of lower group, it would make the

lower group to engage in prosocial actions as it would give them a view that the superior

groups are being dependent on them, making them incompetent.

2.2. Review of Related Literature

2.2.1 Review of Related to Comprehensive Thinking

George et al. (2023) conducted a study on “The relationship between conformity and

comprehensive thinking styles among emerging adults”. A total of 145 samples were taken

for the study among the emerging adults . The conformity scale and the comprehensive

thinking style questionnaire (CTSQ) were the tools used in this study. The results

demonstrated a strong positive correlation between conformity and comprehensive thinking

approaches. Additionally, the results indicated a positive link between conformity and the

preference for effortful thinking, one of the subscales of comprehensive thinking styles.

2.2.2 Review of Related to Altruism

Liu et al. (2022) conducted a study on “The effects of loving-kindness meditation of

employees mindfulness, affect, altruism and knowledge hiding”. A total of 100 workers

were chosen at random from a knowledge-based company in china and placed in two

groups:the control group (n = 50) and the LKM training group (n = 50) for eight weeks, the
LKM training group received LKM training, but the control group did not. Before (pre-test)

and after (post-test) the LKM training intervention, seven major factors (mindfulness,

altruism positive affect, negative affect, playing dumb, reasoned hiding, and evasive hiding)

were measured.The self-report altruism scale (SRAS) and the mindful attention awareness

scale (MAAS) was the tools used in this study. The results showed that the LKM

intervention had greatly increased participants altruism and greatly reduced negative effect,

playing dumb and evasive hiding but there was no significant improvement in mindfulness,

positive affect and rationalized hiding

Atabaeva (2019) conducted a study on “Psychological factors affecting the

development of altruism in humans”. The study was done on 232 students of 8th and 10th

grade students. The tools for the study consisted of scale of altruism-egoism, developed

byO.F. Potemkina, ASubjective questionnaire for local observation by E. F. Bazhin, S.

A.Golynkin, A. M. Etkind. The results of the study demonstrated the impact of certain

personal traits, such as empathy, emotional intelligence, and subjective local control, on the

expression of altruism; the role of age in the emergence and manifestation of altruism is

discussed; the efficacy of a psychocorrectional program designed to enhance personality-

motivated behavior was examined and evaluated.

Egilmez and Thincknell (2017) conducted a study on “Altruism and popularity”. The

mechanical TURK website was used to recruit 120 volunteers for the study, 51 Of whom

were female and 69 of whom were male. Participants’ geographic options were restricted

and they had to be US citizens. The age range of the participants was 18 to 65 years old . An

further constraint imposed on vulnerable communities was the age of participants. The

instruments included vignettes, a demographics questionnaire, a manipulation check, and a

popularity assessment. The popularity, likability, and empathy qualities were found to be

strongly correlated with helpful acts. Results suggest that people who demonstrate helpful

behaviors and thankfulness are rated higher on a variety of positive attributes.The

distinctive finding of the study is that appreciation and compassion are both extremely

effective tools in interpersonal relationships.

Weng et al. (2015) conducted a study on “The role of compassion in altruistic

helping and punishment behavior” adult participants from Madison, Wisconsin, in the

United States of America were chosen for study 1. Independent samples were collected for

the punishment game and the helping game. Following the recruitment of 143 participants

for the punishment game, 132 individuals (50 males and 82 females) produced useful data.

Out of the139 individuals that took part in the helping game, 136 individuals (54 men and

82 Women) generated meaningful data. In research 2, adult participants were chosen from

Madison, Wisconsin, in the United States. Those who participated in a previous study on

compassion training and altruistic redistribution make up the participants. Between the ages

of 18 and 45, the participants were healthy adult right-handed individuals who had never

before employed cognitive behavioral therapy or meditation. Investigation on the

relationship between compassion and subtypes of altruistic behaviour behaviour using third

party paradigms were done in which participants witnessed an unfair economic exchange

between a transgressor and victim and had the opportunity to either spend personal funds to

either economically help the victim or punish the transgressor. Compared to an active

reappraisal training control group, the compassion training group gave more to help the

victim and did not differ in the punishment of transgressor. Together, these two studies

suggest that compassion is related to greater altruistic helping of victims and is not

associated with or may mitigate altruistic punishment of transgressors.

