Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331

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Construction and Building Materials

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Mechanical strength and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of soil-cement:

comparison between mixtures of soil with ASTM type III cement, LC3, and
the incorporation of by products and agroindustrial residues
Lilyanne Rocha Garcez a, b, *, Carlos Eduardo Tino Balestra c, Nathalie Barbosa Reis Monteiro d,
João de Almeida Melo Filho b, Miguel Angel Ramirez Gil a
a
School of Engineering and Sciences, São Paulo State University – UNESP, Guaratinguetá, São Paulo, Brazil
b
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Amazonas – UFAM. Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
c
Dept. of Civil Engineering / Chemical and Biotechnological Process, Federal University of Technology – UTFPR, Toledo, Parana, Brazil
d
Center for Applied Social Sciences, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Soil stabilization with binders is based on the binder action on soil particles, in turn causing an improvement in
Soil-cement mixture the mechanical behavior of the soil. Thus, this study aims to analyze the mechanical and environmental prop­
Silica fume erties of soil-cement mixtures using Portland ASTM type III cement as binders and comparing to LC3 (Limestone
Fly ash
Calcined Clay Cement), as well as incorporating extra raw materials such as silica fume, fly ash, sugarcane
Bagasse sugarcane ash
Açai seed ash
bagasse ash (Saccharum officinarum L) and açai seed ash (Euterpe precatoria Martius). The mixtures of soil,
Mechanical strength binder, extra raw materials were performed manually, and the cylindrical specimens (100 mm internal ø) were
LCA molded based on the AASHTO Normal Test. The results showed that the highest values of compressive strength
ranged between 10 and 11 MPa, which were recorded for reference, soil-LC3 and soil-LC-açai seed ash mixtures.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was performed using the CML 2001 method with the aid of the OpenLCA software.
Additionally, it was observed that the main emissions and consequences for the environment were from mixtures
containing higher clinker contents.

1. Introduction it has a great environmental impact, as it is responsible for about 10% of

Soil plays an important role in civil construction. Techniques and
different types of materials related to improving the performance of soil
engineering are studied with the aim of optimized physical, chemical,
and mechanical stabilization. Some soil stabilizing agents include ma­
terials such as lime, Portland cement, industrial by-products (fly ash and
slag), polymers, fibers, chemical reagents, various types of waste, as well
as granulometric stabilization (density) and compaction [1].
In soil stabilization with Portland cement, hydration reactions of
silicates and aluminates occur, forming a gel that fills part of the voids in
the mass and unites adjacent soil particles, in turn providing increased
strength [2]. By adding cement to the soil, improvements are obtained in
terms of mechanical and stability characteristics relative to the variation
in water content, as well as an increase in compaction performance and
compressive strength [3–5].
Cement is the main binding material in civil construction; however,
global carbon dioxide emissions [6]. The use of alternative raw mate­
rials for cement offers enormous potential to reduce carbon emissions
and the consumption of natural resources related to cement
manufacturing and production processes, mainly due to the significant
fraction of the limestone needed to produce the cement clinker in
decarbonated form [7].
Scrivener et al. [8] has confirmed the potential of Limestone
Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) technology to replace Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC). The components of LC3 cement are known as a ternary
mixture ranging from 50–70% clinker, 10–45% calcined clay and
10–22.5% limestone filler [9]. Research has shown that about 40%
metakaolinite in an LC3 mix is sufficient to provide properties compa­
rable to Portland cement [8]. The potentiation of the reaction between
the calcareous filler and the calcined clay can contribute to increased
mechanical strength and material durability. This occurs from the for­
mation of hydrated carboaluminate, which fills voids in the

