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Thermodynamic Analysis and Optimization
of Geothermal Power Plants
Thermodynamic Analysis
and Optimization of
Geothermal Power Plants

Edited by
Can Ozgur Colpan
Mehmet Akif Ezan
Onder Kizilkan
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

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Contributors
Numbers in parenthesis indicate the pages on which the authors’
contributions begin.
Sertaҫ Akar (17) National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), Golden, CO, United States
Olusola Charles Akinsipe (3) School of Engineering & Built
Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Panagiotis Alexopoulos (131) Laboratory of Soft Energy
Applications and Environmental Protection, Mechanical
Engineering Department, University of West Attica,
Athens, Greece
Sharjeel Ashraf Ansari (249) Department of Engineering
Sciences, National University of Sciences and Tech-
nology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Chad Augustine (17) National Renewable Energy Labo-
ratory (NREL), Golden, CO, United States
Muhammad Aziz (97) Institute of Industrial Science, The
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Young-Jin Baik (315) Thermal Energy Systems Labo-
ratory, Korea Institute of Energy Research, Daejeon,
Republic of Korea
gul (113) Department of Mechanical Engi-
Yusuf Başo

neering, Engineering Faculty, Adıyaman University,
Adıyaman, Turkey
Riccardo Basosi (53) Center for Colloid and Surface
Science, University of Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino; R2ES
Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and
Pharmacy, University of Siena, Siena; National Research
Council—Institute for the Chemistry of OrganoMetallic
Compounds, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Joseph Bonafin (43) Turboden S.p.A., Brescia, Italy
Arianna Bonzanini (43) Turboden S.p.A., Brescia, Italy
urcan Çetin (263) Department of Information Systems
G€
Engineering, Technology Faculty, Mu

gla Sıtkı Koçman
University, Mu

gla, Turkey
George Charis (131) Laboratory of Soft Energy Applications
and Environmental Protection, Mechanical Engineering
Department, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
C. Ozgur Colpan (153) The Graduate School of Natural
and Applied Sciences; Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dokuz Eylul
University, Buca, Izmir, Turkey
Ibrahim Dincer (207, 225) Clean Energy Research
Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied
Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
Oshawa, ON, Canada
Anil Erdogan (153) The Graduate School of Natural and
Applied Sciences, Dokuz Eylul University, Buca, Izmir,
Turkey
Mehmet Akif Ezan (153) The Graduate School of Natural
and Applied Sciences; Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dokuz Eylul
University, Buca, Izmir, Turkey
Muhammad Farooq (315) Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Engineering and Tech-
nology, KSK Campus, Lahore, Pakistan
Milad Feili (167) Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mohaghegh Ard-
abili, Ardabil, Iran
Hikari Fujii (83) Graduate School of Engineering and
Resource Science, Akita University, Akita, Japan
Hadi Ghaebi (167) Department of Mechanical Engi-
neering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Moha-
ghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
Onur Vahip G€ uler (113) Department of Energy Systems
Engineering, Technology Faculty, Mu
gla Sıtkı Koçman
University, Mu
gla, Turkey
Muhammad Imran (315) School of Engineering and
Applied Science, Aston University, Birmingham, West
Midlands, United Kingdom
Mohammad Ashar Jamal (185) Department of Engi-
neering Sciences, National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Rao Hamza Jamil (185) Department of Engineering Sci-
ences, National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
xi
xii Contributors
Firman Bagja Juangsa (97) Faculty of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung,
Bandung, Indonesia
Khurram Kamal (249) Department of Engineering Sci-
ences, National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Prasad Kaparaju (3) Institute for Applied Sustainability
Research (iiasur), Quito, Ecuador; School of Engi-
neering & Built Environment, Griffith University,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Spyridon Karytsas (65) Geothermal Energy Department,
Division of Renewable Energy Sources, Centre for
Renewable Energy Sources and Saving (CRES),
Pikermi; Department of Home Economics and Ecology,
School of Environment, Geography and Applied Eco-
nomics, Harokopio University (HUA), Kallithea,
Greece
Kosmas A. Kavadias (131) Laboratory of Soft Energy
Applications and Environmental Protection, Mechanical
Engineering Department, University of West Attica,
Athens, Greece
Ali Keçebaş (113, 263) Department of Energy Systems
Engineering, Technology Faculty, Mu

gla Sıtkı Koçman
University, Mu
gla, Turkey
Shoaib Khanmohammadi (279) Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Kermanshah University of
Technology, Kermanshah, Iran
Onder Kizilkan (153, 279) Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Isparta University
of Applied Sciences, Isparta, Turkey
Parthiv Kurup (17) National Renewable Energy Labo-
ratory (NREL), Golden, CO, United States
Saeid Mohammadzadeh Bina (83) Graduate School of
Engineering and Resource Science, Akita University,
Akita, Japan
Diego Moya (3) Department of Chemical Engineering
& Grantham Institute—Climate Change and the
Environment, Science and Solutions for a Changing
Planet DTP, Imperial College London, London,
United Kingdom; Institute for Applied Sustainability
Research (iiasur), Quito; Carrera de Ingenierı́a
Mecánica, Facultad de Ingenierı́a Civil y Mecánica,
Universidad Tecnica de Ambato, Ambato;
Coordinación de Investigación e Innovación, ABREC,
Quito, Ecuador
Hafiz Ali Muhammad (315) Thermal Energy Systems
Laboratory, Korea Institute of Energy Research,
Daejeon, Republic of Korea
Farayi Musharavati (279) Department of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University, Doha,
Qatar
Greg F. Naterer (225) Clean Energy Research Laboratory,
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Uni-
versity of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa,
ON; Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science,
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s,
NL, Canada
€
Osman Ozkaraca (263) Department of Information
Systems Engineering, Technology Faculty, Mu
gla Sıtkı
Koçman University, Mu
gla, Turkey
Murat Ozturk (207) Faculty of Technology, Department of
Mechatronics Engineering, Isparta University of
Applied Science, Isparta, Turkey
Mohammad Mustafa Pardesi (185) Department of Engi-
neering Sciences, National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Maria Laura Parisi (53) Center for Colloid and Surface
Science, University of Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino; R2ES
Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and
Pharmacy, University of Siena, Siena; National
Research Council—Institute for the Chemistry of
OrganoMetallic Compounds, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Olympia Polyzou (65) Geothermal Energy Department,
Division of Renewable Energy Sources, Centre for
Renewable Energy Sources and Saving (CRES),
Pikermi, Greece
Tahir Abdul Hussain Ratlamwala (185, 249) Department
of Engineering Sciences, National University of Sci-
ences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Zabdur Rehman (315) Department of Mechanical Engi-
neering, Air University Islamabad, Aerospace and Avi-
ation Campus, Kamra, Pakistan
Ron R. Roberts (225) Clean Energy Research Laboratory,
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University
of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON,
Canada
Hadi Rostamzadeh (167) Energy and Environment
Research Center, Niroo Research Institute (NRI),
Tehran, Iran
Lalit Chandra Saikia (293) Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, National Institute of Technology, Silchar,
Assam, India
Muhammad Nouman Saleem (249) Department of Engi-
neering Sciences, National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan

Muhammad Afzal Sheikh (249) Department of Engi-
neering Sciences, National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Farooq Sher (315) School of Mechanical, Aerospace and
Automotive Engineering, Coventry University, Cov-
entry, United Kingdom
Uzair Aziz Suria (185) Department of Engineering Sci-
ences, National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Contributors xiii
Washima Tasnin (293) School of Electrical Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu,
India
Lorenzo Tosti (53) Center for Colloid and Surface Science,
University of Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino; R2ES Lab,
Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and
Pharmacy, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
Shunsuke Tsuya (83) Graduate School of Engineering and
Resource Science, Akita University, Akita, Japan
Chapter 1

Various cycle configurations for

geothermal power plants
Diego Moyaa,b,c,d, Olusola Charles Akinsipee, and Prasad Kaparajub,e
a
Department of Chemical Engineering & Grantham Institute—Climate Change and the Environment, Science and Solutions for a Changing Planet DTP,
Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom, b Institute for Applied Sustainability Research (iiasur), Quito, Ecuador, c Carrera de Ingenierı´a
ecnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador, d Coordinación de Investigación e Innovación,
Mecánica, Facultad de Ingenierı´a Civil y Mecánica, Universidad T

ABREC, Quito, Ecuador, e School of Engineering & Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

1.1 Introduction reservoir [8]. Depending upon the location, temperature,

Globally, the transition from the present petroleum-
dependent energy technology to green energy is fundamen-
tally contingent on making a decision on result-driven
renewable systems [1]. Mitigating climate issues as well
as promoting sustainable development are unattainable
without innovative systems and technology transfer. Fea-
tures such as low greenhouse gas emissions, minimized
environmental disruption, and the viability of technology
extraction have demonstrated geothermal energy as a sus-
tainable energy resource [2] that could be harnessed and
exploited regardless of climatic factors [3]. The Earth’s
crust houses the renewable geothermal energy source [4],
usually associated with tectonic activity and volcanic activ-
ities [5]. Typically, geothermal energy is located as a heat
source in hot rocks [6] as well as hydrothermal reservoirs
in the Earth’s crust.
Geothermal energy is considered a sustainable clean
renewable energy resource. The global installed geothermal
capacity is estimated to be 12.729 MW and that is projected
to grow by 68.46% in 2020. Among the geothermal power
plant configurations, single flash (41%) is the predominant
configuration followed by dry steam (23%), double flash
(19%), and binary (14%). The triple flash (2%) and back
pressure (1%) plant configurations are less popular [7].
Factors such as the heat reinjection mechanism, geothermal
applications, and geologic time scale are backstopping the
accelerated geothermal reservoir heat extraction in com-
parison with the replacement of heat in the reservoirs.
However, methods for heat reinjection have been developed
to ensure geothermal energy as a renewable energy
resource.
Geothermal fluids are generally used to capture heat
energy from the Earth’s crust and transport it to the surface
through production wells drilled into the geothermal
and depth of the geothermal reservoir, geothermal fluids
consisting of mineral-coated hot water known as brine
and steam (vapor-dominated fluids) are generally used
[9]. The heat energy that is transported to the ground surface
is further processed for electricity generation and/or direct
uses [8]. Depending on the geothermal site features, thermal
energy can be harvested from depths of 300 to 3000 m and
beyond. At greater depths, thermofluids are naturally
occurring as the porous hot rock of the hydrothermal and
geopressured geothermal reservoirs [10]. Harvesting the
hot fluids is a contingent feature of these reservoirs, and
various control measures are factored to maximize the uti-
lization of this heat energy [11]. Finally, the electrical power
generation is dependent upon the application of various geo-
thermal heat [12]. In this chapter, current geothermal power
plant systems and their significance in applying cutting-
edge geothermal configurations as well as undertaking
research on hybrid configurations are presented.
1.2 Geothermal power plant system
The abundance of hydrothermal resources has influenced
the development of geothermal power plant arrangements
and systems [13]. Geothermal power plants can be classified
as single-flash steam power plants, double-flash steam
power plants, dry steam power plants, binary (Organic
Rankine-Kalina Cycle) power plants, and advanced geo-
thermal energy systems. The advanced geothermal energy
systems are further classified as hybrid single-double-flash
systems, hybrid flash-binary systems, hybrid fossil-
geothermal technologies, and hybrid other renewable heat
source-geothermal systems [12]. Geothermal power plants
are best grouped into steam and binary cycles for cycles
for higher well enthalpies and lower enthalpies, respectively

Thermodynamic Analysis and Optimization of Geothermal Power Plants. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821037-6.00005-6

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants

[14]. This chapter will assess the thermodynamic aspects of
the five geothermal power plant configurations.
1.2.1 Single-flash steam power plants
The single-flash steam power plant is the simplest geo-
thermal power transformation arrangement. This configu-
ration facilitates liquid-vapor production from the
geothermal production wells. Based on their large density
disparity, these are separated into two dissimilar phases:
steam and liquid with the support of a cylindrical cyclone
pressure vessel [14]. The term “single” depicts a single
flashing mechanism of the geofluid obtained by depres-
suring the geothermal fluid pressure [15]. This can be
achieved in a production well, a reservoir, or a cyclone inlet
to support the transition of pressurized liquid to liquid-steam
mixture production. A 30 MW single-flash geothermal
power plant demands between 5 and 6 production wells
and 2–3 reinjection wells appropriated along with the geo-
fluid resource [15]. Further, pipes are deployed for mixture
accumulation and transportation from the various geo-
thermal production wells. The identified constraint is the
drop in vapor pressure due to the pipe frictional force asso-
ciated with harvesting mechanisms [16]. Empirical correla-
tions are investigated, considering their complication and
reliability, by deploying factors such as the vapor mass flow
rate, the density, the pipe diameter, the length, and the com-
ponents of the pipe to forecast pressure loss. The variables
are significant compared to the investment cost of the power
plant and the energy conversion technology [16]. A turbine
generator produces electrical energy from vapor (around
99.95% dry) after separation of the vapor and liquid [15].
The choice of a single-flash process is applicable when
the geothermal fluid temperature exceeds 260°C with the
attainment of a capacity factor between 95% and 100% [10].
Fig. 1.1 shows the single-flash process of energy con-
version technology. Station 1 is where the single-flash
steam power process commences while the geothermal fluid
accesses the production well through the source inlet tem-
perature. Between stations 1 and 2 (producing pipes), a
pressure drop occurs, and this facilitates the boiling of the
fluid (a vapor-liquid mixture) before it is transported to