2.3 Research Gap

The majority of study on the variables comprehensivethinking styles and altruism

was conducted in western countries, according to the survey of related literature presented

above. Therefore, studies based on these characteristics must be carried out in India. It’s

also important to keep in mind that research on the relationship between Comprehensive
thinking styles and altruism has not been conducted. As a result, this work may serve as a

starting point for more studies in this area.

2.4 Research Question

Is there any significant relationship between comprehensive thinking styles and

altruism among emerging adults?

Chapter 3

Method

3.1. Objectives

To study therelationship betweencomprehensivethinking styles and altruism

among emerging adults.

3.2. Variables andOperational Definitions

3.2.1. Theoretical Definitions

3.2.1.1.Comprehensive Thinking Styles. ChristieNewton states that

comprehensive thinking styles involve analytical and integrativecognitive

approaches thatprioritizethorough examination and independentevaluation

ofinformation.

3.2.1.2.Altruism.Auguste Comte, a French philosopher and writer,first used

the term altruism, which is derived from theword "autrui,"in 1852. Altruism is theact
of a human being acting in aselfless mannerwithoutgiving any thoughtto theresults.

3.2.2. Operational definitions

3.2.2.1 . Comprehensive Thinking Styles. A cognitive method known as

comprehensive thinking styleis defined as having the capacity to thoroughly

graspor resolve asituation orproblem by analysing, evaluating,and integrating

differentviewpoints, facts, and variables.

3.2.2.2. Altruism.Altruismis a way of thinking oracting that is defined by an unselfish

care forthe happiness and well-being of others.Itis frequently demonstrated by deeds

that aredoneforthe benefit of others without expecting anything in return.

3.3. Hypotheses

3.3.1. Therewillbe significant relationship betweenopen-minded thinkingand

altruism.

3.3.2. Therewillbeno significant relationship betweenclose-mindedthinkingand

altruism.

3.3.3. Therewillbe significant relationship betweenintuitive thinking andaltruism.

3.3.4. Therewillbe significantrelationship between effortful thinking and altruism.

3.4. Sample

Thesampleof thestudy consisted of200 participants within the agegroup of

18 to 25. Thesamplewereselectedfrom various collegesofKerala from the districts of

Kottayam, Pathanamthittaand Alappuzha. Thesamples were selected using

conveniencesampling.

3.4.1. InclusionCriteria

3.4.1.1. Theparticipantsincluded in thestudy were emerging adults withinthe age

rangeof 18to 25 years old.

3.4.1.2. Only College educated malesand females wereincludedin thestudy.

3.4.2. ExclusionCriteria

3.4.2.1. Individualswhoweremarriedand currently doing ajob wereexcluded.

3.4.2.2. People who fallin theother category such as Transgender, non-binary, or

those who havethe othergender identitywereexcluded from thestudy.

3.4.2.3. Individuals withdisability werealso excludedfrom thestudy.

3.5. Assessment Tools

3.5.1. ComprehensiveThinking Styles Questionnaire (CTSQ)

TheComprehensive Thinking StylesQuestionnaire(CTSQ)was developed

by Newton et al.in 2021.It is a 24-itemscaleand this scale consists of 4 subscale. The

items of the CTSQ arerated on a6-pointLikert scale wherein the participants choose

from responsesranging from“strongly disagreetostronglyagree”. Actively open-

minded is assessed by items1 to 6. Close-minded is assessed by items7 to 12.

Intuitivethinking is assessed by items 13to 18. Finally, Effortful thinking is assessed

by items 19to 24. Theitems which belongto thesubscales ofopen mindedness and

effortful thinking is scored reversely. Thesubscales had good reliabilityandalsothe

findings show that allof thesubscales have excellent predictive validity.