* Corresponding author at: School of Engineering and Sciences, São Paulo State University – UNESP, Guaratinguetá, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail address: lilyannegarcez@ufam.edu.br (L.R. Garcez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134331
Received 31 May 2023; Received in revised form 7 November 2023; Accepted 24 November 2023
Available online 6 December 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L.R. Garcez et al.
cementitious system and reduces the pore size of the material [10,11].
The limestone filler reacts with the clinker components when added in
small amounts and accelerates cement hydration at early ages [12,13].
The calcined clays act as pozzolans reacting with the generated calcium
hydroxide and the formation of hydrated carboaluminates occurs due to
the combination of calcined clay with calcareous filler, as even the clay
has a moderate amount of kaolinite [12–15].
The decrease in clinker consumption with the inclusion of other re­
sidual raw materials may represent a more sustainable cement, as it is
associated with lower energy consumption and lower CO2 emissions
compared to cements with higher amounts of clinker [16]. By-products
such as slag and fly ash are extensively used in cementitious matrices
due to their high pozzolanic reactivity [17]. However, there is a
continuous scientific effort to introduce pozzolanic substances from
agro-industrial residues, such as rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse, corn
on the cob, bamboo leaf and coconut husk, which also present pozzo­
lanic properties or contribute to the filler effect of cementitious matrices
[18].
Several researchers [19–24] investigated the partial replacement of
cement content with ashes from agro-industrial residues such as coconut
husk, sugarcane bagasse and rice husk applied to soil, in which the
insertion of these residues mechanically improved the mixture proper­
ties in terms of water absorption and compressive strength. For these
authors, the incorporation of ashes from agro-industrial residues in
partial replacement of cement, generated a positive effect in terms of
environmental impacts, pozzolanic aspects, and also because they have
characteristics such as a high specific surface area, improved packaging,
and the filler effect, contributed to increase the mechanical properties of
the soil-cement system.
In light of this, this study presents an investigation of a soil-cement
mixture containing ASTM type III cement, analogous to Brazilian Port­
land Cement CPV-ARI type (described in this study as CPV), as well as an
LC3 containing a mixture of 55% CPV (Which corresponds to a
approximately 50% clinker content), 30% metakaolinite and 15%
limestone filler for comparison. In addition, by-products were incorpo­
rated into the mixtures in partial replacement of clinker: silica fume and
fly ash, and agro-industrial residues: sugarcane bagasse ash and açai
seed ash.
Silica fume exhibits pozzolanic reactivity due to its fineness and
extreme amount of amorphous silicon dioxide, has a spherical particle
shape softer than cement particles and, when applied in proportions
from 5% to 10% in soil, improves the mechanical strength of the soil
[25]. In soil-cement mixtures it is considered a viable soil stabilizer
filling micro void, and generating a denser mixture, which in turn can
decrease the permeability of the system leading to improved geotech­
nical properties of the soil [26]. Al-Khalili et al. [27] point out that
different percentages and combinations of lime and silica fume applied
to the soil favor a decrease in the maximum dry density, the plasticity
index, and the liquidity limit, while the moisture content, the plasticity
limit and the compressive strength tend to increase. In addition, the use
of metakaolinite and silica fume provides a reduction in the specific
gravity of the soil, favoring mechanical improvements.
Fly ash particles generally consist of spheres of silicon, aluminum
and iron oxides and non-oxidized carbon, being characterized as
pozzolanic fly ash – siliceous and aluminous materials [3,28]. Chom­
poorat et al. [29] point out that fly ash applied to soil becomes
responsible for pozzolanic reactions in slow- and long-term processes in
the reaction of calcium hydroxide with silica and alumina present in the
soil. Zulkifley et al. [30] evaluated the effect of fly ash on soil properties
and observed that fly ash reduced the liquidity limit and plasticity index,
while increasing compressive strength. The results showed that calcium
oxide together with fly ash are a good combination to stabilize clayey
and sandy soils.
Sugarcane bagasse ash has significant amorphous silica and alumina
in its oxide composition, characteristic of pozzolanic materials [31,32].
2
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
Moura et al. [33] indicate the feasibility of replacing up to 20% of the
cement with sugarcane bagasse ash in cement soil mixtures, verifying
that there is no significant change in mechanical properties and, despite
the ash having low reactivity in the soil, the silica content of the ash in
the form of quartz is one of the main component elements in natural
sand, causing an increase in compressive strength, also due to the effect
of filling voids in the soil-cement composition.
The açai seed corresponds to 85% of the total weight of the fruit, has
a high calorific value and about 65% of fixed carbon in its composition,
composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose [34–36]. The meso­
carpal fibers that line the pit have an irregular surface with small
spherical particles composed of silica [37]. Several studies have been
carried out with a focus on its valorization, including: the pyrolysis of
the açai seed biomass [38]; activated charcoal obtained from açai seed
[39]; magnetic acid catalyst produced from açai seed for biofuel pro­
duction [40]; methanolysis of low free fatty acids with new compounds
based on catalyst carbon derived from açai berry seeds [41] and po­
tassium hydroxide activated with carbon derived from açai seed [42].
Despite the applications mentioned above, approximately 180,000 tons
of cores are discarded annually in Brazil and this biomass residue re­
mains widely available at a low cost, being chosen in this research to be
thermally benefited, ground, and incorporated as ash in the soil-cement
mixture, verifying its applicability properties.
Among the by-products and residues mentioned as raw material, it is
worth mentioning that LC3 is presented in this work as a promising
approach for the production of cement with lessened environmental
impact. For this confirmation, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was carried
out, comparing the environmental impacts between each of the soil-
cement mixtures. Although the LCA is not intended for individual ma­
terials, it is useful as a management tool, as it makes it easier to identify a
problem or a potential source of concern, in addition to optimizing and
managing the use of resources and waste produced, thus contributing to
analysis of sustainable materials and processes [43].
Also noteworthy is the growing demand for sustainable materials
and products, which is emphasized in this study due to its originality, in
view of the use of LC3 applied to the soil with the incorporation of other
raw materials that led to the reduction of the clinker and produced a
positive effect on the mechanical and environmental characteristics of
the mixture.
From the perspective of sustainability, soil-cement research aims to
minimize environmental impacts and energy consumption, in addition,
it is possible to analyze the physical and mechanical performance of soil-
cement mixtures with the insertion of different types of raw materials.
Lucas et al. [44] contextualizes the importance of researching civil
construction materials that mitigate environmental impacts, empha­
sizing soil-cement mixtures with the reuse of industrial waste instead of
the incorporation of Portland cement.
Thus, seeking to contribute to such innovation, this study was
idealized from the use of waste and process byproducts as promising
sources for development of alternative materials. In this context, the
current research hypothesis was to develop a soil-cement mixture using
LC3 that behaves as a technically and environmentally viable alterna­
tive, and that the partial replacement of clinker with industrial and agro-
industrial byproducts may positively influence the physical and me­
chanical properties of the mixture from a technological standpoint, as
well as presenting a sustainable and environmentally friendly
alternative.
To confirm this hypothesis, this study aimed to analyze the effect of
incorporating the following raw materials: silica fume, fly ash, sugar­
cane bagasse ash (Saccharum officinarum L) and açaí seed ash (Euterpe
precatoria Martius) on the physical and mechanical properties and
characteristics of soil-cement mixture, using Brazilian Portland Cement
CPV-ARI type and LC3, while also verifying the environmental impacts
of each mixture through (LCA).
L.R. Garcez et al.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The materials used for the mixtures were clayey-sandy soil, cement
(Brazilian Portland Cement CPV-ARI type, analogous to ASTM Type III),
metakaolinite, limestone filler, ash from açai seed, ash from sugarcane
bagasse, fly ash and silica fume. The soil was extracted from a deposit in
the city of Brasilândia do Sul, located in the western state of Paraná,
Brazil, and is considered a sandy-silt soil, with 83% sand and 17% fine
particles. The characteristics are described in Table 1 and the granulo­
metric curve is shown in Fig. 1.
To make the test specimens of the soil-cement mixture, Brazilian
Portland Cement CPV-ARI was used. In order to draw a comparison, LC3
was also used, containing a mixture of 55% cement (CPV), 30% calcined
clay (metakaolinite) and 15% limestone filler, based on research carried
out by Andrés et al., [13] and Nair et al., [45].
Metakaolinite composition of oxides in the calcined base of the
material is comprised of 52% SiO2, 40.5% Al2O3 and 2.8% Fe2O3,
totaling 95.3%, among other components with contents lower than 1%.
Pozzolanic activity was confirmed through the modified Chapelle
method as 880 mg Ca(OH)2/g, indicating a high level of activity. The
filler used was calcium carbonate (CaCO3) validated as having 99%
purity. Durability analyses of LC3 with supplementary cementitious
material (carbonation front and electrical resistivity) were presented in
Balestra et al. [46].
The silica fume used had a specific surface of 15–30 m2/g and an
average particle size of the spheres of around 150 nm. The modified
Chapelle method was employed to validate pozzolanic activity of silica
fume, which was 1040 mg Ca(OH2/g). The fly ash was obtained from the
burning of mineral coal for the generation of electricity. The pozzolanic
activity value was 467 mg Ca(OH2/g).
Sugarcane bagasse ash was extracted from the byproduct of burning
sugarcane to obtain ethanol. The result obtained via the modified
Chapelle method was 220 mg Ca(OH2/g), demonstrating low levels of
pozzolanic activity.
The açai seed ash was obtained from thermal processing in a muffle
furnace at 600 ◦ C for 6 h and cooled from the maximum temperature to
room temperature inside the furnace. After the processing and cooling
process, the ashes were ground in the Tecnal Multipurpose Mill TE 631/
3, ideal for grinding animal feed, grains, and fertilizers. The modified
Chapelle method result was 174 mg Ca(OH2/g) indicating little pozzo­
lanic activity. The micrographs of these raw materials are shown in
Fig. 2, where one can see the particle size by laser scattering of the
açaí seed was detected by the LA-960 equipment.
The chemical characterization of the materials was performed using
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and is described in Table 2, which presents the
chemical composition of the raw materials in the form of oxides. It is
worth highlighting that silica, aluminum oxide, iron oxide and calcium
oxide contents were mainly observed, since the cement formulation
containing the mentioned proportions of SiO2, CaO and Al2O3 provide a
Table 1
Soil characteristics.
Description Values in %
Humidity (w) 14
Liquidity Limit (LL) 15.3
Plasticity Limit (LP) 9.17
Plasticity Index (IP) 6.13
Clay content 8.0
Silt content 9.0
Fine sand content 74.8
Coarse sand content 8.2
Boulder 0.0
Soil characterization (IP) No cohesion
Classification (AASHTO) A2–4, sandy clay soil
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Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
synergistic reaction between metakaolinite and calcium carbonate in the
filler, in turn allowing for the use of a high level of Portland cement
clinker replacement without compromising the mechanical properties.
2.2. Laboratory test – compressive strength and water content test of the
soil-cement mixture
The raw materials were manually mixed until complete homogeni­
zation. For each specimen, an amount of 2500 g of material was fore­
seen, considering 90% wet soil and 10% cement. The
1000 cm3 cylindrical specimens were molded by compression, in three
layers of equal heights, compacted with 21 blows and scarified between
one layer and another for better soil adhesion. The specimens were made
in different proportions of the mixture (Table 3).
The residues of silica fume, fly ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and açai
seed ash were used to replace 10% of the cement content. The amount of
materials used in each specimen is described in Table 4.
After molding, the specimens identified were kept at room temper­
ature (23 ± 2 ◦ C) for the hardening process and strength gain. The
specimens were made in triplicate and tested in compression at 7 and 28
days in universal equipment for destructive tests Emic DL30000N with
the increment rate of 0.15 MPa/s. The water content (W) in wet mass
was determined with cylindrical specimens, molded in the same line
described in Table 4 and calculated according to the following equation:
W(%) = (Mw – Md)/Md. The specimens were weighed and placed in a
humidity chamber for 7 days (M0). After seven curing days, the speci­
mens were removed from the humidity chamber and surface water was
removed with a cloth. After the Wet Mass (Mw) was determined, and
them specimens were dried in an oven at (105 ± 5ºC) for 24 h. After this
period, the oven-dried mass (Md) was measured and the humidity (W(%))
was determined.
2.3. Statistical analysis – multivariate analysis of variance
Multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical tool to test
hypotheses of significance between groups and was used to identify the
influence of independent variable mixtures with silica fume (M1), fly ash
(M2), sugarcane bagasse ash (M3) and açai seed ash (M4), along with the
variables of the two types of cement indicated for this study (CPV and
LC3) with rupture times of 7 and 28 days for the specimens. To perform
the analysis through ANOVA, a significance level (α) of 5% was adopted.
For the null hypothesis (H0) the assumption was adopted that the
average (μ) of the variables referring to the materials inserted in the
mixtures are all equal. For the alternative hypothesis (H1), the
assumption was made that there will be at least one difference between
the means of the tested groups.
H0 → μ = For all tested groups
H1 → μ ‡ For at least one of the tested
2.4. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
The objective of the study for the application of LCA was to inves­
tigate the extraction of raw materials to the production of a soil-cement
block. The scope of the proposed study system consisted of evaluating
the comparison between the potential environmental impacts of the
different mixtures that make up the soil-cement specimens. The func­
tional unit that quantified the functions identified in the product was
1 kg, considering the mass for producing the block. The reference flows
were based on a comparative basis between the raw materials, from the
replacement of CPV with LC3, as well as the inclusion of alternative raw
materials.
Therefore, the reference flow value is 2.5 kg equivalent to the mass
of the soil-cement mixtures. The boundaries and determinations of the
L.R. Garcez et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331