SV
CV
MR
EG
T G
5

BCV c2
3
SE/C 6

ST C CT

CS

CP c1
WV WV ST
S CWP
WH 7
2

IW 4

PW 1

PW Production well BCV Ball check valve SV Stop valve

S Silencer MR Moisture remover SE Steam jet ejectors
WV Well valves ST Steam tramp C Condenser
CS Cyclone separator CV Control valve CP Condensate pump
IW Injection well EG Electric grid CWP Condensed water pump
G Generator T Turbine WH Wellhead
FIG. 1.1 Single-flash geothermal power cycle [17].
 Various cycle configurations for geothermal power plants Chapter 1
station 2. At station 5, it collects steam from the mixture
fluid after separation while the brine (mineral-laden hot
water) is collected at station 3 before reinjecting at station 4.
At station 5, the induced motion of the turbine generator
supports the electrical energy at the entrance of the steam,
followed by the production of steam expansion along with
the turbine to station 6 at condenser pressure. An air cooler
condenser may be used at station c1 to allow the cooling of
air and exit at station c2 [15]. The significance of certain
plant equipment in the operation of a single-flash steam geo-
thermal power plant is greatly acknowledged. In this config-
uration, large amounts of freshwater are not needed for
cooling [18]. Nevertheless, cooling the tower, particularly
the dry regions without fresh water, is achieved by
deploying cooling water obtained from condensed
steam [16].
Fig. 1.2 is a thermodynamic state (T-s) diagram ana-
lyzing the single-flash steam conversion process. It should
be noted that mass conversion and the energy conversion
FIG. 1.2 Temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram of a single-flash cycle [4].
TABLE 1.1 Equations used for thermodynamic state analysis [15].
State Main characteristics
Flashing process Constant enthalpy
Separation process Constant pressure
Liquid plus vapor mixture
Turbine expansion process Constant entropy
Condensing process
5
principle, the two fundamental thermodynamic principles,
are considered in the investigation of the process with the
aid of the diagram. In a single-flash power plant, flashing
occurs when the geothermal fluid under pressure initiates
the process close to the saturation curve at state 1
(Fig. 1.2). The change in the potential or kinetic energy is
not considered, and the enthalpy (h) is designed as constant,
h1 ¼ h2, as can be seen in Eq. (1.1) in Table 1.1. After the
flashing process, the separation process occurs at state 2,
and is simulated at constant pressure. Further, the vapor
and liquid mixture is shown, ascertaining the mixture
quality in this state. The dryness fraction (x2) drives this
quality, as shown by Eq. (1.2) in Table 1.1. The quantity
of vapor entering the turbine is represented by the steam
mass fraction. Eq. (1.3) in Table 1.1 shows the work per unit
mass (w1) generated by the turbine expansion process
between states 4 and 5. The potential and kinetic energy
are not generally considered, and heat losses are neglected
when the thermal fluid enters and leaves the turbine.
Eq. (1.4) in Table 1.1 is the isentropic turbine efficiency,
which is denoted by
t. This is considered the ratio of the
actual work to that of the isentropic work, which is the ideal
process from states 4 to 5. Eq. (1.5) indicates the turbine
gross mechanical power (W_ t ). The electrical power output
of the generator (Eq. 1.6) is given as the turbine’s
mechanical power times the efficiency of the generator
(
g). Lastly, at states 5 and 6, the condensation and cooling
processes occur, and Eq. (1.7) gives the cooling water flow
rate [4].
For the purpose of analyzing the whole plant efficiency,
the second law of thermodynamics is investigated [16]. This
allows its examination in contrast to the actual power output
toward the finish of the single-flash process and to the
utmost theoretical power that is generated by the geothermal
fluid [15]. Exergy is the energy feasible to be used and the
capacity to produce work from energy [16]. Eq. (1.8) pre-
sented in Table 1.2 defines the specific exergy (ex) of the
Equation Equation number
h1 ¼ h2 (1.1)
x2 ¼ hh24 h3
h3
(1.2)
w1 ¼ h4  h5 (1.3)

t ¼ hh44h
h5
5s
(1.4)
W_ t ¼ m_ s wt (1.5)
W_ e ¼
g W_ t (1.6)
m_ cw ¼ x2 m_ total hcDT
5 h6 (1.7)
6 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants
TABLE 1.2 Exergy and power plant efficiency [19].
Thermodynamic Equation
dimension Equation number
Specific exergy ex ¼ h(T, P)  h(TO, (1.8)
PO)  TO[s(T, P) 
s(TO, PO)]
Exergetic power _ ¼ m_ total ex
Ex (1.9)
_ _
Entire power plant
u ¼ WE_net ¼ WE_e (1.10)
efficiency
geothermal fluid for a given pressure (P), temperature (T),
ambient pressure (PO). and ambient temperature (TO).
Eq. (1.9) shows the exergetic power, also known as the
maximum theoretical thermodynamic power, which is the
total geothermal mass flow rate times the exergy. Finally,
the exergy efficiency of the entire power plant is given by
Eq. (1.10) [19].
There are several environmental impacts of single-flash
geothermal power plants [15]. Locations such as the cooling
tower, the ejector vents, the pipeline drains, the steam
tramps, the silencers, the mufflers, and the wellhead, which
offers a structural interface between the wells and the pro-
duction system, are the prime areas of pollution [18]. The
blending of noncondensable gases such as methane
(CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and carbon dioxide (CO2)
from the steam of geothermal reservoirs is considered a
main environmental concern. These gases are, however,
subjected to treatment and isolation before being discharged
into the atmosphere [20]. Further, in spite of its CO2 emis-
sions, the GHG emissions from a single-flash geothermal
power plant (0.06 kg CO2/kWh) are significantly lower than
the traditional coal-fired (1.13 kg CO2/kWh) or natural-gas-
fired power plants (0.59 kg CO2/kWh) [13]. With respect to
footprint, the land requirements of a coal-fired power plant
(40,000 m2/MW) and a solar photovoltaic power plant
(66,000 m2/MW) are much higher than the 1200 m2/MW
required for a single-flash plant [15]. In general, the loss
of characteristic beauty, ozone-depleting substances, land
and water utilization, visual and noise pollution, and water
contamination are some of the other environmental
concerns associated with geothermal power plants [10].
Strategies to mitigate the environmental impacts of
single-flash geothermal power plant as proposed in [20]
include mufflers and silencers to abate noise pollution,
air-cooled condensers, reinjection for surface water, and
preventing expansion of geothermal projects into national
parks. By and large, the emissions from geothermal power
plants are inconsequential compared to fossil-fuel conven-
tional power plants.
1.2.2 Double-flash steam power plants
The development of the double-flash steam geothermal
power plant was to support power generation by the use
of a mixture of vapor and liquid water generated in the geo-
thermal production wells [21]. A double-flash power plant
is considered more advantageous than a single-flash power
plant, as the former can generate 25% more output power
than the latter under the same geothermal fluid conditions
[13]. However, double-flash steam power plant technology
is more complex and its operation and maintenance are
more expensive than single-flash power plants. Never-
theless, the efficient use of the geothermal resource is a
pointer that a secondary flash process is valuable. The use
of a second pressure drop in a secondary flash process
(second separator), after the first pressure drop, supports
the production of extra vapor from the separated liquid
exiting the first separator. Further, the coupled turbine gen-
erator is able to produce additional power due to the supply
of lower-pressure steam [22] or to a turbine depending on
the configuration [23]. The double-flash power plant’s com-
plete exergy performance is optimally boosted due to the
separator of the geothermal steam-water, which is the prin-
cipal technological development of this power plant
technology.
Upon comparison to a single-flash system (Fig. 1.1), a
double-flash configuration (Fig. 1.3) uses a dual-admission
turbine and a low-pressure separator. For the purpose of
smooth combination with the expanded high-pressure
steam, the low-pressure steam is supplied to the turbine at
the right stage [15]. Fig. 1.3 presents the energy conversion
process in a double-flash steam geothermal power plant.
The double-flash steam power process commences at
station 2; the source of the inlet temperature is the corridor
of the geofluid. The first flashed-steam process occurs
between stations 1 and 2, when the pressure drops and the
fluids begin to boil (mixture steam-liquid) before reaching
the separator at station 2. The fluid mixture is then separated
into the brine and high-pressure steam. The mineral-laden
brine hot water (station 3) is then downwardly controlled
to low-pressure (station 8) and high-pressure steam (station
5) with the support of a separator. This prompts the second
flashed-steam process. The second pressure drop at station 9
will lead to the production of a steam-brine mixture and the
brine is collected by the low-pressure separator. The second
steam is injected into the system at station 9 and the turbine
collects the second fresh low-pressure steam. At station 5,
the first high-pressure steam gains access to the turbine after
the initial steam injection. The induced motion of the dual-
injection turbine, connected to a generator, generates elec-
trical energy. The condenser pressure at station 6, connected
to the turbine, is the location where the steam expansion
happens [15]. With respect to the process design, the first
stage admission or injection of the turbine should have
 Various cycle configurations for geothermal power plants Chapter 1 7

PW Production well SV Stop valve MR Moisture remover

S Silencer SE Steam jet ejectors ST Steam tramp
WV Well valves C Condenser CV Control valve
BCV Ball check valve CP Condensate pump TV Throttle valve
IW Injection well HPT High-pressure turbine G Generator
CWP Condensed water pump LPT Low-pressure turbine EG Electric grid
HPCS High-pressure cyclone LPFS Low-pressure flash WH Wellhead
separator separator
FIG. 1.3 Double-flash geothermal power plant with a dual admission turbine [15, 17].

the same pressure difference between the high and low sep- (1.18) are used to calculate the mass flow rate of brine pro-
arators [24]. The high-pressure stage mass flow is expected duced at high pressure (m_ hpb , at state 3) and low pressure
to be lower than the low-pressure stage mass flow. The (m_ lpb , at state 7). The low-pressure turbine stage (at state
residual hot fluids at station 6 are condensed by using an 9) accommodates the high-pressure and low-pressure
air-cooled condenser. Cool air is supplied at station c1 steams together. With the aid of Eqs. (1.15)–(1.18), four
and exited at station c2. Finally, the residual brine from values are appraised: the disposed waste liquid, the
the second flashed process at station 10 and the condensed
fluid from station 7 is reinjected into the system at station 4
(Fig. 1.3).
The temperature-entropy (T-s) of a double-flash power
plant is presented in Fig. 1.4. The two flash processes that
exist in states 1–2 and 3–6 are significant, and they are
studied separately as a single process [15]. To ascertain
the quantity of steam generated in the separators at each
flashed process (x2 in states 1–2 and x6 in states 3–6, the sep-
aration process), Eqs. (1.11)–(1.14) in Table 1.3 are applied.
Further, the evaluation of the steam at state 2 and the
brine at state 6, obtained from different separators at the
high- and low-pressure stages, was achieved by using four
equations, as shown in Eqs. (1.15)–(1.18). Again,
Eqs. (1.15), (1.17) give the mass flow rate of steam gen-
erated at high pressure (m_ hps , at state 5) as well as at low FIG. 1.4 Temperature-entropy process diagram for a double-flash power
pressure (m_ lps , at state 8), respectively. Also, Eqs. (1.16), plant with a dual admission or injection turbine [15].
8 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants

TABLE 1.3 Thermodynamic equations for double-flash geothermal power plants [14, 15].