3.5.2. Self-Report Altruism Scale (9-SRA Scale)

TheSelf-Report Altruism Scale (9-SRA Scale)was developed by Rushtonet

al. in 1981. This scale is asimplified version ofthe original scalewhich consist of 20

items.Thereare9 itemswith 5 response options: Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Frequently

and Always.Each item is scoredfrom1 to 5 respectively.The9-SRA shows

adequatereliability and validityand representsamoreeconomicalinstrument

to assess altruismand foruseinempirical studiesfocused on humanand prosocial

behavior.SRAValidity (Chi-squared =6.337, df = 1, p-value = 0.012). Theseresults

provide evidencethat the9-SRA scale haspredictive validity,significantly impacting

donation behavior. The reliability of the9-SRA in this study (0.77)is very similarto

the simulated reliability computed with theinformation of theoriginal Rushton et al.

study, assuming that thescale is reduced to nineitems, which is 0.78 (reduced from the

original 0.89 with a 20-itemscale).

 3.6. ResearchDesign

Theresearch design used in this study is correlational design.Correlational

research designs examinethe correlations betweenvariables without including any

control or manipulation on the part ofthe researcher. A correlation shows how

strongly and/or in which direction two ormorevariables are related to oneanother. A

correlation's direction could be either positiveornegative.Positive correlation

denotes adirection of changeshared by both variables. When thereis a negative

correlation, the variableschangein theopposite ways. Zero correlation denotes the

absenceof anyassociation between the variables.

3.7. Data Collection Procedure

For thepurposeof data collection variouscolleges across the districts of

Kottayam, Pathanamthittaand Alappuzhawerevisited after seeking their permission.

Theprocess began with theparticipant's consent by giving them a consent form. After

that they were asked to fillin thenecessary socio demographic details. Before

collecting data, rapport was established with theparticipants, and the following

instructions wereprovided. “Pleasecarefully readeach statement beforeresponding,

using the first thought that occurs to you. Thereisno correct or incorrectresponse.

Please complete thequestionnairewithoutomitting any statements. You arefreeto

leavethis task wheneveryou feel like doing it. Pleaseprovide theanswerswithout

hesitation and behonest.Theresponsesand the details collected will be kept

confidential and will be used only foracademicpurposes.”Following the instructions,

the participants wereasked to fill in the questionnaires. Thecollected datawere

analyzed using SPSS.

3.8. Statistical Technique

Thedata were analyzed using SPSSVersion 25. SPSS(Statistical Package

forthe Social Sciences),also known asIBM SPSS Statistics, is a softwarepackage used

forthe analysis of statistical data.It offers awiderangeof statisticalprocedures,

including descriptivestatistics, cluster analysis, regression analysis, and factor

analysis. SPSScan beused to run inferential testsand descriptivetests.In this study

inferential statistical method wereused to analyzethe data.Inferential statistics are

often used to comparethedifferences between thetreatment groups.Inferential statistics

use measurements from thesampleof subjects in the experiment to compare the

treatment groups andmakegeneralizations about thelarger populationof subjects. In the

present study Spearman’s RankCoefficientof correlation wereused to analyze

the relationship betweenthe variables.TheSpearman’s rank coefficient ofcorrelation is

a nonparametricmeasureof rankcorrelation.Itmeasures the strength and direction of

the association between tworanked variables.

 Chapter 4

Result And Discussion

4.1.Result

Table 1

The Spearman Rho correlation of the variables Altruism and Comprehensive Thinking

Style with its sub-types Open-minded thinking, Close-minded thinking, Preference for

Intuitive thinking, Preference for Effortful thinking among emerging adults

Variables Open Close Intuitive Effortful

Minded Minded Thinking Thinking

Thinking Thinking

Altruism r-value .004 -.014 .109 .009

p-value .961 .848 .123 .903

The research focuses on the correlation between altruism and comprehensive

thinking styles among emerging adults.Conducted solely as a correlation study, our research

offers insights into understanding the interplay between cognitive processes and altruism

among young individuals of 200 participants. The method

Table 1 shows the Spearman Rho correlation of the variables Altruism and

Comprehensive Thinking Style with its sub-types Open-minded thinking, Close-minded

thinking, Preference for Intuitive thinking, Preference for Effortful thinking among

emerging adults. The correlation coefficients for altruism with open-mindedness is .004 and
p-value is .961, The correlation coefficients for altruism with closed-minded is -.014 and p-

value is .848. The correlation coefficients for altruism with preference for intuitive thinking

is .109 and p-value is .903. The correlation coefficients for altruism with preference for

effortful thinking is .009 and p-value is .903. The correlation coefficients for altruism with

Comprehensive Thinking Style Questionnaire (CTQ) is .040 and p-value is .582

respectively.