Fig. 1. Soil granulometric curve.

Fig. 2. Micrographs of raw materials used in cement soil mixtures.

Table 2
Chemical composition performed by XRF.
Elements SiO2 Al2O3 K2O Fe2O3 P2O5 CaO TiO2 SO3 Others < 1 or no detected

Soil 60.85 37.50 0.056 1.17 - 0.048 0.344 -

Cement (CPV) 38.73 - 7.1 4.42 - 49.16 - -
Metakaolinite 26.68 70.58 0.78 1.62 - 0.018 - -
Filler 5.040 - 0.65 0.63 - 93.17 - -
Silica fume 99.074 - 0.616 0.029 - 0.257 - -
Fly Ash 50.204 40.359 5.843 2.631 - 0.561 0.338 -
Sugarcane bagasse ash 54.022 29.91 8.026 4.835 1.408 0.899 0.77 -
Açai seed ash 9.125 - 75.469 - 10.135 4.789 - 0.313

scope of the LCA study encompassed the extraction of the raw material
to the production of the block; the study was entitled “cradle to the
gate”, considering the stages of extraction and processing of the raw
materials. As this is a generic study, average distances were adopted for
the survey and evaluation of the transport stage of raw materials. The
flowcharts that delimit the boundaries of the system are shown in Fig. 3
and refer to the SC1 mixture, identifying where there is a change in the
Figure for the SC2 mixture.
The system boundaries for the SC3 mixture, whose flowchart is
representative for the SC5, SC7 and SC9 mixtures with the alteration of
the raw materials fly ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and açai seed ash,
which replaced the silica fume respectively, are seen in Fig. 4.