State Main characteristics Equation Equation number

Flash process 1 Constant enthalpy h1 ¼ h2 (1.11)
Separation process 1 Constant pressure x2 ¼ hh24 h3
h3
(1.12)
Mixture of liquid plus vapor
Flash process 2 Constant enthalpy h3 ¼ h6 (1.13)
Separation process 2 Constant pressure x6 ¼ hh38 h7
h7
(1.14)
Mixture of liquid plus vapor
Mass flow rate of steam High pressure m_ hps ¼ x2 m_ total ¼ m_ 4 ¼ m_ 5 (1.15)
generated
Mass flow rate of brine High pressure m_ hpb ¼ ð1  x2 Þm_ total ¼ m_ 3 ¼ m_ 6 (1.16)
produced
Mass flow rate of steam Low pressure m_ lps ¼ ð1  x2 Þx6 m_ total ¼ m_ 8 (1.17)
generated

Mass flow rate of brine Low pressure m_ lpb ¼ ð1  x2 Þð1  x6 Þm_ total ¼ m_ 7 (1.18)
produced
Turbine expansion High-pressure stage (Eqs. 1.22–1.23 are the whpt ¼ h4  h5 (1.19)
process Baumann rule)

hpt ¼ hh44h
h5
5s
(1.20)

W_ hpt ¼ m_ hps whpt ¼ x2 m_ total whpt (1.21)

 
h7 (1.22)
h4 A 1
h8  h7
h5 ¼ A
1+
h8  h7
A ¼ 0.425(h4  h5s) (1.23)
Turbine expansion Low-pressure stage m_ 5 h5 + m_ 8 h8 ¼ ðm_ 5 + m_ 8 Þ h9 (1.24)
process
h9 ¼ x2 hx52 ++ ðð1x2 Þx6 h8
1x2 Þx6
(1.25)

wlpt ¼ h9  h10 (1.26)

W_ lpt ¼ m_ 9 ðh9  h10 Þ (1.27)

 
h11 (1.28)
h9 A x9 
h12  h11
h10 ¼ A
1+
h12  h11
A ¼ 0.425(h9  h10s) (1.29)

lpt ¼ hh99h
h10
10s
(1.30)

W_ total ¼ W_ hpt + W_ lpt (1.31)

W_ e , gross ¼
g W_ total (1.32)

condenser heat dissipated, the cooling water heat losses, and
the turbine power production.
This system is applied for the illustration of the two
turbine expansion processes. Eq. (1.19) is the representation
of the first turbine expansion process producing work (whpt)
that occurs between states 4 and 5. Eq. (1.26) describes the
second turbine expansion process producing work (wlpt).
Thus, for a typical double-flash power plant with the
high-pressure (
hpt) and low-pressure (
lpt) processes, two
isentropic turbine efficiencies are derived by using
Eq. (1.20), and a low-pressure process (
lpt) by using
Eq. (1.30). The first turbine stage power produced at high
pressure (W_ hpt ) and the second stage power produced at
low pressure (W_ lpt ) are defined by using Eq. (1.21) and
 Various cycle configurations for geothermal power plants Chapter 1
Eq. (1.27), respectively. Eq. (1.31) provides the aggregate
turbine power produced (W_ total ), which is an addition of
individual turbine stage power generated. Lastly, as
explained in Eq. (1.32), the efficiency of the generator
(
g) impacts the electrical power (W_ e, gross ). The efficiency
of the overall power plant, the incoming geothermal fluid
exergy, the environmental impacts, and the deployed
equipment are similar to that of the single-flash process
[24, 25].
1.2.3 Dry-steam power plants
Studies have shown that several locations around the globe
are endowed with geothermal dry-steam, particularly in
places such as the geysers in the United States and Lar-
derello, Italy. Both places have the two largest dry-steam
reservoirs. However, places such as Cove Fort, Utah, United
States; Wairakei, New Zealand; Matsukawa, Japan; and
Kamojang, Indonesia are characterized by limited dry steam
[16, 20]. In the event that a geothermal reservoir dries,
Zarrouk and Moon [16] discussed the possibility of
FIG. 1.5 Dry-steam geothermal power plant [9, 17].
9
converting the flashed generation systems into a dry-steam
system. Considering high enthalpy system configurations,
dry-steam geothermal power plants are the most efficient
because the hydrothermal reservoirs support these configu-
rations with vapor-dominant geothermal fluid at high tem-
peratures [25, 26]. The coupled turbine generator is able
to generate electrical energy using the steam supplied
directly from the production well [10].
In dry-steam power generation, between 50% and 70%
of the geothermal fluid available work (exergy) is converted
into electrical power [25]. Upon comparison with the steam-
flashed process, the dry steam has a simpler concept and
requires centrifugal cyclones to separate particulate matters
such as rock chippings and dust [25]. Similarly, the con-
densate is eliminated by using drain pots, and the last
moisture is eliminated to achieve high-grade steam in the
turbine. A Venturi meter is also needed for the accurate cal-
ibration of the turbine steam flow rate [13].
The mechanism of conversion of energy in the dry-steam
power plant process is described in Fig. 1.5. Both single-
flash and dry-steam (geothermal fluid) processes share
10 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants
similar features of the whole power generation cycle, from
the production wells to the production turbine [15]. For both
smaller or larger units of single flow or double flow, a single
pressure is performed by the blading turbine of impulse-
reaction. Based on the graphs, Fig. 1.1 (single flash) shares
the same similarity with Fig. 1.5 with a particulate remover
rather than a cyclone separator.
Fig. 1.6 is the T-s thermodynamic state of the dry-steam
system. At state 1, saturated steam or lightly superheated
steam is generated in the production wells. The expansion
of the turbine occurs between states 1 and 2 while the
cooling process is attained between states 2 and 3, where
an emission of heat via the condenser occurs. The single-
flash geothermal power plant system is equivalent to the
thermodynamic study [18]. Table 1.4 shows the equations
in analyzing the dry-steam power plants. In terms of impacts
on the environment, the single-flash geothermal power plant
process has a lower environmental impact than flashed
power plants, as the system does not use mineral-laden
brine [15].
FIG. 1.6 Temperature-entropy (T-s) process diagram for a dry-steam
power plant with saturated steam at the turbine inlet [15, 18].
TABLE 1.4 Thermodynamic equations in the dry-steam
process for turbine expansion process [15].
Equation Equation number
wt ¼ h1  h2 (1.33)

t ¼ hh11h
h2
2s
(1.34)
W_ t ¼ m_ s wt ¼ m_ s ðh1  h2 Þ (1.35)
W_ e ¼
g W_ t (1.36)
1.2.4 Binary-organic Rankine cycle and
Kalina cycle power plants
The binary geothermal power plant (B-GPP) generates elec-
trical energy from a secondary separated process. Pre-
heating of the working fluid is involved and heat is lost
upon contacting the geothermal fluid [10]. Geothermal
resources with a temperature range of 20–150°C [25] or
85–170°C [27] are well suited for binary configurations
[25]. A higher temperature range provide thermal stability
of the working fluid while the lower temperatures are more
feasible in terms of technoeconomic and financial factors.
Further, the impacts of corrosion and scaling are not
apparent at high temperature, as there is no contact between
the power generation equipment and the geofluid. Under a
conventional Rankine cycle, there is the functionality of the
secondary fluid (working fluid) in the binary system [28],
and the binary cycle is identified as the Organic Rankine
Cycle (ORC) due to the organic nature of the working fluid.
Binary power plants are versatile and the functionality of
the power plant is decided by the secondary cycle. Different
types of configurations of binary power plants are in oper-
ation, including B-GPP using an ORC with an internal heat
exchanger (IHE), B-GPP with a regenerative ORC, and
B-GPP with a regenerative ORC using IHE [29]. In 1982,
Kalina patented a variation in B-GPP [30]. The working
fluid used in the Kalina cycle consists of water and ammonia
and can be used in different compositions to suit various
configurations [31]. A thermal efficiency of 30%–40% is
achievable and is considered more efficient than that of
an ordinary B-GPP [28].
A closed loop of a thermodynamic Rankine Cycle used
for the energy conversion system of a basic binary geo-
thermal power plant is shown in Fig. 1.7. Harvesting the
geothermal fluid via the production wells (PW) and then
transporting it through various primary cycle components
necessitates that pumping systems are deployed. The
scouring and erosion of pipes and tubes can be prevented
by extracting sand from the geofluid by employing sand
removers (SR). Finally, an evaporator (E) and a preheater
(pH) are used for continuous fluid flow while the geo-
thermal fluid is reinjected into the reservoir near the
injection well (IW) by using an injection pump (IP).
Regarding the working cycle, two heating-boiling pro-
cedures are included in the working fluid. The PH is the
location of the boiling point of the working fluid. Upon
contact of PH with E, the working fluid becomes a saturated
vapor. This results in the expansion and condensation of the
working fluid in the turbine. The working fluid is then
returned to the evaporator, thereby concluding the loop
process and beginning the process again [31]. To prevent
steam eruption and calcite scaling within the pipes, moni-
toring the geothermal fluid above the flash pressure point
is necessary [13]. Thus, the low-temperature geothermal
 Various cycle configurations for geothermal power plants Chapter 1 11

FIG. 1.7 Basic binary geothermal power plant [17, 18].

resources are enabled by this binary-type energy conversion emergence of the working fluid as saturated vapor initiates
setup and by relying upon specialized highlights to attain the process repeatedly [14, 15].
amazingly high plant performances [32]. Regarding the condenser, the turbine, and the feed
Fig. 1.8 presents the pressure-enthalpy of a binary geo- pump, the flash and dry-steam plants share similar
thermal power plant. At state 1, the working fluid at the sat-
urated vapor point accesses the turbine and facilitated the
expansion and production of work, and this marks the
beginning of the thermodynamic process. Based on the
work produced, electrical energy is generated by the gen-
erator. At state 2, after the expansion process of the turbine,
the temperature and pressure of the saturated vapor reduce.
At state 3, a temperature reduction occurs as the working
steam-fluid enters the condenser, and this eventually culmi-
nates into fluid condensation. The application of cooled
water from the air-cooled tower initiates the cooling process
of the working fluid between states 3 and 4. The transfor-
mation of the working fluid state into a saturated liquid is
achieved by this cooling phase. At states 5 and 6, the
working saturated liquid-fluid is pumped back to the pre- FIG. 1.8 Pressure-enthalpy diagram of a binary geothermal power plant
heater and evaporator, respectively. At state 1, the [15].
12 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants

The analysis of geothermal fluid and the working fluid

TABLE 1.5 Thermodynamic equations for binary evaporation heat transfer rate is shown in Eq. (1.46). The
geothermal power plants [15]. known brine inlet temperature is represented as Ta; Tb is
Equation obtained from the pinch-point temperature (minimum tem-
State Equation number perature difference between two fluids supplied by the man-
ufacturer) and the known T5. Lastly, Eqs. (1.48)–(1.50) give
Turbine w1 ¼ h1  h2 (1.37)
the performance assessment parameters of the cycle. Based
expansion
process
t ¼ hh11h
h2 (1.38) on the input of thermal power (Q_ PH=E ) and the thermal
power rejected (Q_ c ), Eq. (1.48) is the presentation of the
2s

W_ t ¼ m_ wf wt ¼ m_ wf
t ðh1  h2s Þ (1.39)

thermal efficiency of the entire cycle (
th) [15, 19].
W_ e ¼
g W_ t (1.40) During the design process of a B-GPP, choosing the
working fluid is critical and entails considering the geofluid
Condensing Q_ c ¼ m_ wf ðh2  h3 Þ (1.41)
process
and working fluid thermodynamics characteristics as well as
safety, health, and the effect on the environment [15]. The
Feed pump W_ p ¼ m_ wf ðh4  h3 Þ (1.42) economy and the efficiency of B-GPP are described by the
Heat m_ b ðha  hc Þ ¼ m_ wf ðh1  h4 Þ (1.43) working fluid adoption [33]. Table 1.6 shows different
exchange working fluids and explicitly explains how working fluid
PH: m_ b c b ðTa  Tc Þ ¼ m_ wf ðh5  h4 Þ (1.44)
process at E critical temperatures (CT) and critical pressures (CP) are
and PH E: m_ b c b ðTa  Tc Þ ¼ m_ wf ðh1  h5 Þ (1.45) extremely lower in contrast to water. Different contem-
Q_ E ¼ m_ b c b ðTa  Tb Þ ¼ (1.46) porary binary technologies have emerged, promoting
m_ wf ðh1  h5 Þ advancement at higher performances via the flexible
adoption of a secondary cycle in B-GPP [24]. Studies by
DiPippo [15] and Valdimarsson [34] describe various other
Q_ PH ¼ m_ b c b ðTb  Tc Þ ¼ (1.47) binary configurations, including the dual-pressure binary
m_ wf ðh5  h4 Þ cycle, the dual-fluid binary cycle, the Kalina binary cycles,
and regenerative ORC.
To adopt ORC-GPP, different methods have been inves-
_ tigated regarding working fluid. A work by Quoilin [35] put

th ≡ QW
_
net (1.48)
PH=E
forward an approach for the selection of the working fluid
W_ net ¼ Q_ PH=E  Q_ c ; (1.49) and an expansion process in the same system. For any
Q_ PH=E ¼ Q_ E + Q_ PH ORC process, the working fluid and expansion mechanism
are adopted by the application of this method. Mikielewicz