4.2.Discussion

Our research delves into the correlation between comprehensive thinking styles,

encompassing subscales such as open-minded, close-minded, intuitive, and effortful

thinking, and altruism among emerging adults. With a focus on a sample of 200 students

from various colleges in Kerala, our study seeks to unravel the relationship between

cognitive processing patterns and prosocial behaviour(reword)in this emerging adults.

Through this exploration, our study aims to shed light on the underlying mechanisms

shaping altruistic tendencies in emerging adulthood, contributing to a deeper understanding

of cognitive influences on social behaviours.

The results indicate that there is almost no correlation between open-minded

thinking and altruism, and is also insignificant. Thus the alternative hypothesis, “There will

be a significant relationship between open-minded thinking and altruism” is rejected.

Although having an open mind would help you see the bigger picture, it would still not be

enough to influence altruistic behaviour in one. Therefore having an open mind would not

influence a person's behaviour to be altruistic in nature.

The results indicate that there is almost no correlation betweenClose-minded

thinking and altruism, although being a very minute negative correlation, it is also

insignificant. Thus the alternative hypothesis, “There will be no significant relationship

between close-minded thinking and altruism” is accepted. With the intention that close-

minded people would prevent themselves from thinking anything beyond their cognition
pattern would either promote or demote altruism depending on their learning from parenting

styles and social settings. According to the above result, we can conclude that there is no

correlation between them but although being a very minute correlation, it is a negative

correlation, indicating that it is inversely proportional to having altruistic behaviour.

From the study, the results indicate that there is a slight positive correlation between

preference for intuitive thinking and altruism, it is also insignificant. Thus the alternative

hypothesis, “There will be no significant relationship between preference for intuitive

thinking and altruism” is rejected. Intuitive thinking can also be seen as ‘gut feeling’.

Intuition comes from patterns we've identified in our past experiences. The subconscious

mind continuously processes information that we are not consciously aware of, not only

when we're asleep but also when we're awake. Seeing patterns of similar situations that have

happened before can influence our thoughts and behaviour. It can be influenced by

parenting styles and social or external environment. Being a positive correlation, it indicates

that preference for intuition thinking promotes altruism, thereby suggesting that individuals

have had past experience influencing their behaviour to be altruistic in nature.

The results for the relationship between the preference for effortful thinking and

altruism indicate that there is almost no correlation, although being positive in nature. it is

also insignificant. Thus the alternative hypothesis, “There will be a significant relationship

between preference for effortful thinking and altruism” is rejected. Effortful thinking is like

forceful thinking, therefore forcing oneself to have a particular cognition at the moment. It

is more conscious and voluntary in nature, thus in this scenario, forcing one's self to have

prosocial behaviour in the context. According to our results in the study, proving the relation

that effortful thinking can promote altruism, its correlation is close to none but it focuses on

the same direction, therefore being directly proportional to each other.

None of the correlation coefficients reach statistical significance, as evidenced by

the respective p-values. This implies that, at least within the parameters of the study,
altruism does not distinctly align with any particular thinking style. However, caution must

be exercised in interpreting these results, considering the study's limitations, such as the

sample size and potential cultural influences. The absence of statistical significance may be

indicative of the intricate nature of these psychological constructs, influenced by myriad

factors beyond the scope of this study. Future research endeavours should aim to expand on

these findings, employing larger and more diverse samples, exploring cultural variations,

and investigating additional variables to provide a more nuanced understanding of the

interplay between altruism and thinking styles in the dynamic landscape of emerging

adulthood. This study serves as a foundational step in unravelling the complexities of these

constructs and sets the stage for more in-depth investigations in the field.
 Chapter 5

Summary and conclusion

The main objective of the study was to find the relationship between comprehensive

thinking styles and altruism among emerging adults. The sample of the study consisted

of 200 participants within the age group of 18 to 25. The sample were selected from

various colleges of Kerala, from the districts of Kottayam, Pathanamthitta and

Alappuzha. The samples were selected using convenience sampling. The tools used for

this study were comprehensive thinking styles questionnaire (CTSQ) and self report

altruism scale (SRA scale). The research design used in this study was correlational

design.