4
L.R. Garcez et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331

Table 3 The method selected as a reference for the impact categories under
Nomenclature used for the manufacturing and mixtures of materials in analysis was the CML 2001 frequently adopted for LCIA in cementitious
specimens. matrices [47]. The CML 2011 method analyzes the categories: global
SC1 Standard soil-cement warming, depletion of abiotic resources, depletion of the ozone layer,
SC2 Soil-cement with the ternary mixture LC3
photochemical oxidation, human toxicity, ecotoxicity, acidification and
SC3 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with ash from silica fume in the eutrophication.
standard mixture For this study, an opensource software known as OpenLCA was used,
SC4 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with ash from silica fume in the while the database “Ecoinvent 3.7.1 cut-off unit regionalized” was used
LC3 mixture
for the inventory survey, which covers data referring to civil construc­
SC5 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with fly ash in the standard
mixture tion and is compartmentalized into regions of Brazil, thus conferring
SC6 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with fly ash in the LC3 mixture greater reliability to the analysis of the results. Data referring to input,
SC7 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with sugarcane bagasse ash in production and output flows were accounted for in the Life Cycle In­
the standard mixture ventory based on the quantity described in Table 3 and the calculation
SC8 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with sugarcane bagasse ash in
the LC3 mixture
values in Appendix 1.
SC9 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with açai seed ash in the
standard mixture 3. Results and discussion
SC10 Soil-cement with 10% replacement of cement with açai seed ash in the LC3
mixture
3.1. Physical and mechanical properties of the soil-cement mixture

Concurrently, SC4, whose flowchart is representative for the SC6, SC8
and SC10 mixtures with the changes to the same raw materials, which
replaced the silica fume respectively, along with CPV for LC3 , are shown
in Fig. 4.
The results of compressive strength of the soil-cement mixture
broken at 7 and 28 days are shown in Fig. 5. The moisture content of the
mixtures in the test specimens after being submerged in water for seven
days and dried in an oven, in relation to the initial mass, are shown in
Fig. 6.

Table 4
Quantity of materials used for each mixture.
Materials Quantity of materials (g)

SC1 SC2 SC3 SC4 SC5 SC6 SC7 SC8 SC9 SC10

Cement (CPV) 250 137.5 225 123.75 225 123.75 225 123.75 225 123.75
Soil (14% moisture) 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250
Metakaolinite - 75 - 75 - 75 - 75 - 75
Filler - 37.5 - 37.5 - 37.5 - 37.5 - 37.5
Silica fume - - 25 13.75 - - - - - -
Fly ash - - - - 25 13.75 - - - -
Sugarcane bagasse ash - - - - - - 25 13.75 - -
Açai seed ash - - - - - - - - 25 13.75

Fig. 3. Flowchart of the production process of the soil-cement SC1 and the boundaries of the system. *Raw material replaced by cement LC3 .

5
L.R. Garcez et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331

Fig. 4. Flowchart of the production process of the SC3 soil-cement and the boundary delimitation of the system. *Raw material replaced by cement LC3 . * *Raw
material replaced by fly ash, cane bagasse ash and açai seed ash.

Fig. 5. Compressive strength of specimens.

Fig. 5 shows the compressive strength of the mixtures, in which SC1,
SC2 and SC9 had an average of 9 MPa. At 28 days the mean strength for
SC1 was 10.4 MPa, while for SC2 it was11 MPa. Similar values were
detected for the specimens with açai seed ash, with SC9 having an
average strength of 10.9 MPa and SC10 an average of 10.8 MPa, which
did not occur with the other additions where the compressive strength
varied with an average of 5 MPa, similar to those detected at 7 days. It is
worth noting that, although silica fume, fly ash and sugarcane bagasse
ash are considered pozzolanic raw materials and have a sum of SiO2
+ Al2O3 + Fe2O3 greater than 75% (Table 2), no significant changes in