th ¼ 1  hh21 h3
h4
(1.50)
and Mikielewicz [25] studied 20 working fluids for an ORC
and concluded that R123 and R141b possess the most suit-
ability for small-scale operations. Regarding the adoption of
the best applicable working fluid for an ORC, extensive
thermodynamic analyses. The equation for the analysis of a
binary geothermal power plant is captured in Table 1.5. The
turbine expansion process work generated is computed in
TABLE 1.6 Working fluids commonly used in binary
Eq. (1.37) while the isentropic turbine efficiency (
t) is
geothermal plants [15].
described in Eq. (1.38). Similarly, in Eqs. (1.39), (1.40),
the power of the turbine (W_ t ) as well as the power of the gen- CT (° PC PS @
erator (W_ e ) are evaluated as m_ wf connotes the mass flow rate Fluid Formula C) (MPa) 300 k MPa
of the working fluid and
g is the efficiency of the generator. Propane C3H8 96.9 4.24 0.9935
Q_ c is the description of the working fluid heat discarded due
to cooling during the condensation process. Eq. (1.42) pre- i-Butane i-C4H10 135.9 3.69 0.3727
sents the power transferred to the working fluid from the n-Butane C4H10 150.8 3.72 0.2559
feed pump (W_ p ). A steady flow, well-insulated PH and E i-Pentane i-C5H12 187.8 3.41 0.0975
as well as insignificant potential and kinetic energy are
the three propositions useful in analyzing the heat exchange n-Pentane C5H12 193.9 3.24 0.0738
process [15]. Eq. (1.43) is administered to the thermody- Ammonia NH3 133.6 11.63 1.061
namic system where a symbolizes the geothermal fluid inlet Water H2O 374.1 22.09 0.003536
while b represents the geothermal fluid after E and c
after PH.
 Various cycle configurations for geothermal power plants Chapter 1
indicators are provided in [35], namely thermodynamic per-
formance, isentropic saturation vapor curve, high vapor
density, low viscosity, high conductivity, evaporating
pressure, condensing gauge pressure, high-temperature sta-
bility, melting point, low ozone-depleting potential, low
greenhouse warming potential, availability, and low cost.
Astolfi [36] conducted a comprehensive study of binary
ORC power plants focusing on harvesting low-medium
temperature geothermal sources [37]. The above authors
examined 54 working fluids in six dissimilar cycle config-
urations and concluded that the optimal fluid is decafluoro-
butane at a low temperature of 120°C while at a higher
temperature of 180°C, R236ea has been the optimum fluid.
1.2.5 Advanced geothermal energy
conversion systems—Hybrid configurations
Concerning configurations of geothermal energy con-
version processes, three innovative technologies were sug-
gested: hybrid single-flash and double-flash systems, hybrid
flash-binary systems, and hybrid fossil-geothermal systems
[15]. Also, the amalgamation of geothermal technologies
with biomass, waste-to-energy systems, fuel cells, and solar
thermal systems is attracting significant attention [12, 38].
Thain and DiPippo [12] also stated the principal signifi-
cance of hybrid geothermal as other clean energy technol-
ogies under the following factors: impacts on the
environment, electrical energy cost, exergy, plant perfor-
mances, the performance of turbo-machinery, the viability
of the technoeconomic aspects, and the investment risk.
With respect to the binary power plant’s environmental
impact, the geothermal fluid is evacuated and returned to
the reservoir. There is no chemical or physical interaction
of the working fluid with the environment. The environ-
mental impact is the only thermal pollution that occurs as
a result of heat rejection along the cycle, and this is appli-
cable for direct heating purposes [20].
The attention of many studies focuses on the hybrid con-
figuration of various thermal and nonthermal clean energies
with geothermal resources [12]; nevertheless, hybrid
geothermal-fossil fuel systems have been in existence
[39]. The current interest of the research community is
the study of hybrid solar and geothermal energy configura-
tions for power plants [26, 29]. Jiang [26] conducted ther-
modynamic research for a hybrid solar-enhanced
geothermal system power plant, where the working fluid
used was CO2 in a supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle. Based
on their conclusion, the hybrid system has higher efficiency
compared to the aggregate of the two independent off-grid
systems. Supplementary electricity was produced during
peak demand hours due to the increased capacity driven
by the solar system, even as the geothermal cycle supports
based-load electricity. Cardemil [29] analyzed the solar-
13
concentrating parabolic collector hybridized to a single-
and double-flash geothermal power plant for various
geothermal reservoir situations. Based on their findings,
the hybrid single-flash configuration generates an increment
of 20% extra power output, and the quantity of the geo-
thermal fluid deployed from reservoirs in the hybrid
double-flash configuration dropped by 19%. Ayub and
Mitsos [38] integrated two existing simulations, an ORC
geothermal model and a low-temperature solar technology,
and the results showed how the hybrid system’s levelized
energy cost was lowered by 2% while the ORC geothermal
configuration’s levelized energy cost was reduced by 8%.
Zhou [39] investigated hybrid geothermal energy
systems. The result of the solar-geothermal viability inves-
tigation indicates an increment in the efficiency of the net
electrical output of the power plant by 12.7% as well as
an increment in the performance of the thermal plant by
7.5%. A related study in [40] showed the possibility of min-
imizing the cost of electrical energy generation by 20% via
the deployment of a solar-geothermal power plant compared
to using a standalone enhanced geothermal system. For a
subcritical and supercritical ORC solar-geothermal plant,
the yearly electricity production increases by 15% and
19% with the exergy of the solar fraction above 66%
[39]. Recently, a novel solar-geothermal hybrid power plant
was proposed based on the hybridization of an existing geo-
thermal binary cycle with a solar-powered steam-Rankine
topping cycle [41]. This hybridization can produce approx-
imately 60% more electricity per day in hot seasons,
decreasing the use of geothermal resources by 17% per year.
Hybrid geothermal-fossil fuel power plant configura-
tions provide substitutes to minimize the use of fossil fuels
and greenhouse gas emissions for low-enthalpy geothermal
resources. Zhou [39] examined a 500 MW hybrid
geothermal-coal configuration with a 210°C reservoir tem-
perature and a 400 kg/s brine flow rate, and he showed that
0.3 million tonnes of coal per year could be saved and
approximately 0.72 million tonnes of GHE per year could
be reduced [27]. In addition, in comparison with the stan-
dalone geothermal power plant, electrical energy can be
reduced by between 33% and 87%; also, in comparison with
a sole coal-fired power plant, electricity production can be
increased by approximately 19% [39].
Power generation also depends on the potential of oil
and gas fields. In a study, 349 abandoned onshore oil and
gas wells were investigated by Reyes [42], and it was con-
cluded that 1.7  109 kWh could be integrated into the elec-
tricity network of New Zealand. Likewise, a recent work in
[30] investigated three gas reserves in Croatia, and the
results showed the possibility of the economic viability of
the unexploited gas fields. A study by Davis and Michae-
lides [43] showed that South Texas untapped oil wells have
the potential to drive about 3 MW of electrical energy.
Similar studies can be found in the literature [44].
14 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants
Few studies have focused on the geothermal and biomass
power plant hybrid systems. In order to achieve a higher
power output, Thain and DiPippo [12] examined the hybrid
system of a geothermal-biomass power plant. The authors’
findings showed an increase in net power by 32% in contrast
with the standalone power plants. Similarly, Moret [45] pre-
sented the findings of a study on geothermal biomass.
Overall, the deployment of geothermal heat to advance the
biomass conversion system performances is proven by inno-
vative hybrid geothermal-biomass systems that indicate pos-
itive synergies. A recent study also proposed a novel
configuration of a hybrid binary geothermal-biomass power
plant [46]. This proposed configuration increased the temper-
ature of the geothermal fluid by 28%, minimizing the oper-
ational cost associated with the biomass.
1.3 Closing remarks
This study reveals other measures of minimizing global
fossil fuel consumption and its environmental effects by
using a geothermal energy system in a range of power plant
configurations. An assessment study by Stefansson [47]
shows that a geothermal potential lower limit is expected
to generate 1.5 TW of electricity from the global geo-
thermal resource. Further, the author discovered that
around 68% of the aggregate geothermal resources have
temperatures below 130°C (mainly for direct heat uses),
and the extra resources are temperatures above 130°C
(appropriate for power generation). The application of
low-temperature geothermal resources might be achieved
by using Binary Organic Rankine Cycle power plants. In
addition, studying a hybrid geothermal-biomass configu-
ration is expedient despite the in depth research on hybrid
geothermal-solar thermal configurations. The increase of
energy output, the thermal performance, and the increase
of the geothermal reservoir lifespan are features of both
solar and biomass. In contrast, favorable opportunities
for increasing geothermal project income are attained by
the direct applications of geothermal heat. The application
of numerous direct uses is achievable subject to the geo-
graphic zone. The applications of the geoheat contribute
to increasing the living conditions of the regions situated
at the geothermal resource due to the contribution of the
cascade configurations (for example) to maximize the
use of geoheat. Cascade applications allow the use of dif-
ferent temperatures of the same geothermal fluid in staging
and successive applications in a sequence that require
lower temperatures downstream. Geothermal hybrid con-
figurations along with direct uses (heat, air conditioning,
refrigeration, drying, evaporation, and district heating,
among others)—cascade applications—are some of the
poly-generation hybrid configurations identifiable for
future research opportunities.
Acknowledgments
Diego Moya has been funded by the Ecuadorian Secretariat for Higher
Education, Science, Technology, and Innovation (SENESCYT),
Award No. CZ03-35-2017; The Technical University of Ambato
(UTA), Award No. 1895-CU-P-2017 (Resolución HCU); and sup-
ported by The Science and Solutions for a Changing Planet Doctoral
Training Partnership, Grantham Institute, at Imperial College London.
The Institute for Applied Sustainability Research (IIASUR) supports
international research on global sustainability applied to the Global
South. We acknowledge the important comments and suggestions
made by anonymous reviewers to improve the quality, clarity, and
strictness of this article. Andrea Morales and Rafaela Moya are highly
appreciated for their support during the development of the
manuscript.
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Chapter 2
Global value chain and manufacturing
analysis on geothermal power plant
turbines
Sertaҫ Akar, Chad Augustine, and Parthiv Kurup
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, United States
2.1 Global geothermal energy market
The global geothermal power market grew by 13% between
2015 and 2019, which increased the total installed geo-
thermal power capacity from 13.65 GWe in 2015 [1] to
15.41 GWe in 2019 [2]. The countries with the highest
geothermal installed capacity by the end of 2019 were the
United States, Indonesia, the Philippines, Turkey, New
Zealand, Mexico, Italy, Kenya, Iceland, and Japan
(Fig. 2.1). Between 2005 and 2015, 190 new geothermal
power plants were installed around the world, where 62%
were binary-cycle plants, 31% were flash-cycle plants,
and 7% were dry-steam plants [3].
The number of installed geothermal power plants is
expected to grow and reach about 18.4 GWe by 2021, based
on forecasts [1] and pipeline projects [4] (Fig. 2.2). This
could create a market demand for a diverse mix of geo-
thermal turbine types. Recently, it is unclear whether the
expected additional capacity increases and the demands
are enough to increase the manufacturing volume of both
binary-cycle and flash-cycle power plant turbines.
However, based on the information about proposed projects
and resource assessments, a significant annual power
capacity addition between 0.75 and 1 GWe can be expected
in the global market. It is very promising that this growth in
the geothermal market will allow standardization in turbine
design, rather than the customized turbines that are being
manufactured today. This increase will create a modularity
in the geothermal market, which will be adapted to the geo-
graphic diversity of projects to offer an economy of scale.
2.1.1 Global value chain and trade flow
Geothermal project developers customize the size of the
power plant to fit the resource being developed. Geothermal
power plant turbines are designed to optimize efficiency.
The best utilization of geothermal resources such as HX,
Thermodynamic Analysis and Optimization of Geothermal Power Plants. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821037-6.00007-X
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
WCCT, or ACC is then chosen to complement the turbine
size and design. As an example, the Salton Sea Unit 5 geo-
thermal steam turbine in Imperial Valley, Southern Cali-
fornia, is designed and optimized for 58.32 MWe [5].
Custom design turbines have relatively higher manufacturing
set-up costs, longer lead times, and higher capital costs than
the standard design turbines manufactured in larger volumes.
However, turbines produced in standard increments and in
larger manufacturing volumes could result in lower costs
per turbine.
The current manufacturing process for geothermal tur-
bines is made to order. In other words, every order is a
custom design based on geothermal fluid properties. The
challenges of geothermal fluid chemistry force designs to
use special corrosion-resistant metals that are more
expensive than standard metals used in fossil fuel-powered
turbines. Additionally, the high fixed capital costs of
resource development and low power purchase agreement
(PPA) prices lead developers to maximize resource utili-
zation by customizing their turbines. The customization
design factors result in greater manufacturing set-up costs,
extensive engineering, and a higher lead time (up to
18 months) from initial design to installation. In turn, these
factors may impact developers’ returns and decrease the
attractiveness of deploying geothermal energy.
There are two major geothermal turbine technologies:
flash cycle steam turbines and binary cycle turboexpanders.
The global steam turbine market is expected to increase
from $14.5 billion in 2013 to $17.4 billion by 2020, with
an annual growth rate of 2.6% over this period [6].
However, the market share of geothermal power plants
constitutes a small portion of the global steam turbine
market. Annual global orders for steam turbines are broadly
stable at around 100 GW, and geothermal steam turbines
constitute only 1%–2% of the total annual demand [6].
Usually, large coal-fired, natural gas-fired, and nuclear
power plants drive the market. Major manufacturing
17
18 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants

FIG. 2.1 Global geothermal installed capacity for the top 10 countries by the end of 2019. (Data Source: Think GeoEnergy. The Top 10 Geothermal
Countries 2019—based on installed generation capacity (MWe). Think GeoEnergy - Geothermal Energy News, Jan. 27, 2020. http://www.thinkgeoenergy.
com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/ (Accessed 28 January 2020).)