The Spearman's rho correlation analysis revealed weak associations between altruism

and various thinking styles among the participants.It was founded that within the

studied sample of 200 participants, there is no substantial or meaningful relationship

between altruism and the assessed thinking styles.

5.1 Conclusion

5.1.2. There is no significant relationship between open-minded thinking and altruism.

5.1.3. There is no significant relationship between close-minded thinking and altruism.

5.1.4. There is no significant relationship between intuitive thinking and

altruism.

5.1.5. There is no significant relationship between effortful thinking and

altruism.
5.2 Implications

This information has useful applications across a range of fields in addition to

advancing scholarly understanding of human behavior. The study also directly relates to

interpersonal dynamics. This investigation has the potential to provide significant

insights into the cognitive foundations of prosocial conduct. To better understand the

motivational forces behind acts of compassion, these programs can develop cognitive

abilities like empathy, critical thinking. This study also implies that thorough approach

to problem-solving, will help to raise a generation of people who are more likely to act

in a prosocial manner.

5.3 Limitations

5.3.1. Limited sample size, which often results in less accuracy.

5.3.2. No prior research on the subject was done before.

5.3.3. Limited period of time which lead to the inability to range over the reaserch

topic.

5.3.4.Cross-cultural generalization of the study’s findings is not possible.

5.3.5.A number of response biases, including social desirability bias, extreme response

bias, and neutral responding, might influence the results of using surveys to collect

data.

5.4. Suggestions for Further Research

5.4.1.More and broader samples may be used in future studies.

5.4.2. Future studies may be carried out in different cultural contexts in order for the

outcomes to be generalized.
5.4.3.Techniques for random sampling can be applied since they yield results free from

bias and allow for the quick acquisition of deeper information.

 23

References

Arnett, J. J. (2024). Emerging adulthood. In R. Biswas-Diener& E. Diener (Eds), Noba

textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved

fromhttp://noba.to/3vtfyajs

Baron, J. (2019). Actively open-minded thinking in politics. Cognition, 188, 8–18.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.10.004

Batson, C. D., Dyck, J. L., Brandt, J., Batson, J. G., Powell, A., McMaster, M. R.,

&Griffitt, C. (1988). Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the

empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

55(1), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.1.52

Bergstrom, T. C. (2003). Vernon Smith’s Insomnia and the Dawn of Economics as

Experimental Science. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 105(2), 181–

205. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9442.t01-1-00004

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). Correlational Research | When & How to use.

Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/correlational-

research/#:~:text=A%20correlational%20research%20design%20investigates,t

wo%20(or%20more)%20variables

Charness, G., Cobo-Reyes, R., & Jiménez, N. (2008). An investment game with third-

party intervention. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 68(1), 18–

28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2008.02.006

Curry, O. S., Roberts, S. G. B., & Dunbar, R. (2012). Altruism in social networks:

Evidence for a ‘kinship premium.’ British Journal of Psychology, 104(2), 283–

295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.2012.02119.x

De Waal, F. B. M. (2008). Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of

Empathy. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 279–300.

https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 George, M. S.,

Johnson, K. A., Nair, A. K., Kalayilparampil, T. G., & Mathews, K. D. (2023).

 24

The relationship between conformity and comprehensive thinking styles among

emerging adults. International Journal of Engineering

Technology and Management Sciences, 7(4), 574–579.

https://doi.org/10.46647/ijetms.2023.v07i04.078

Hoffman, E., & Spitzer, M. L. (1982). The COASE theorem: some experimental tests.