6
L.R. Garcez et al.
Fig. 6. Moisture content of specimens.
strength were observed in compressive strength when comparing the
failure values at 7 and 28 days.
According to Reddy & Kumar [48] the strength and performance of
the soil stabilized with cement are influenced by the classification and
composition of the soil, density, cement content and the time elapsed
from the mixing of water to the beginning of the compaction process.
The strength mechanism is based on the hydration reaction and for­
mation of the C-S-H gel that binds the cement particles to the soil and
other raw materials, thus strengthening the mixture. However, it is
possible to observe that when materials such as silica and fly ash were
incorporated into the respective mixtures, the hydration reaction pro­
cess was limited, which was affirmed by the water content absorbed
during the seven submerged days, in turn leading to a decrease in the gel
in the development in the mixture and invariably reducing its strength.
The compressive strength at seven days with the insertion of açai
seed ash was relatively lower given that in the first hydration ages the
ash acts as a filler and causes a dilution effect that requires a greater
demand for water, forming a layer of particles of ash around the anhy­
drous cement grains which delays hydration [49]. However, at 28 days,
the strength value was similar for the standard specimen with CPV
cement and with LC3 with the insertion of açai seed ash into the mixture.
This result demonstrates that in the soil-cement system, the relationship
between the microstructure of the açai seed ash mechanically benefited
and favored the increase of compressive strength of the mixture. The
strength gains are attributed to the physical effect of the fineness of the
açai seed ash, which may have led to a densification of the micro­
structure. Furthermore, the influence of the porosity present in the açai
seed ash is seen, which, due to the absorption of moisture, favored the
self-healing and hardening of the mixture, resulting in a more rigid
matrix in terms of mechanical strength.
According to Ogwang et al. [50] the availability of internal moisture
in the clay and water absorbed by the ash facilitates the hydration of the
calcium-silica-hydrate mixture (C-S-H), which also increases its me­
chanical strength index. In addition, the ash particles are smaller than
those of the soil and fills the spaces and voids, as well as the meta­
kaolinite particles which, in addition to the particle size, exhibit high
pozzolanic reactivity and filling effects, also responsible for its me­
chanical properties.
Ghavami et al. [25] point out that among the soil stabilization
techniques, silica acts as a chemical stabilizer and, in addition to
pozzolan, it also acts in physical and granulometric stabilization, as it
fills the micro voids in the soil, generating a denser matrix as well as
promoting physical-chemical stabilization. In this regard, the results
obtained with the soil-cement mixture and the açai seed ash enabled a
decrease in the clinker content, even when using LC3 cement, since the
7
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
addition of metakaolinite, and filler jointly favored the mechanical ac­
tion of compaction and, consequently, the increase of the mechanical
strength of the mixture.
The water content absorbed by the mixtures, according to Fig. 6, was
similar in the specimens with CPV and LC3 (SC1 and SC2, respectively)
obtaining an approximate average value of 8%, while with the insertion
of açai seed ash (SC9 and SC10), an approximate average value of 10%
for the initial humidity was registered. The lowest water content was
detected for the mixture SC3, with an average value of 6%, while the
highest content was observed for the SC7 mixture whose showed an
average value of 12%.
The water content absorbed by the mixtures, according to Fig. 6, was
similar in the SC1 and SC2 mixtures obtaining an approximate average
value of 8%, while with the insertion of açai seed ash (SC9 and SC10) an
approximate average value of 10% for the initial humidity. The lowest
water content was detected for the mixture with silica fume and CPV
(SC3), with an average value of 6% and the highest content for the
mixture with sugarcane bagasse ash and CPV (SC7) registered an average
value of 12%.
The similarity between the mixtures SC1 and SC2 was mainly due to
the reduction in the porosity of the matrix due to curing in the first seven
days, in which the hydration reactions of the cement occur and,
consequently, reduce the pores and greater composite density. In addi­
tion, the addition of metakaolinite in LC3 provides improvements in
terms of microstructure development, as the distribution of fine material
particles acts as a filler, reducing the large capillary pores in the matrix,
promoting chemical bonds with Portland cement, and resulting in a
denser matrix.
Silica and fly ash (SC3, SC4, SC5, SC6) are materials that have
pozzolanic reactivity due to their fineness and SiO2 and Al2O3 contents
[51,52], which justifies a lower absorption of water after 7 days, as they
act as stabilizers by filling the micropores of the mixture, providing
greater density. In addition, adding fine particles of ash and cement to
sandy soil influences the packing of particles in the soil-cement system
and the compaction of the mixture, which during the curing process
results in fewer voids and, therefore, less water penetration [53].
The test specimens with sugarcane bagasse ash (SC7 and SC8) showed
a high content in relation to the initial moisture content, which can be
explained by the high-water absorption capacity and porous specific
area of the ash [31] (observed in Fig. 2), influencing the reduction of the
amount of water needed for cement hydration and formation of the
C-S-H gel.
Considering the wet mass sample submerged after seven days, there
was a slightly greater variation in water absorption in the specimens
used as standard (SC1 and SC2) as well as those containing açai seed ash
L.R. Garcez et al.
(SC9 and SC10) with an average value of 8%, while the lowest levels were
registered for the test specimens containing silica and fly ash (SC4, SC5,
and SC6) with a variation of 3%. There was little variation in the amount
of water in the specimens containing the additions, with the exception of
the mixture containing LC3 cement and açai seed ash which, despite
being considered non-reactive ash in terms of pozzolanic indices, the
water content absorbed may be related to the morphological charac­
teristics of the ash, which presents a visually porous structure with
irregular particles, as seen in Fig. 2.
The result of the particle size distribution of the açai seed ash by laser
scattering showed an average particle diameter varying between 79.753
and 217.448 µm (triplicate analysis) which corresponds to small parti­
cles when compared to sand, and large particles when compared to red
clay and powder materials such as cement, metakaolin and filler, all
used in the mixture. So, there is a gap in the particles between sand and
other materials that acai seed ash can fill, thus improving the particle
packing of the mixture, and consequently the compressive strength.
It is worth highlighting that ash with fine particles added to the soil
of different granulometry can promote an increase in soil packing den­
sity through two mechanisms: one, by volumetric density of the soil
+ ash mixture, occupied by ash particles and the other, in a form similar,
by filling the pore space, that is, the ash between the coarse soil
particles.
The results also indicate that SO3 presence impacts strength, since its
presence accelerates the dissolution of C3S from clinker, leading to a
competition for precipitation phases as C-S-H (calcium silicate hydrate),
AFt (ettringite) and AFm (monosulphate); thus, a moderate gain of
compressive strength was noted. According to Medeiros et al. [54] and
Andrade Neto et al. [55] the presence of SO3 can accelerate the disso­
lution of C3S leading to the precipitation of C-S-H, AFt and AFm phases.
Consequently, considering the presence of SO3 in açai seed, seen in
Table 2, the moderate increase in compressive strength of SC9 and SC10
can be attributed to its presence.
It is important to emphasize that the presence of pozzolanic materials
with different reaction rates and metakaolin from LC3 lead to a
competition for the consumption of Portlandite as highlighted by
Balestra et al. [46]. These authors showed that the presence of materials