20,000

Turboexpander (Binary) MW
Steam Turbine (Flash + Dry Steam) MW
Total installed Capacity (MWe)

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021P
FIG. 2.2 Historical, current, and projected global installations of geothermal power plant turbines. P, projection. (Data displayed to represent the median
figures that have been compiled from GEA. Annual U.S. & global geothermal power production report. Geothermal Energy Agency; 2016, Bertani R.
Geothermal power generation in the world 2010–2014 update report. Geothermics 2016; 60:31–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.
11.003, BNEF. Geothermal market outlook report. Bloomberg New Energy Finance; 2016.)

locations for geothermal steam turbines are Japan, Italy, the
United States, France, Mexico, Russia, India, and China,
where Japan accounted for 82% of the global manufacturing
market between 2005 and 2015 [1, 4, 7–10].
The second type of turbine technology is turboex-
panders, which are mostly utilized in organic Rankine
cycle (ORC) binary cycle geothermal plants. Apart from
geothermal energy applications, the ORC technology
has also been used for other commercial applications, such
as waste heat recovery (WHR), bioenergy production
(from biogas and landfill gas), and concentrating solar
power (CSP), over the last decade. While bioenergy has
the greatest number of ORCs installed (for WHR with
smaller installed sizes), geothermal power plants con-
tributed 71% of all ORC installed capacity in the world
between 2005 and 2016 (Fig. 2.3), as bioenergy and
WHR followed with 15% and 13.7%, respectively [11].
The main manufacturing locations for binary cycle tur-
boexpanders are Israel, the United States, Italy, and
Germany; Israel accounts for 74% of the geothermal
 Global value chain and manufacturing analysis Chapter 2
FIG. 2.3 Overview of global ORC turboexpander market 2005 and 2016 (lab-scale prototypes and installed capacity lower than 50-kilowatt electric
(kWe) have not been included). (Data modified from Tartiere T. World overview of the organic Rankine cycle technology. 2016. https://orc-world-
map.org/index.html (Accessed 22 January 2020).)
binary cycle turboexpander manufacturing market. Italian
turboexpander manufacturers have increased their market
share significantly in the last couple of years [1, 4, 7–10].
The global trade flow of both geothermal steam turbines
and ORC turboexpanders between 2005 and 2015 can be
seen in Fig. 2.4.
The United States has the highest proven geothermal
resource capacity, and it is one of the major players in the
geothermal power plant turbines and technologies market.
The current installed geothermal capacity of the United
States is 3.68 GWe, with an additional 23 MW just added
before the end of 2019. The geothermal installed capacity
has been growing at a rate of about 2% per year and is pro-
jected to exceed 3.9 GWe by 2022 [12]. A comprehensive
study of the US geothermal market by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) suggests that
additional power plants may come online in the next 5 years
if existing barriers can be removed to expedite project
development [13].
Indonesia has the second-highest installed geothermal
capacity, and it also has a fast-growing demand for elec-
tricity. Indonesia’s current installed geothermal power
capacity is 2.13 GWe, and the government has ambitious
plans for 6.50 MWe of geothermal development by 2025
[14]. Indonesia also has a high feed-in-tariff (FIT) policy,
which ranges from 12.6 to 26.2 ¢/kWh [14].
19
Turkey has been the fastest-growing market since the
last decade. The total installed geothermal power capacity
is 1.53 GWe as of 2019 and it has a capacity target of
2.0 GWe, including projects in the pipeline [15]. Turkey
implemented a renewable energy law in 2010 to reach its
target for increasing the share of renewables up to 30% of
the energy mix by 2023 [16]. The Turkish FIT for geo-
thermal power plants is 10.5 ¢/kWh. The FIT applies for
10 years of power generation, and producers also benefit
from an 85% discount on transmission costs for the 10 years
[16]. The 2010 Renewable Energy Law also includes bonus
payments for hardware components made in Turkey to
support and boost the national manufacturing sector. Com-
panies that rely on locally produced equipment or compo-
nents receive a bonus FIT, which is fixed at 1.3 ¢/kWh
for turbines, 0.7 ¢/kWh for generators, and 0.7 ¢/kWh for
pumps and compressors [16] The FIT has increased the
interest of developers and manufacturers in domestic
manufacturing. The total FIT for geothermal could reach
13.2 ¢/kWh with 10 years of a purchasing guarantee. The
FIT is applied to all geothermal power plants that come
online through the end of 2020.
Another important market is Kenya, which reached
0.86 GWe of installed geothermal power capacity in 2019
by adding 193 MWe of extra capacity [2]. Kenya is currently
in a very ambitious phase of development with an aggressive
FIG. 2.4 Global trade flow map of geothermal turbines between 2005 and 2015. (Data Source: NREL industry outreach, GEA. Annual U.S. & global geothermal power production report. Geothermal
Energy Agency; 2016, Bertani R. Geothermal power generation in the world 2010–2014 update report. Geothermics 2016; 60:31–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.11.003, BNEF. Geo-
thermal market outlook report. Bloomberg New Energy Finance; 2016, BNEF. Q2 2013 geothermal market outlook report. Bloomberg New Energy Finance; 2013, BNEF. H2 2014 geothermal market
outlook report. Bloomberg New Energy Finance; 2014, BNEF. H1 2015 geothermal market outlook report. Bloomberg New Energy Finance; 2015, GEA. Annual U.S. & global geothermal power pro-
duction report. Geothermal Energy Agency; 2015, Graphic Credit: Billy Roberts (NREL).)
 Global value chain and manufacturing analysis Chapter 2
construction pipeline of new projects in several geothermal
resource areas. The total estimated resource potential of the
country is around 10GWe [1].
2.2 Manufacturing analysis
A bottom-up cost model includes a mapping of all compo-
nents that make up a system (i.e., labor, material, pro-
cesses, machining, and the balance of the system). The
bottom-up manufacturing cost model developed (and
highlighted next) for geothermal turbines considers the
materials, manufacturing steps, equipment, and assembly
of turbine subcomponents. The process flow diagram in
Fig. 2.5 highlights the raw materials, the required
manufacturing processes and equipment, and the utility
requirements that are inputs to the cost model. The raw
metals required for preprocessing are iron ore, carbon,
chromium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, and aluminum
while the processed metals are stainless steel, Inconel
(nickel) alloys, and titanium alloys [17, 18]. In addition
to metals, epoxy-based refined plastics are used for insu-
lation and sealing purposes.
FIG. 2.5 Manufacturing process flow diagram for geothermal power plant turbines.
21
2.2.1 Methodology for manufacturing
analysis
2.2.1.1 Manufacturing process flow
The manufacturing cost model includes three main steps: (1)
Materials (used as raw and processed), (2) manufacturing (in-
house machining and outsourced parts), and (3) final
assembly. The final product could be either an ORC turboex-
pander or a geothermal steam turbine.
2.2.1.2 Materials
The most common corrosion-resistant materials used for
machining the impellers are titanium or stainless steel; the
shaft is produced from a stronger material such as a forged
nickel alloy or Inconel. Geothermal fluids contain dissolved
carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia
(NH3), and chloride (Cl) ions that can cause corrosion of
metallic materials. The main corrosion problems are pit cor-
rosion, cracking corrosion, breaking with stressed cor-
rosion, breaking with sulfur stressed corrosion, corrosion
between the particles, and wearing corrosion [18].
22 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants
FIG. 2.6 World steel production, units are a million metric tons per year. (Data Source: World Steel information system Steel Dynamics. 2015
Annual report. Steel Dynamics Inc.; 2015. Available
AWSAccessKeyId¼1Y51NDPSZK99KT3F8VG2&Expires¼1580257699&Signature¼9zZjMvMMB3ob07MYrZq%2FbCQdvl4%3D
January 2020).)
Stainless steel material decreases the probability of
uniform corrosion formation in a geothermal fluid envi-
ronment. AISI 400 series stainless steels contain 12%–18%
chrome, which is more suitable for turbine blades. AISI
430 (Ferrite) and AISI 431 (Martensitic) stainless steels are
often used for valve and pump components in geothermal
systems. Stainless steel production is widespread throughout
the world (Fig. 2.6). Based on the World Steel Dynamics
2015 data, China, Japan, and the United States are the top
three countries in stainless steel production [19].
Titanium (Ti) and titanium alloys are more resistant to
corrosion. In addition, titanium is resistant to cavitation
and impact damage. Ti alloys are much more resistant to local
corrosion than pure titanium. Ti-code-7 (Ti-0.15 Pd), Ti
code-12 (Ti-0.3 Mo-0.8 Ni), and Ti-code-29 (Ti-6 Al-4 V-
0.1 Ru) show good corrosion resistance [20] when they are
compared based on cost and performance. The critical places
for using titanium alloys can be impellers, wellhead valves,
pressure gauges, pipes, and blow-out preventers.
The world’s titanium production is limited to certain
areas (Fig. 2.7). Based on data from the US Geological
Survey (USGS) Minerals Yearbook 2015, Canada, Australia,
from: https://s3.amazonaws.com/b2icontent.irpass.cc/2197/165986.pdf?
(Accessed 28
China, South Africa, Vietnam, the United States, Brazil,
India, Mozambique, Madagascar, Norway, Ukraine, Kenya,
Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka are the main
countries for titanium production [21].
Inconel, a nickel (Ni) alloy, is another important
material for turbine manufacturing. There are various types
of Inconel available on the market, and the mineral content
defines the strength and corrosion resistance (Table 2.1).
For high-temperature geothermal systems, it is suitable to
use nickel, chromium, and molybdenum (Ni-Cr-Mo) alloys
as a material (Kaya and Hoşhan, 2005). Inconel-625 and
Hastelloy C-256 are especially strong in combatting cor-
rosion. Other nickel alloys that have iron elements can
also be used in some applications [20]. These alloys are
much stronger than stainless steel. Forged Inconel is mostly
used for turbine shafts because of its strength against
rotational force.
2.2.1.3 Machine inventory and factory model
The factory model includes the minimum workspace
required for the machines in addition to machine-related
 Global value chain and manufacturing analysis Chapter 2 23

FIG. 2.7 World titanium ore production, units are thousand metric tons per year. (Data Source: USGS. Minerals yearbook—Metals and minerals.
United States Geological Survey; 2015. Available from: https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/minerals-yearbook-metals-and-minerals (Accessed 22
January 2020).)

TABLE 2.1 Inconel alloy element compositions by weight.

Elements by mass (%)

Inconel Nickel Chromium Iron Molybdenum Niobium Cobalt Magnesium Copper Aluminum Titanium
alloys (Ni) (Cr) (Fe) (Mo) (Nb) (Co) (Mn) (Cu) (Al) (Ti) Others
600 72.00 16.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.50

617 44.00 24.00 3.00 10.00 0.00 15.00 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.50 0.50

625 58.00 20.00 5.00 10.00 4.00 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.40 0.70

690 60.00 30.00 9.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.62

718 55.00 21.00 12.00 3.00 5.00 1.00 0.30 1.00 1.00 0.20 0.50

X-750 70.00 14.00 9.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.50 2.50 0.50

labor requirements. The machine inventory includes heavy
machining and precise computer numerical control (CNC)
machining processes [22] (Table 2.2). Heavy machining
includes electric arc furnace casting and forging operations.
CNC machining includes a five-axis CNC machine, a three-
axis CNC machine, a CNC horizontal lathe, and a CNC
grinding machine. The quality control (QC) pieces are a
coordinate measuring machine (CMM) and overspeed
testing and dynamic balancing (OSTB). The proposed
manufacturing model has not only been tested for geo-
thermal turbines, but has also been validated against other
industries such as solar PV [23, 24].
One other important parameter in a factory model is the
annual maximum allowable working hours (MAWH).
MAWH can be defined by the annual total labor hours
and number of shifts as well as production-up times. As
an example, 250 annual labor days and 8 working hours with
2 shifts per day with 85% production-up time, make a total
of 3400 MAWH. The machining rate for each machine is
based on the MAWH and operation hours with and without
set-up time for the factory model. In a dedicated factory
model, machines are utilized as much as possible across
several different projects to fulfill the MAWH because
the capital cost associated with the facilities and equipment
is applied over the total time of MAWH. However, in a
shared factory model, the capital cost associated with
buildings, facilities, space, and the depreciation of machines
is proportionally distributed over the time when the machine
is utilized for manufacturing the specific turbine parts. The
amount of required machinery is selected based on total
operational hours for different volumes of manufacturing
and MAWH. With up to 100 units per year of manufacturing
volume, one of each machine would be enough to fulfill
the target manufacturing volume. For more than 100 units
per year, additional machines would be required
(Table 2.3). The manufacturing volume of 50 units per year
24 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants

calculated based on the average power consumption of each

TABLE 2.2 Machine inventory for the custom machine, operating for a given number of operational hours.
factory model. The storage and shipping costs of the turbine parts/compo-
Energy nents are not included in the factory model.
Footprint consumption
Machine type Price ($) (m2) (kW)
2.2.1.4 Machining cost analysis
Five axis CNC $150–$300 k 10–15 20–30
The machining costs of the key components of turboex-
machine
panders, including impellers and shafts, are calculated by
Three axis $100–$200 k 10–15 20–30 using design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA)
CNC machine
software. DFMA allows the user to produce a detailed pro-
CNC $60–$150 k 12–18 30–40 jected cost of the component based on the volume of
horizontal material needed, the machines and process steps, the
lathe
machine setup time, and tooling if needed [25]. Fig. 2.9
CNC grinding $80–$150 k 35–40 10–20 shows the representative material and machining cost esti-
machine mates of a typical impeller for both a custom design and
Casting $500 k–$1 M 1000 500 a standard design (at a volume of 10 units per year)
Forging $400–$500 k 1000 500
5 MWe turboexpander. Tooling investment considers tool
wear and lifetime, and it is calculated as an additional cost
Over speed $10–$20 k 10 5–7 element for processes that require part-specific dies and
testing and
balancing
tools. A custom design 5 MWe impeller could be
machine $4000/unit, compared to $1000/unit with the standard
(OSTB) design (Fig. 2.8). Assuming the same yield rate, the standard
CMM $8–$10 k 10 1–3
design impellers can lead to a cost savings of between 25%
dimensioning and 30% compared to a custom design (single unit) because
of the set-up times for machining the impeller. A similar
Assembly line $50–$300 k 50–60 5–10
approach is applied to other subcomponents of a turboex-
Data Source: NREL Industry outreach. pander such as shafts, nozzles, inlet guide lanes, disks,
and casings to calculate machining costs.