The Journal of Law and Economics, 25(1), 73–98.

https://doi.org/10.1086/467008

Kay, T., Keller, L., & Lehmann, L. (2020). The evolution of altruism and the serial

rediscovery of the role of relatedness. Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences of the United States of America, 117(46), 28894–28898.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2013596117

Liu, C., Chen, H., Liang, Y., Hsu, S., Huang, D., Liu, C., &Chiou, W. (2022). The

effect of loving-kindness meditation on employees’ mindfulness, affect,

altruism and knowledge hiding. BMC Psychology, 10(1).

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00846-0

Manzur, E., &Olavarrieta, S. (2021). The 9-SRA Scale: a simplified 9-Items version of

the SRA scale to assess altruism. Sustainability, 13(13), 6999.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su13136999

McMahan, E. A. (2018). Evolutionary Psychology and the Functional Nature of

Human Behavior: an interview with Glenn Geher, PhD. Eye on Psi Chi, 22(3),

8–9. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-9812.eye22.3.8

Mifune, N., Hashimoto, H., & Yamagishi, T. (2010). Altruism toward in-group

members as a reputation mechanism. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(2),

109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.004

Mishra, A., &Singhal, A. K. (2022). Altruism: a holistic approach to human relations.

ResearchGate.
 25

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

359090823_Altruism_A_Holistic_Approach_to_Human_Relations#:~:text=Alt

ruism%2C%20a%20French%20ter m%20derived,the%20consequences%20of

%20such%20behaviour

Newman, G., & Cain, D. M. (2014). Tainted altruism. Psychological Science, 25(3),

648–655. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613504785

Newton, C., Feeney, J. R., & Pennycook, G. (2023). On the Disposition to Think

Analytically: Four Distinct Intuitive-Analytic Thinking Styles. Personality and

Social Psychology Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231154886

Rossouw, G., &Lamprecht, J. (1995). A comprehensive approach to the development of

thinking skills. Koers, 60(4). https://doi.org/10.4102/koers.v60i4.645

Rushton, J. P., f, Chrisjohn, R. D., Fekken, G. C., & Department of Psychology, Faculty

of Social Science, The University of Western Ontario, Canada. (1981).

The altruistic personality and the self - report altruism scale [Journal-article].

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2, 293–302.

https://philipperushton.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/personality-

prosocialrushton-personality-individual-differences-1981.pdf

Santos, M. D., Rankin, D. J., &Wedekind, C. (2010). The evolution of punishment

through reputation. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,

278(1704), 371–377. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.1275

Scheele, D., Mihov, Y., Kendrick, K. M., Feinstein, J. S., Reich, H., Maier, W.,

&Hurlemann, R. (2012). Amygdala lesion profoundly alters altruistic

punishment. Biological Psychiatry, 72(3), e5–e7.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.01.028

Sheth, J. (2023, September 15). Exploring thinking styles: What is your unique

approach? Medium.https://medium.com/@jaisheth10/exploring-thinking-

styles-what-is-your-unique-approach-86b11a765645
 26

Smith, J. M. (1976). Group SelectionGroup selection in Predator-Prey communities.

M. E. Gilpin. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 51(2), 277–283.

https://doi.org/10.1086/409311

Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning:

Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5),

645–665. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00003435

Syed, M. (2015). Emerging adulthood. In Oxford University Press eBooks.

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795574.013.9

Technology, T. (n.d.). International Journal of Educational Methodology.

http://www.ijem.com/

Tesfatsion, L., &Ashlock, D. (1998). Complexity at large. Complexity, 4(1), 3–9.

https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-0526(199809/10)4:1

Turgut, Ö. (2023). Resilience, Wisdom and Problem-Focused Coping in Emerging

Adulthood: A Path Analysis. GençlikAraştırmalarıDergisi, 11(30), 54–75.

https://doi.org/10.52528/genclikarastirmalari.1122499

Vernon Innovative Publishers: VIPOA Open Access. (2022, April 20). VIPOA.

http://www.vipoa.org/neuropsychol

Weng, H. Y., Fox, A. S., Hessenthaler, H. C., Stodola, D. E., & Davidson, R. J.

(2015). The role of compassion in altruistic helping and punishment behavior.

PLOS ONE, 10(12), e0143794. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143794

27