with different pozzolanic rates can lead to a competition between these
materials and metakaolin for consumption of Portlandite. In light of this,
the differences observed in the compressive strengths in these quater­
nary mixtures and the unfavorable impact on strength was an expected
behavior.
Regarding the impact of moisture content on compressive strength, it
should be highlighted the mixtures with silica fume and fly ash (SC3 –
SC6) presented less water absorption and the lowest strength values.
This behavior can be first related to the spherical morphology of these
particles, which favor brick compaction, thus reducing the voids for
water penetration. On the other hand, the competition between meta­
kaolin and them can lead to impacts on compressive strength due to the
limited availability of Portlandite for pozzolanic reactions.
When sugarcane bagasse and açai seed ashes are analyzed, the par­
ticle morphology, which is not spherical, can explain the higher water
absorption behavior in SC7 – SC10 mixtures compared to SC3 and SC4.
Furthermore, the low pozzolanic activity of these materials has low
competition with metakaolin in the pozzolanic reactions, consequently,
a refined microstructure can be obtained, justifying the observed
behavior.
Silica fume and fly ash present a spherical morphology which
improve the compaction process for brick production, whereas sugar­
cane bagasse and açai seed ashes present an irregular morphology, as
seen in Fig. 2. This fact explains the water absorption observed from
mixtures SC3 to SC10. On the other hand, the compressive strength of
these mixtures is affected by their competition with metakaolin for
portlandite consumption in the pozzolanic reactions as observed in
Balestra et al. [46]. In this sense, silica fume and fly ash present a
pozzolanic activity higher than sugarcane bagasse and açai seed ashes,
8
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
thus leading to these differences in the observed compressive strength.
3.2. Descriptive statistics analysis of compressive strength results
Table 5 presents the analysis of the descriptive statistics of the
compressive strength results of the specimens referring to two groups:
one group shows the compressive strength values of the soil-cement and
additions, while the other group demonstrates the relationship between
CPV, the LC3 and specimen failure time.
Analyzing the variation coefficient values, which are a measure of
dispersion of the results of the tests, the highest value in the first group is
seen for M4, referring to the use of ash from the açai seed, while the
lowest values, ranging from 0.19 to 2.1, are seen for the other mixtures.
As for the types of cement and the failure time, the deviations from the
averages in the distributions reached values greater than 2% with failure
at 28 days, indicating homogeneity of the sample values and conse­
quently consistency of the data at this curing age.
With the results presented in Table 5, it is possible to conclude that
there is a significant difference between the groups regarding the mix­
tures, which is expressed in the source of variation of the rows. It is
observed that the calculated F is greater than the critical F; therefore, the
null hypothesis, that there is no difference between the groups, is
rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis, there is a difference be­
tween the groups, at a significance level risk of 5%. The analysis of the P-
value (0.0043 – much smaller than 0.05) allows rejecting the null hy­
pothesis of equality of means for any level of significance; that is, the
means differ from each other with a significance level of 95%.
Referring to the analysis of the results presented for the two types of
cement, it can be concluded that there is no significant difference be­
tween the groups of specimens broken at 7 and 28 days. It is observed
that F is smaller than the critical F, accepting the null hypothesis that
there is no difference between the groups in favor of the alternative
hypothesis that there is a difference between the groups level of sig­
nificance of 5%. The p-value analysis greater than 5% allows accepting
the null hypothesis of equality of means for any level of significance.
Next, ANOVA was performed to evaluate the compressive strength
results between the groups, depending on the mixtures, comparing the
spacing between the sample means with the existing variation within the
groups. Table 6 presents the test results for the compressive strength of
the specimens.
ANOVA and multiple comparison tests aid in concluding that, for any
level of significance of the variables distributed in lines, since the p-
value is approximately zero, the means of the various groups are not all
equal, which indicates that there are significant differences in the
average compressive strengths. However, for the averages of the groups
expressed in the columns, they indicate that there are no significant
differences in the average compressive strengths for the compositions of
the mixture with CPV, as well as with LC3.
It is considered, in summary, that the results of the group of mixtures
were not homogeneous; and between the groups there was a statistically
significant difference with the insertion of sugarcane bagasse ash, fly ash
or active silica in the mixtures, indicating that insertion of açai seed ash,
presented in mixture M4, changes the statistical significance between
the mixtures with the detection of the highest value for compressive
Table 5
Descriptive statistics of the compressive strength of specimens.
Groups Sum Average Variance Standard deviation
M1 (silica fume) 21.650 5.413 0.477 0.7136
M2 (fly ash) 18.270 4.568 0.199 0.4573
M3 (sugarcane ash) 18.620 4.655 2.090 1.4271
M4 (açai seed ash) 34.830 8.708 8.000 2.8465
CPV (7days) 23.000 5.750 2.417 1.5545
LC3 (7days) 17.000 4.250 0.917 0.9574
CPV (28 days) 28.470 7.118 7.270 2.7047
LC3 (28 days) 24.900 6.225 9.646 3.1224
L.R. Garcez et al.
Table 6
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests for specimens.
Source of variation Sums of Squares Degrees of freedom
Lines 45.71487 3 15.23829
Columns 17.26542 3 5.75514
Error 15.03371 9 1.670412
Total 78.01399 15
strength.
With the difference between the groups with the additions, the Tukey
Test was applied, and the result of the test is presented in Fig. 7, in 3
dimensions, confirming that the insertion of açai seed ash into the
mixture is the result that stands out by differentiating it from the other
raw materials within the group.
The result presented in Fig. 7 corroborates the analysis of the phys­
ical and mechanical stabilization of the soil-cement mixtures, in which it
was observed that the mixture with better granulometric distribution of
particles favored the performance of compressive strength, mainly of
soil mixtures and LC3 cement with the insertion of açai seed ash.
This effect may have been influenced by the microstructural char­
acterization of the ash, which demonstrated an intermediate fineness
between the raw materials contained in LC3 and the soil, thus generating
a well-graded granulometry while in turn maintaining an adequate
particle distribution, contributing positively to the compaction of the
mixtures. Moreover, its shape and texture demonstrate a roughness and
porosity that may have favored the absorption of water and the curing
process.
3.3. Life Cycle Assessment
Results are presented in Fig. 8 considering each impact category and
the soil-cement mixtures identified. The graph is on a logarithmic scale
for better visual presentation.
3.3.1. Global warming
Based on the criterion adopted from “cradle to gate”, this impact is
considered from the extraction of raw materials to the production pro­
cess of a soil-cement block, at which point it is possible to observe that
there was a difference in values, comparing the mixtures with CPV and
LC3. The results between the mixtures with the CPV ranged from 160 kg.
CO2.eq to 144 kg.CO2.eq and the results between the mixtures with the
LC3 ranged from 88 kg.CO2.eq to 79 kg.CO2.eq.
For Silva et al. [56] the main cause of impacts in this category are
atmospheric emissions from cement production, especially nitrogen
oxides (NOX), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon
dioxide (CO2). Furthermore, the emission of carbon dioxide is two to
Fig. 7. Result of the Tukey Test applied from the ANOVA statistical analysis.
9
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
Mean Squares F P-value F critical
9.122475 0.004309 3.862548