can be set as a threshold based on manufacturers’ annual

manufacturing capacities and project portfolio. Annual
straight-line depreciation is selected for capital costs asso-
ciated with machinery, as is handled in accounting proce-
dures. Facility cost is defined based on the minimum
required working area for each machine. Energy cost is
2.3 Definition of minimum sustainable price
The minimum sustainable price (MSP) is the minimum
price that a company would have to charge for a good or
service to cover all variable and fixed costs and make
enough profit to repay investors at their minimum required

TABLE 2.3 Number of required machines for different volumes of manufacturing at MAWH.

CNC
Five axis CNC Three axis CNC horizontal CNC grinding Assembly
#Units machine machine lathe machine CMM OSTB line
10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
25 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
50 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
150 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
200 1 2 1 2 1 1 1

500 2 5 3 4 1 1 2
1000 3 9 5 7 1 2 3
 Global value chain and manufacturing analysis Chapter 2 25

Raw Material Purchased MaterialEstimated Volume Material Estimated Material Cost

Part Material Procurement Unit Price ($/kg)Unit Price ($/kg) (m3) Density (kg/m3) Weight (kg) ($)

Impeller Titanium Plate 22.82 39.04 0.037 4,500 167 6,500

Process Machine Manufacturing

Setup Machining Center Hole Drilling
Subtotal Cost/Unit
Part Machining Process Time/Unit Time/Unit Rate/Unit
Cost/Unit ($) ($)
(hours) (hours) ($/hour)
1 Unit (Custom Design)
Drilling 0.8 0.2 35 35 Blade Roughing
Highly flexible simultaneous
5-Axis CNC Roughing 25.0 5.0 35 1,055 5-axis roughing

5-Axis CNC Rest Milling 42.0 8.0 35 1,760

Impeller 4,000
5-Axis CNC Finishing 10.0 2.0 35 422
Hub Finishing
QC 2.5 0.5 27 80 Optimized tool paths for
finishing hubs
Balancing 20.0 4.0 25 648

10 Units (Standard Design)

Drilling 0.3 0.2 35 9 Rest Milling

Automate removal of
5-Axis CNC Roughing 2.5 5.0 35 264 remaining material

5-Axis CNC Rest Milling 4.2 8.0 35 440

Impeller 1,000
5-Axis CNC Finishing 1.0 2.0 35 105
Blade / Splitter Finishing
QC 0.3 0.5 27 20 Automate finishing of
blades and splitters
Balancing 2.0 4.0 25 162
FIG. 2.8 Representative material and machining cost estimates of a typical impeller for both a custom design and a standard design (at a volume of 10 units per
year) 5 MWe turboexpander.

rates of return [24]. The MSP is computed by setting the net
present value (NPV) of an investment equal to zero with the
internal rate of return (IRR) equal to the weighted average
cost of capital (WACC). The US capital assets pricing
model is used to derive these debt and equity ratios, and
to weight them by their relative contribution to the overall
capital structure of the firm to estimate WACC values [26].
The purpose of the discounted cash flow (DCF) is to
create a detailed financial model to provide the necessary
framework for deriving the MSP for each product in a
manufacturing facility. Within the DCF, there can be
several considerations for manufacturing, such as capital
costs, fixed operating costs (labor, depreciation, inflation,
taxes, insurance, and rent), typical sales, general and admin-
istrative (SG&A) expenses, typical design and engineering
(D&E) costs, and warranty coverage [24]. DCF model uses
a simple straight-line depreciation for expenditures such as
equipment and facilities, and the discount rate is calculated
from the required rate of return (ROR). A summary of the
financial input parameters required for DCF analysis can
be found in Table 2.4. The MSP is derived by an iterative
algorithm that runs until the NPV of the cash flow equals
the total initial capital expenditure.
2.4 Manufacturing analysis case studies
The manufacturing cost and MSP for three different scenarios
are calculated for three case studies, where each scenario had
five volumes of manufacturing (1, 5, 10, 25, and 50):
(1) 1 MWe ORC turboexpander.
(2) 5 MWe ORC turboexpander.
(3) 20 MWe steam turbine.
All three scenarios assume US production facilities and
costs. The generator is a separate piece and is not included
in the manufacturing cost analysis. Increasing volumes of
manufacturing effectively decreased the manufactured cost
per unit, as we spread the capital expenditures (CAPEX)
over more units. Machine set-up times and D&E costs are
the cost components that are most impacted by volume
manufacturing, as these are essentially one-time charges
that are not volume-dependent.
In Case 1, the results show that MSP decreases signifi-
cantly when the volume of manufacturing is increased from
1 unit (custom design) to 5 units (standard design). The MSP
of a single custom design 1 MWe turboexpander is found to
be 893 $/kW, whereas a standard design 1 MWe
26 PART I Basics of geothermal power plants
TABLE 2.4 Summary of input parameters for DCF analysis.
Inputs for DCF calculations
Inflation on cost of goods sold
(COGS)
Corporate interest rate
Initial loan (or bond) maturity
Corporate tax rate
Dividend payout rate
Cost of equity
Cash flow analysis period
Working capital collection
period
Calculated WACC
Working capital inventory
turnover
Working capital payable period
CAPEX Initial target capital
structure (% of debt)
Replacement equip. target
capital structure
Depreciable life for plant
Capital replacement loan
maturity
Equipment depreciation type
Tooling depreciation type
Building depreciation type
FIG. 2.9 Calculated MSP and manufacturing cost breakdown for a 1 MWe ORC turboexpander in different volumes of manufacturing in the
United States.
turboexpander has an MSP of 226 $/kW at a manufacturing
volume of five (Fig. 2.9). Effectively, a standard turboex-
Values Units pander design, even at low manufactured volumes, could
save approximately 75% of the turboexpander $/kW.
3 %
In Case 2, the results show that MSP decreases signifi-
cantly when the volume of manufacturing is increased from
3.3 % 1 unit (custom design) to 5 units (standard design). The MSP
10 Years of a single custom design 5 MWe turboexpander was found
to be 216 $/kW, whereas a standard design 1 MWe turboex-
30 %
pander has an MSP of 66 $/kW at a manufacturing volume
0 % of five (Fig. 2.10).
10.6 % In Case 3, a manufacturing volume of up to 5 units per
year is selected based on the annual demand for geothermal
20 Years
steam turbines and the manufacturing capacities. The MSP
10 Years of a single custom design 20 MWe geothermal steam turbine
is found to be 361 $/kW, whereas the MSP of a standard
5.3 % design 20 MWe steam turbine is calculated as 135 $/kW
4 Years at an annual production rate of 5 units per year
(Fig. 2.11). Effectively, a standard steam turbine design,
even at low manufactured volumes, could save approxi-
10 Years
mately 63% of the steam turbine $/kW.
64 % A comparison of the MSP analysis for all three cases can
be found in Table 2.5. The manufacturing cost of a custom
50 % design 5 MW ORC turboexpander is only $187,000 more
than that of a custom design 1 MW ORC turboexpander.
25 Years This shows that the size of the turbine does not have a sig-
nificant effect on the total cost of the turbine/turboexpander.
10 Years
However, if the unit costs per MW for both custom and
standard design cases are considered, the manufacturing
7 years N/A
cost savings are significant (667 $/kW for a 1 MW turboex-
straight-line
pander and 150 $/kW for a 5 MW turboexpander).
3 years N/A
straight-line
15 years N/A
2.4.1 Sensitivity analysis
straight-line Sensitivity analysis determines how the target manufacturing
cost model is affected based on changes in cost factor
 Global value chain and manufacturing analysis Chapter 2 27

FIG. 2.10 Calculated MSP and manufacturing cost breakdown for a 5 MWe ORC turboexpander in different volumes of manufacturing in the
United States.

FIG. 2.11 Calculated MSP and manufacturing cost breakdown for a 20 MWe geothermal steam turbine in different volumes of manufacturing in the
United States.

TABLE 2.5 Comparison of MSPs for standard and custom design turbines.
Custom design Standard design Standard design
MSP Single unit Volume of 5 units Volume of 50 units
1 MW turboexpander $893,000 893 $/kW 226,000 $ 226 $/kW $74,000 74 $/kW
5 MW turboexpander $1,080,000 216 $/kW 332,000 $ 66 $/kW $152,000 30 $/kW
20 MW steam turbine $6,350,000 361 $/kW 2,790,000 $ 135 $/kW N/A N/A

variables (input variables). The impact of each input on the
calculated MSP can be calculated by varying one input var-
iable while keeping the others constant. Each cost factor in
the overall cost model has a different weight based on the rel-
ative importance, and a change in one input variable would
thus have proportional effects relative to the weight on the
manufactured cost. For the sensitivity analysis, a custom
design single unit 5-MWe ORC turboexpander and a custom
design single unit 20-MWe steam turbine were evaluated
with respect to their standard design higher manufacturing
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 CAPITOLO CLXXIX.
Buonaparte ordinatore. Rimpasto di paesi.
Concordato. Pace di Presburgo. Regno d’Italia.