3.445342 0.065082 3.862548
three orders of magnitude higher than the others, which explains the
importance of global warming potential in cement products. Farias et al.
[5] describes the main contribution of this impact comes primarily from
the emission of CO2, thus resulting from the calcination process to
originate the clinker. They emphasize that the production process of
clinker calcination is very complex and involves the consumption of
large amounts of raw materials with variable properties, pyroprocessing
techniques, energy such as heat and electricity and fuel sources, i.e.,
coal, oil, coke, natural gas, fuel oil, biomass or different types of waste.
Due to this complexity, atmospheric emissions derive from physical-
chemical reactions involving the calcination of the raw material through
limestone decarbonization and the type of combustion process. It is
worth mentioning that in addition to pollutant emissions, there are also
relevant impacts on the extraction of the main raw material (limestone),
which allows the development of the study of other inputs, corre­
sponding models, scale of production, geographic location, geological
basins, among other parameters that must be considered.
3.3.2. Abiotic depletion
The highlighted values are for the soil-cement mixtures with the
incorporation of silica fume and fly ash, which presented a value of
1.02 × 10− 6 kg.Sb. eq for the SC3 mixture and 5.09 × 10–9 kg. Sb.eq for
the SC5 mixture. The origin of these values is strongly influenced by the
consumption of non-renewable energy sources and, although some
minerals, such as soil and limestone, are globally abundant, there may
be local scarcity, considered by this indicator in terms of consumption of
resources.
In terms of absolute value, this category is the one with the highest
value in the extraction of raw materials. In addition to causing signifi­
cant adverse changes in land use, extraction activities require large
areas, in turn causing damage to the environment. In this research, the
most relevant input regarding the use of abiotic resources is the soil;
however, as the same amount is expressed in all mixtures, the results
were similar in terms of the impacts generated.
Analyzing the systems comparatively, the demand for materials with
high embodied energy, that is, which require high energy intensities for
extraction, transport, and production, is considered for the raw mate­
rials applied to the mixture, such as silica and ash. Data entered includes
L.R. Garcez et al.
Fig. 8. Life Cycle Assessment, analyzed by the CML 2001 method in OpenLCA software for the ten soil-cement mixtures.
input materials, energy, land use, machinery in some cases, output
emissions, plus an assessment of health and safety practices.
Manjunatha et al. [57] point out that materials such as fly ash are
industrial products that consume large amounts of energy and natural
resources for the manufacture of steel and power generation; however,
when these residues are used as a by-product, such as replacing cement,
they generate a more significant positive impact in environmental terms.
3.3.3. Ozone layer depletion
The results showed similarity between soil-cement mixtures
ranging from 1.17 × 10− 8 kg.CFC−.eq11 to 1.3 × 10− 8 kg.CFC−.eq11 for
mixtures with CPV cement and varying from 8.5 × 10–9 kg. CFC−.eq11 to
9.8 × 10− 9 kg.CFC−.eq11 for mixtures with LC3 cement; the lowest value
was seen for the mixture with the incorporation of açai seed ash, as an
exception, the mixtures with the incorporation of fly ash whose values
were 3.1 × 10-9 kg.CFC−.eq11 for the SC4 mixture and 9.8 × 10-9 kg.
CFC−.eq11 for the SC5 mixture. In this category, emissions occur during
the clinker manufacturing process and in the use of kilns for processing
other inputs and/or raw materials. Thus, the origin of these values is
basically due to the processing of clinker due to the emission of gases
into the atmosphere.
The most relevant pollutants resulting from the clinker production
process are CO2, NOX, SO2 and CO which contribute to this impact
category. Furthermore, Muneron et al. [58] considers it relevant to
highlight the contribution that comes from the transport of raw mate­
rials due to the NOX emitted from fuel burning in trucks, as well as
mineral extraction and the use of fossil fuels. It is observed, therefore,
that there has been an improvement in this scenario through new pro­
duction processes and materials when compared to the old clinker
production lines. These improvements can be related to greater energy
efficiency, less fossil fuel, and reduced emissions.
3.3.4. Photochemical oxidation
The results showed similarity between mixtures with CPV cement,
whose values ranged from 0.0003 kg.C2H4.eq to 0.00027 kg.C2H4.eq and
between mixtures with LC3 cement whose values varied between
0.00014 kg.C2H4.eq to 0.00016 kg.C2H4.eq, with the lowest values being
those of mixtures SC9 and SC10. Zimele et al. [59] considers photo­
chemical oxidation as a photochemical ozone pollution caused by
various compounds, such as CO, SO2, nitrogen oxide (NO), ammonium
10
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
and NMVOC (non-metallic volatile organic compounds), in addition to
primary air pollutants.
Farias et al. [5] point out that the highest emissions of particulate
matter in cementitious materials occur in manufacturing processes and
not in the extraction of raw materials, in which clinker is a relevant input
in the contribution of these emissions; however, NMVOC are released
mainly in the burning of biomass with a high carbon content. Among
these, the authors highlight the burning of sugarcane bagasse and açai
seed, which have a potential for emitting pollutants, mainly carbon
monoxide.
3.3.5. Human toxicity
The highest values for mixtures with silica fume stand out, with
values of 0.09 kg.1.4-DB.eq for mixtures SC3 and 0.05 kg.1.4-DB.eq for
mixture SC4, as well as the lowest values for the mixtures with fly ash,
recording a value of 0.012 kg.1.4-DB.eq for the SC5 mixture and
0.015 kg.1.4-DB.eq for the SC6 mixture. The results indicate the simi­
larity between the mixtures with sugarcane bagasse ash and açai seed
ash, whose average values were 0.018 kg.1.4-DB.eq.
This impact category is calculated by rates of chemicals released into
the environment that are hazardous to human health. Although the raw
material extraction and production phases, like clinker, contribute to the
impact of global warming, the human toxicity and ecotoxicity impact
categories are dominated by the extraction and processing sub-phases.
In regard to the impact of human toxicity by water transmission, the
clinker process is verified, through the deposit of mercury, which is one
of the concerns when combined with carbon, thus increasing its toxicity
potential. The difference in impacts caused by these emissions is also due
to the energy used in the production process based on fossil fuel.
The impacts related to agroindustry are those that commonly
contribute to the release of substances that are toxic to human health,
caused by the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture that release
emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides (NOX and SOX). Moreover, the
burning of such residues, i.e., sugarcane bagasse and açai seed, release
the potential for organic respiratory emissions due to volatile organic
compounds.
3.3.6. Terrestrial ecotoxicity
Similar to the values presented in the human toxicity category,
mixtures with the incorporation of active silica stand out, with a value of
L.R. Garcez et al.
1.4 × 10− 4.kg.1.4-DB.eq for the SC3 mixture and 1.1 × 10− 4.kg.1.4-DB.
eq for the SC4 mix. Additionally, the lowest values were seen for mixtures
with fly ash, being 6.1 × 10− 4.kg.1.4-DB.eq for the SC5 mixture and
6.2 × 10− 4.kg.1.4-DB.eq for the SC6 mix. The results point to the simi­
larity between the mixtures with sugarcane bagasse ash and açai seed
ash, whose values were on average 8.7 × 10− 4.kg.1.4-DB.eq for the
mixtures with CPV cement and the average of 7.6 × 10− 4.kg.1.4-DB.eq
for mixtures with LC3 cement.
The greatest concentration of impact is on soil ecotoxicity. However,
in terms of the impacts of ecotoxicity on freshwater and eutrophication,
the building materials that most negatively contribute to the environ­
ment are cement and ceramic tile. A significant part of these emissions is
related to production processes, where there is generation of effluents; in
addition, the by-products generated in combustion are released into the