Le paci di Campoformio e di Lunéville ripristinavano dunque il diritto

pubblico, dalla rivoluzione abbattuto; e dopo le radicali dottrine e le
pompose promesse, la Francia stessa immolava popoli e nazionalità
al vecchio sistema dell’equilibrio. Buonaparte, benedetto dall’Europa
come il genio dell’ordine, del buon senso, della pace, ai migrati
restituì la patria e i beni non ancora venduti, schiudeva una società
nuova al calore della sua gloria, e avviavasi alla dittatura: ma non
che ripudiasse i costosi frutti della rivoluzione, li fece ordinare e
sanzionare nel Codice, costruito sull’individuale libertà e
sull’eguaglianza di tutte le persone e tutte le cose sotto leggi e
tribunali identici, pareggiando i cittadini nella società, i figliuoli nella
famiglia; svincolando la proprietà, sicchè ognuno potesse disporne
co’ soli limiti imposti dall’utilità pubblica; secolarizzando l’ordine
politico e il civile.
Alle idee riordinatrici di Buonaparte confacevasi il ripristino della
religione, sentimento che tocca più degli interessi. Il culto era stato
abolito, abolito Dio sotto il Terrore, quasi a dimostrare che una
società non poteva imbrutire a quel segno se non rinnegando Iddio.
Sentì quel vuoto il Direttorio, e mediocre come era, credè surrogarvi
l’assurdo culto teofilantropico, i cui sacerdoti, alla ricorrenza di certe
feste della Virtù, venivano a deporre fiori su quegli altari, donde erasi
eliminato il sacrosanto rito dell’espiazione. Pio VI, cacciato da Roma
poi anche da Firenze, fuggì a Parma e di là a Valenza di Francia,
meglio accompagnato nella nobile miseria da dimostrazioni popolari,
che dalle cortigianesche nel fastoso e umiliante pellegrinaggio a
Vienna. Quando colà morì di ottantun anno (1799 29 agosto), i
filosofi dissero, — Ecco sepolto l’ultimo papa», e Revellière-Lépaux,
inventore del culto teofilantropico, scriveva a Buonaparte impedisse
di eleggere un successore, e profittasse della circostanza per
istabilire a Roma un Governo rappresentativo, e sottrarre l’Europa
dalla supremazia papale.
Ma Buonaparte avea trattato il papa da vincitore bensì, pur con
riguardi, e «come avesse centomila soldati». Rientrato in Milano,
assistette ai Tedeum che qui celebravano le sue vittorie, e potè
chiarirsi che il popolo nostro era e voleva essere cristiano. Onde
raccolti i parroci di Milano disse loro: — Persuaso che la religione
cattolica è la sola che possa procurare felicità vera ad una società
ben ordinata, e assodar le basi di un Governo, volli accertarvi che
metterò ogni cura a proteggerla: avrò come perturbatori del pubblico
riposo e nemici del ben comune, e punirò rigorosamente e fin colla
morte chiunque le farà il minimo insulto: voglio sia conservata nella
sua interezza, pubblicamente esercitata e libera come la prima volta
ch’io entrai in questo felice paese. I cambiamenti posteriori
avvennero contro l’inclinazione e il veder mio, nè potevo oppormi ai
disordini, ad arte eccitati da un Governo, sprezzatore della religione
cattolica. I filosofi vollero dipingerla nemica d’ogni sentimento
democratico e del Governo repubblicano. L’esperienza disingannò i
Francesi; ed io, che pur sono filosofo, so che nessuno potrebbe
passare per virtuoso se non sa donde viene e dove va; nè saperlo si
può che dalla religione, senza di cui la società è vascello privo di
bussola. Dei trattamenti usati al papa defunto, han colpa gl’intrighi di
quelli in cui avea posto confidenza, e la crudele politica del
Direttorio. Col nuovo papa spero tôrre gli ostacoli all’intera
riconciliazione della Francia. Voi so quanto soffriste nella persona e
nei beni, e vi provvederò; e quel che vi dico, desidero sia noto non
solo all’Italia e alla Francia, ma a tutta Europa» [60].
Anche in Francia, se per moda, per idolatria a Voltaire, per rispetto
umano, durava ancora fra la gente colta l’empietà, il popolo tornava
a sentir bisogno del Redentore, che riabbellisse la natura,
benedicesse le cune e i feretri, giudicasse le iniquità de’ forti: i
pensatori disingannati vedeano dover rintracciare un’eguaglianza più
vera, una libertà più salda e meno fallibile, meditavano
melanconicamente sulle ruine che da tre secoli le sêtte religiose e
filosofiche facevano nel cristianesimo senza sostituirvi una legge
generale dell’uomo e del mondo, senza trovare un essere intermedio
fra il gran tutto che rapivano all’umanità, e il nulla in cui la
sobbissavano.
Sarebbesi detto che le vittorie de’ Nordici in Italia s’effettuassero al
solo fine, che all’ombra loro fosse in Venezia (1800 14 marzo)
adunato il conclave [61], dove avendo l’Austria dato l’esclusione al
famoso Gerdil, uscì papa Barnaba Chiaramonti. Stando vescovo
d’Imola, aveva questi pubblicato in una pastorale che «la libertà cara
a Dio ed agli uomini, è la facoltà di poter fare e non fare, ma sempre
sotto la legge divina ed umana; la forma democratica non repugna al
vangelo, anzi esige quelle sublimi virtù che s’imparano soltanto nella
scuola di Cristo; esse faranno buoni democratici, d’una democrazia
retta, forbita da infedeltà e da ambizioni, e intesa alla felicità
comune; esse conserveranno la vera eguaglianza, la quale,
mostrando che la legge si estende su tutti, mostra insieme qual
proporzione deva tenere ogni individuo rispetto a Dio, a sè, agli altri.
Ben più che le filosofie, il vangelo e le tradizioni apostoliche e i
dottori santi creeranno la grandezza repubblicana, gli uomini
rendendo eroi di umiltà e prudenza nel governare, di carità nel
fraternizzare con sè e con Dio. Seguite il vangelo, e sarete la gioja
della repubblica: siate buoni cristiani e sarete ottimi democratici».
Questa moderazione parve attagliata ai tempi; ed egli, assunto il
nome di Pio VII (1800 3 luglio), comparve a Roma, dove la noja della
dominazione forestiera il faceva invocato: scelse a segretario di
Stato il cardinale Consalvi, destro quanto moderato; ricostituì il
governo all’antica, proclamando il perdono, e invitando i sudditi a
imitarlo col sopire gli odj e le querele reciproche. Toltigli
settecentomila sudditi delle Legazioni, gliene aveano lasciato un
milione e settecentomila, ma intero il debito di settantaquattro milioni
di scudi, di cui da tre anni non si pagava l’interesse. Si cercò
sistemare l’imposta in modo d’ottenere una rendita di quattro milioni
di scudi; fu proclamata la libertà di commercio, riconoscendo «che
tutte le leggi proibitive o vincolanti l’industria e il commercio erano
perniciose quanto vane [62]»; il papa diminuì le spese di corte;
condiscese ai teatri; impose una tassa speciale sui terreni incolti,
sciolse i vincoli di fedecommesso, di manomorta, di pascolo; dava
premj a chi piantasse, prometteva edificare casali, via via che la
cultura si estendesse. Secondando le istanze di Paolo I e di
Ferdinando IV, ristabilì i Gesuiti in Russia e nel Napoletano.
Con un papa sì conciliativo e pien d’amore per la Francia,
d’ammirazione per l’eroe che la dirigeva, non sarebbe possibile
ravvicinarla alla Chiesa? Tre giorni dopo la vittoria di Marengo,
Buonaparte ne gittò parola al cardinale Martiniana; poi Consalvi e
Giuseppe Buonaparte ne trattarono a Parigi (1801): ma ricuperare
questo regno primogenito del cristianesimo non poteasi senza grandi
sagrifizj. Voleasi il matrimonio de’ preti: e Pio rispose, potersi
assolvere gli ammogliati, ma autorizzarlo per massima no. Sui
possessi tolti alle manimorte non si fe malagevole, le ricchezze non
essendo essenziali al clero. E così tra cedere e negare si conchiuse
il famoso concordato. La Francia ebbe un ministro pel culto
(Portalis); la pasqua del 1802 i cannoni salutarono di nuovo una
festa cristiana; il Caprara legato a latere cantò messa in Nostra-
donna, mentre l’aerea armonia de’ sacri bronzi richiamava il popolo
ai riti solenni e all’ineffabile gusto della parola divina.
Tutto ciò dava lusinghe di ordine all’Europa: la coalizione regia s’era
sconnessa: anche l’Inghilterra ascoltò proposte di pace, la quale fu
conchiusa ad Amiens (1802 27 marzo). L’Inghilterra si era avventata
alle armi per difendere la minacciata libertà europea, ed ecco neppur
motto ne fa nelle stipulazioni: avea posto come preliminare lo
sgombro di tutt’Italia, poi lasciava al nemico il Piemonte e gl’emporj
di Genova e Livorno; Francia sgombrerebbe il Napoletano e il
Romano, e gl’Inglesi ogni posto nel Mediterraneo e nell’Adriatico, e
Malta che si restituirebbe all’Ordine.
A Buonaparte, volontà ineluttabile, sistematore risoluto, bastava un
atto per riunire un paese che la natura fece uno e le convenzioni
sbranarono: ma già il Piemonte consideravasi fuso colla Francia,
come Venezia coll’Austria; Buonaparte volle fossero distrutte le
fortezze che davano soggezione alla Francia, quali Arona, Bard,
Ceva, Cuneo, Tortona, Serravalle; smurata Torino, come il castello di
Milano, e Forte Urbano sul Bolognese. La Toscana era stata eretta in
regno d’Etruria per un infante di Spagna; al papa riconciliato
bisognava confermare il patrimonio; al regno di Napoli serviva di
scudo la protezione della Russia: e i fantastici Italiani piansero
svanita ancora la speranza che la vittrice spada e la ferrea volontà
d’un loro paesano ricostruisse la patria una e libera.
Ne’ varj Stati furono poste una commissione esecutrice e una
consulta legislativa, ma tutto pendea dai ministri di Francia [63]. Del
bello e forte paese cisalpino, con cinque milioni d’abitanti, settanta in
ottanta milioni d’entrata, e quarantamila uomini in arme, Talleyrand
avrebbe voluto si formasse un regno, da dare a qualche principe
austriaco siccome compenso e pegno di pace: ma Buonaparte
stabilì conservarlo repubblica, estesone il limite fin alla Sesia col
recuperare gli sbrani dell’antico Milanese, cioè Novara, Vigevano, la
Lomellina; buone fortificazioni la difenderebbero dagli Austriaci assisi
di là dall’Adige, e la terrebbero sempre aperta alla Francia, che ne
conservava il protettorato, e ne ricevea venticinque milioni all’anno di
tributo, e di qua manderebbe i suoi ordini al paese meridionale,
aspettando che i casi la elevassero a capo d’una federazione italica.
Per togliere la Cisalpina ai disordini della prima sua età, e
concentrarla sotto una mano vigorosa che la proteggesse di fuori
mentre la reggeva dentro, Buonaparte convocò a Lione una
consulta. Quattrocencinquantadue rappresentanti, scelti fra il clero, i
tribunali, le accademie, le amministrazioni dipartimentali, le quaranta
primarie città, la guardia nazionale e l’esercito, e in essi il cardinale
Bellisomi e nove vescovi, nel cuor del dicembre passarono i monti, e
nella seconda città di Francia ebbero suntuosa ospitalità, adunanze
splendide quanto le antiche sessioni reali, lauto trattamento, e fra
altri spettacoli, quel dell’esercito che tornava d’Egitto, misto di
veterani francesi con arabi e mori e mamelucchi.
Divisi in cinque classi (1802) secondo gli antichi dominj,
presedevano ai Lombardi già austriaci il Melzi, ai Veneti il Bargnani,
ai Pontifizj l’Aldini, ai Modenesi il Paradisi, ai Novaresi e Valtellini il
De Bernardi, a tutti in apparenza il Maniscalchi ambasciadore della
Cisalpina, in fatto Talleyrand, il quale senza quasi lasciarli discutere,
fece che accettassero per acclamazione lo statuto da lui modellato
sul francese dell’anno viii. Portava esso tre collegi elettorali
permanenti e a vita, completatisi da se medesimi: uno di trecento
grossi possessori risedeva a Milano; uno di ducento negozianti a
Brescia; uno di altrettanti dotti ed ecclesiastici a Bologna. Essi
sceglierebbero dal proprio grembo una commissione di censura di
ventun membro, che eleggesse tutte le magistrature dello Stato; otto
consultori, che vegliassero sulla costituzione, deliberassero sui
trattati, e nominassero un presidente della repubblica, decennale e
rieleggibile, con cinquecentomila lire, incaricato del potere esecutivo,
e che eleggerebbe un vicepresidente con centomila lire e ministri [64].
Il ministro del tesoro presenterebbe ogni anno il conto, e non
consentirebbe verun pagamento se non per legge o decreto del
Governo. Un consiglio legislativo di dieci membri compilerebbe le
leggi e i regolamenti, e li sosterrebbe davanti al corpo legislativo.
Questo ha settantacinque membri, quindici de’ quali sono nominati
oratori per discutere le leggi prima di votarle.
La giustizia era resa con sapiente progressione, da arbitri, giudici di
prima istanza, tribunali d’appello e revisione, ed uno di cassazione;
oltre le camere di commercio per le cause mercantili: inamovibili i
giudici e il grangiudice. Eguaglianza fra i cittadini; nessun vincolo
all’industria e al commercio se non quelli dalla legge stabiliti;
uniformità di pesi, misure, catasto, istruzione; dichiarati nazionali i
debiti e crediti delle provincie; lo Stato assegna la congrua a vescovi,
capitoli, seminarj, parroci e alle fabbriche delle cattedrali.
Fatti intesi della volontà del primo console, i nostri, dilungandosi dai
sistemi particolari per osservare l’intera popolazione senza
preoccupazione d’abitudini, lasciaronsi bassamente porre in bocca la
confessione della propria inettitudine, dichiarando non conoscere
alcun italiano valevole ad essere presidente della repubblica (1802