atmosphere and carried to the soil, reaching water bodies [5].
Water ecotoxicity related to cement production is mainly due to the
impacts of clinker processing. However, one of the main sources of po­
tential aquatic ecotoxicity for the life cycle is the zeolite content and the
contamination of metals such as aluminum and copper, both present in
fly ash. Manjunatha et al. [57] point out that fly ash consumes large
amounts of fossil fuels, energy, natural resources, minerals, and the use
of this industrial by-product as a substitute for clinker also has envi­
ronmental impacts toxicity. Fly ash production generates gas emissions
and toxic ions, such as zeolites, which have carcinogenic potential due to
elements such as arsenic ion as well as organic emissions due to volatile
organic compounds.
It is also worth noting that the weighted potential value of ecotox­
icity is related to the residual ash from combustion of the agroindustry
that has metals present in the respective ashes, which enter land crops
when fertilizers and agricultural defensives are applied, which are
absorbed by the soil and vegetation [60].
In this context, the effects of ecotoxicity on agricultural soil influence
the life cycle of raw materials such as sugarcane bagasse ash and açai
seed ash, in which prevention work and toxicity control must be pro­
moted in a way that prevent further environmental damage which can
have significant effects on water, air and soil resources.
3.3.7. Acidification
The results point to a small variation of the mixtures with the CPV
cement, ranging from 00.3 kg.SO2.eq to 0.5 kg.SO2.eq, while for the
mixtures with the LC3 cement the results were on average 0.2 kg.SO2.eq.
These impact values are commonly presented due to the use of fossil
fuels.
A release of small amounts of NH3 and SO2 emissions are additionally
produced due to operations and burning processes. These emissions can
acidify soil, water, ecosystems, and organisms. The main SO2 and NH3
emissions during cement production occur due to high-energy com­
bustion of limestone at high temperatures, as well as the use of me­
chanical equipment and vehicle transport. In addition, it is worth
considering, on a smaller scale, other raw materials used in cement
production and the fraction of SO2 not chemically combined that is
emitted into the atmosphere. These acidifying substances cause a wide
range of impacts on ecosystems and on civil construction buildings [61].
Also noteworthy is the combustion of biomass from agro-industrial
waste which, for its conversion into heat and electricity in cogenera­
tion plants, releases NOx into the atmosphere, as well as the presence of
compounds containing sulfur in fertilizers for the cultivation of agri­
cultural industry. Both are contributors to the impact caused by aquatic
acidifying emissions. Furthermore, there is the impact on land use due to
the reduction of biodiversity caused by the extraction of raw material
[62,63].
There are other emissions that can be considered, such as ammonia
(NH3) and total nitrogen, but their effect on the LCA is of little relevance
compared to the effect of NOX. Therefore, the relevant reason for life-
cycle acidification is due to ammonia volatilization [61]. The emission
11
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134331
of these gases into the atmosphere easily results in the formation of acid
rain, in which it is worth noting that the great damage of acid gas cannot
be ignored, since this impact indicator considers some consequences
such as the destruction of the ozone layer and climate change, as well as
the carcinogenic and respiratory effects that impact human health.
3.3.8. Eutrophication
The values of the mixtures with CPV stand out as the highest con­
centrations; the result with the highest value is that of the SC3 mixture
being 1.7 × 10− 4 kg.PO4.eq. The lowest values were for the mixtures SC8
and SC10, being 9.2 × 10− 5 kg. PO4.eq and 9.0 × 10− 5 kg. PO4.eq,
respectively.
These environmental impacts are mainly due to inorganic emissions
caused by phosphates, total organic carbon, and NOX compounds, as
well as long-term emissions to freshwater resources, which cause an
exaggerated increase in nutrients such as ammonia, nitrates, nitrogen,
and phosphorus oxides in water bodies, causing the growth of algae and
the death of aquatic organisms due to lack of oxygen.
In the category of aquatic eutrophication, Portland cement is the one
that most contributes to this impact, considering the water incorporated
into the product, as well as the impacts caused by the deposition of ef­
fluents in water bodies, with the greatest use of water indirectly
occurring in the manufacture of clinker.
The high contribution rate of terrestrial eutrophication results from a
variety of reasons. One was that phosphorus can seep into groundwater
and then groundwater would flow into rivers, lakes, and oceans. In
addition, the unstable ammonia contained in the fertilizer can volatilize
in the air, falling to the ground with rainfall.
4. Conclusions
When the raw materials were incorporated into the soil-cement
mixture, they presented average compressive strength values at 28
days of 10.4 MPa and 11.05 MPa, for mixtures containing soil and
cement (CPV and LC3) respectively. The average compressive strength
values at 28 days with the incorporation of açai seed ash were
10.98 MPa for the mixture with CPV and 10.85 MPa for the mixture with
LC3. Such results corroborated the positive effect and the increase of the
mechanical strength of the mixture after hydration in the mixture of soil,
LC3 and açai seed ash in substitution of the LC3.
The incorporation of metakaolinite, considered a reactive pozzolanic
material, and of the filler, which refines the structure of the pores,
together with the açai seed ash, provided mechanical improvements in
the development of the microstructure of the soil and cement, acting as
the water absorption capacity of the capillary pores in the matrix, pro­
moting chemical bonds and resulting in a denser matrix and, in turn,
more resistant to compression. Also noteworthy is the filling of voids
through the hydration of the mixture, which together with the filler
effect of the raw material particles, contributed to the expansion of the
soil granulometric range due to the insertion of ash particles in which
the application of the compaction force caused the rearrangement of the
materials, distributing the finer particles in the voids of the soil and
contributing to increased mechanical strength.
Consequently, the most environmentally advantageous scenarios
were mixtures containing agroindustrial biomass. In absolute terms of
incorporation into the soil, the use of the four raw materials – silica
fume, fly ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and açai seed ash – demonstrated
environmentally friendly results such as proper management of these
byproducts and a technical contribution by confirming all of the mate­
rial mixture applications herein.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
L.R. Garcez et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Lilyanne Rocha Garcez: Conceptualization, Methodology, Figures,
Micrographs, Writing – original draft. Carlos Eduardo Tino Balestra
and Nathalie Barbosa Reis Monteiro: Methodology, Investigation,
Writing – review & editing Analyzing the environmental scenarios, it
was observed that the main emissions and consequences for the envi­
ronment were from mixtures containing. João de Almeida Melo Filho
and Miguel Angel Ramirez Gil: Supervision and final review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
I shared the file containing my data/code as an appendix in the
attach file step.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Optical and Electronic Micro­
scopy Thematic Laboratory of the National Institute for Amazonian
Research (INPA); Amazon and Composite Materials Laboratory, Mate­
rials Testing Laboratory, and Forage Crop and Pasture Laboratory of the
Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM); Federal University of Tech­
nology – Parana (UTFPR), and São Paulo State University (UNESP) for
the support.
Appendix A
The appendix contains the data used as a basis for calculating the
inventory multiplied by the amount of materials described in Table 4. It
also presents the provider and the pedigree matrix inserted in the
OpenLCA software.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134331.
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