26 gennajo), gli uomini che presero parte ne’ cambiamenti o non
aveano sostenuto funzioni pubbliche, sì da poter reggere lo Stato, o
le aveano sostenute fra l’agitazione delle opinioni e sotto estranee
influenze, in modo da non meritarsi la pubblica fiducia: d’altra parte
la recente repubblica non avere truppe sufficienti ad assicurarsi, nè
poter sperare dagli altri Stati la considerazione necessaria per
consolidarsi dentro e fuori: trovare insomma necessario di essere
retta da Napoleone Buonaparte, due nomi che allora per la prima
volta trovansi uniti. E Buonaparte degnava aggradire, e diceva: — La
repubblica Cisalpina, invasa e omai perduta, fu una seconda volta
dal popolo francese resa all’indipendenza. D’allora che non si tentò
per ismembrarvi? ma la Francia vi protesse, e foste novamente
riconosciuti. A Lunéville cresciuto il territorio d’un quinto, esistete con
maggiore forza e maggiore speranza. Dandovi magistrati, non badai
a terre o a fazioni, ma solo ai vostri interessi. Per le eminenti funzioni
di presidente, non trovando persona fra voi abbastanza reputata,
benemerita e spregiudicata, aderisco al voto espressomi, e
conserverò, quanto fia necessario, il gran pensiero de’ vostri affari».
La repubblica, composta, com’egli diceva, di dieci popoli, cioè
Milanesi, Mantovani, Bolognesi, Novaresi, Valtellini, Romagnuoli,
Veneti, divisi in Bergamaschi, Cremaschi, Bresciani, s’intitolò italiana
(1 febb.), e pensò ad organarsi in modo d’essere, com’egli voleva,
«la prima potenza d’Italia». Restavano sue le artiglierie esistenti
nelle piazze fin al valore di quattro milioni; si doveano preparare armi
e ponti; trentaduemila soldati in tempo di pace, con una riserva che
si porterebbe a sessantamila, coscrivendo dodicimila giovani ogni
anno, oltre due mezze brigate e un reggimento di cavalleria di
Polacchi, ceduti alla nostra dalla repubblica francese; alla tranquillità
vigilavano mille seicento gendarmi, e la guardia nazionale di tutti i
cittadini dai diciotto ai cinquant’anni. La spesa era bilanciata su
novanta milioni di lire milanesi, di cui cinquantadue erano assorbiti
dalla guerra e dal tributo alla Francia. Libera la stampa, sotto la
responsabilità dell’autore e dello stampatore, i quali, avanti
divulgarle, doveano presentare le opere alla revisione, che poteva
sospenderle; soggetti a censura i fogli periodici, le composizioni
teatrali e i libri che si introducevano.
Ai comizj di Lione i preti non aveano potuto ottenere si dichiarasse
unica religione la cattolica, ma solo che si farebbe una legge
organica pel clero, da approvarsi dal papa. Di fatti un concordato
speciale (1803 16 7bre) con questo riconosceva come religione della
repubblica la cattolica; al presidente concessa la nomina de’ vescovi;
libero a questi il comunicare con Roma, il promuover agli Ordini e ai
benefizj i meritevoli, e punire i colpevoli anche col rinchiuderli in
conventi o seminarj: non si sopprimerebbero fondazioni
ecclesiastiche senza approvazione della Sede apostolica; non
sarebbero molestati i compratori di beni ecclesiastici. Tal era quel
concordato: ma come erasi fatto in Francia cogli articoli organici, nel
promulgarlo a Milano si aggiunse che nuove professioni non
potrebbero farsi se non negli Ordini applicati all’educazione o a cura
degl’infermi; e, come all’ordinazione dei preti, volervisi l’assenso del
Governo, e così per dare valore alle bolle e ai brevi della santa
Sede. Di quest’intrusione si dolse invano il pontefice.
Corse allora uno de’ più floridi e quieti tempi per la Lombardia;
lontano il presidente, buono e amato Melzi che ne sosteneva le veci;
distrutto ogni privilegio aristocratico, favorito il sapere; si citavano
ancora i patrj esempj, si ristampavano i nostri classici e i nostri
economisti, come ripigliavasi l’êra cristiana; facili i pagamenti,
prospere l’agricoltura e il commercio, crescente l’esercito, non
febbrili le speranze. La libertà della stampa era sì poco valutata, che
Melzi potè senza difficoltà stabilire la censura preventiva de’ giornali
e de’ libri provenienti di fuori. Gl’interessi materiali eccitavano più
gelosie che non le garanzie della libertà [65]; nè l’iniziativa, nè
l’esame erano liberi, e scarsa capacità mostravano le persone
incaricate del potere. Soprattutto mancava la prima condizione
d’ogni felicità, la fiducia della durata. Da una parte gli accorti
s’avvedeano che questa repubblica era l’embrione d’un regno; tanto
più che, ad ogn’ombra d’opposizione, Buonaparte minacciava dar un
calcio a questo sistema rappresentativo, che pareagli un’organizzata
ostilità: dall’altra il titolo d’italiana inchiudeva una minaccia agli Stati
della penisola. Fra gli stranieri poi i rancori erano stati sopiti non tolti,
e ben presto posero novamente a soqquadro tutt’Europa.
L’Inghilterra, cogliendo gli appigli che troppi offriva il trattato
d’Amiens, ricusa sgomberar Malta, cavilla i patti, e getta in mezzo la
questione italiana, persuasa d’avvilupparvi anche l’Austria.
Questa avea subìto i trattati di Campoformio e Lunéville come una
necessità, e colla fiducia di ripigliare la Cisalpina, donde
padroneggiare la media e la bassa Italia. Unico mezzo a sbarbicarla
sarebbe stato il rendere l’Italia a se stessa: ma Napoleone, che
credeva al potere non alle nazionalità, impose al fratello Giuseppe
che negli accordi di Lunéville non parlasse del papa, del Piemonte,
di Napoli, sicchè lasciava in pendulo gravissime questioni: nè
l’Europa potea soffrire che, con una nominale indipendenza, al
vassallaggio austriaco fosse surrogata la dominazione francese.
Alessandro di Russia, succeduto all’assassinato suo padre, ricusava
ravvicinarsi alla Francia se non ripristinasse il re di Sardegna e
assicurasse quello di Napoli: anche la Prussia chiedeva che Francia
sgombrasse il Napoletano, distaccasse Parma e Piacenza, le Jonie
e Malta si dessero in compenso al re di Sardegna. Austria, col
pretesto di un cordone contro la febbre gialla sviluppatasi a Livorno,
ingrossò sulla frontiera dell’Adige; e viepiù quando Buonaparte
scrisse in persona a Francesco II (31 xbre) voler ridurre la repubblica
italiana a monarchia, distinta dalla Francia. La fede mentita all’Italia
metteva dunque la Francia in guerra coll’Europa, e subito Inghilterra
empì d’armi il Mediterraneo: di rimpatto Buonaparte allestì a
Boulogne un famoso campo per tentare uno sbarco in Inghilterra;
deriso dai più come una sublime follìa, lodato da altri perchè valse di
palestra a’ suoi soldati. A quel campo la repubblica italiana mandò
un corpo sotto il general Pino, e decretò quattro milioni per costruire
due fregate e dodici scialuppe.
Ma non di guerra soltanto erano i divisamenti di Buonaparte, che
credette venuto tempo alle lunghe speranze. Col prestigio della
gloria egli avea fatto credere ancora al rinnegato entusiasmo; coi
comporti in Italia avea mostrato di saper ridestare il passato e le
relazioni consuete fra popoli civili: onde parve l’unico capace di
rimettere Francia nella grande comunanza delle nazioni, senza
sagrificare la libertà e l’orgoglio, come avrebbero fatto i Borboni.
Francia sfiduciata delle libertà promesse da filosofi, da avvocati, da
giornalisti, da legislatori, implorava il despotismo, e nol vedea che
sotto la forma d’un soldato: uscendo dall’oppressione sanguinaria o
ladra di tiranni abjetti e persino vili, meno male pareale la tirannide
della gloria e del genio: cessato di credere alle idee, credea a un
uomo. E Buonaparte racconciava all’obbedienza l’epoca più
indisciplinata; e indotta la ragione a confessare la propria
insufficienza, al ricostruire adoprò gli uomini ch’eransi mostrati più
attivi a demolire. In paese stanco ed abbagliato dalla sua gloria,
pochi ostacoli ebbe ad afferrare la dittatura. Interrogata colla
ciurmeria de’ registri, la nazione prorogò il console per dieci anni:
interrogata se il volesse a vita, disse sì; la costituzione fu modificata
alla monarchica: ma poichè il nome di re facea mal suono a quelli
che, in annuale funzione, giuravano odio sempiterno ai re, fra le
reminiscenze d’Augusto e di Carlo Magno egli ripescò il titolo
d’imperatore dei Francesi (1804 18 maggio).
Al potere nuovo facevano di mestieri tutte le forme che gli
conciliassero rispetto. Dopo che i registri, aperti in tutti i Comuni, gli
diedero la sanzione popolare, Napoleone volle anche quella della
religione, e domandò che Pio VII venisse a coronarlo. Gran
disparere in Roma. Piaceva che un eroe soffogasse nelle proprie
braccia quella repubblica sovvertitrice degli altari e della società, e
che una nuova dinastia all’Europa e alla civiltà assicurasse ordine e
conservazione. Qual trionfo per la Chiesa di vedere questo figlio
della rivoluzione invocare dal pontefice il sacro crisma, e credere
legittimazione della temporale quella potestà pontifizia che dianzi
trascinavasi nel fango! Anche nei possessi il papa potrebbe
altrimenti che ingrandirsene?
Ma gli zelanti, alla cui testa erano il sapiente Antonelli, il severo Litta,
il dotto Di Pietro, l’abile Pacca, avvezzi a credere la nave di Pietro
insommergibile fra le transitorie tempeste, aveano tenuto il
concordato come una dura necessità. — E chi è (rifletteano) questo
Buonaparte? Un soldato di ventura, che a Tolentino strappò alla
Chiesa le più belle provincie e tesori artistici; che tiene il contado
Venesino e i feudi in Piemonte, roba della Chiesa: che colla spada
suggellò il concordato, e pur subito lo eludeva cogli articoli organici;
che stipulò la spogliazione de’ principi ecclesiastici di Germania; che
in Egitto proclamava la tolleranza fino dell’islam. Or domanda la
mano del papa, ma a qual fine: unicamente per sorreggere la
personale ambizione, contentata la quale, si torcerà contro quelli che
adesso accarezza. Che cosa risponderà il papa ai rimproveri degli
Austriaci, da tanto tempo investiti del sacro romano impero? che
cosa ad altri re che lo domandassero a coronarli? E i Borboni, a cui
la violenza non tolse d’essere i cristianissimi, i primogeniti della
Chiesa, con qual occhio vedrebbero il santo padre cingere colla
corona di san Luigi uno, le cui mani stillano ancora del sangue
dell’assassinato duca d’Enghien?
Pio VII aveva attinto nel chiostro virtù semplici e rassegnate, e
l’abitudine di elevare gli occhi al cielo, più che scrutare le cose della
terra. Il recuperare una tale preponderanza sulla Francia, il restituire
alla tiara lo splendore offuscato, e al patrimonio le tre Legazioni
pareangli interesse della religione; e riprometteasi ottenerlo a Parigi
ne’ colloquj col nuovo Cesare, da cui farebbe cassare gli articoli
organici, e ripristinare gli Ordini religiosi. Volle che venti de’ più
creduti cardinali in tutta secretezza e coscienza gli esponessero il
loro sentimento sul quesito «Sua santità deve, può andare a
consacrare e coronare l’imperatore de’ Francesi?» Cinque dissero
un no riciso; gli altri furono pel sì, ma con diverse condizioni, o di
cassare gli articoli organici, o di attendere che il nuovo imperatore se
ne fosse mostrato degno come Carlo Magno, o che venisse egli
stesso di qua dell’Alpi, come aveano usato gli antichi fino a
Clemente VII; o che almeno assicurasse gli atti riverenziali dovuti al
sacro suo carattere, specialmente il bacio del piede: viepiù
s’insisteva contro il giuramento che l’imperatore farebbe d’attenersi
al concordato, di far rispettare la libertà de’ culti.
Pio VII fece dal cardinale Caprara sottomettere tali riserve a
Napoleone; questi le repudiò tutte, e Pio VII si rassegnò, sempre
confidando ottenere in persona quel ch’eragli fallito per intromissione
de’ ministri; tollerò che l’imperadore si mostrasse aridissimo nella
lettera d’invito, e voless’esserne unto sì, non coronato; e di
sessantadue anni si pose in viaggio. Tutti gli ordini dello Stato
vennero a fargli riverenza, come tutti dianzi avevano rinnegato e
papa e Cristo; e Pio li guadagnava colla dolcezza. Dando un giorno
la benedizione al popolo inginocchiato, vide un giovane tenersi ritto e
col cappello in testa: — Giovinotto, se non credete all’efficacia della
benedizione del pontefice, credete almeno che quella d’un vecchio
non porta sventura».
Nella solennità (2 xbre), allestita collo sfarzo teatrale che illude e
cattiva, Napoleone si pose da sè la corona; poi incoronò Giuseppina
sua donna, che il giorno innanzi avea avuto la benedizione nuziale. I
sinceri repubblicanti, che l’aveano proclamato un Camillo, un
Washington redivivo, non sapeano darsene pace; i non sinceri
s’affrettarono a divenire ciambellani, ministri, uffiziali, cavalieri, tutto
quel ch’egli volle, anche più di quel che volle. Napoleone evitò di
trovarsi testa testa con Pio VII, alle cui preghiere dolci e ragionate
non potrebbe opporre le escandescenze; sicchè al papa non restò
che avventurare le sue domande alle solite lungagne degli uffizj, e le
esortazioni al magnanimo perchè imitasse anche in ciò Carlo
Magno, il quale spontaneo restituì alla santa Sede quanto le armi
sue aveano ritolto ai Longobardi.
Napoleone fece rispondere che avea giurato non alterare i confini
della Francia; neppur poteva cincischiare la repubblica italiana, in lui
confidatasi; prometteva però trovare congiunture d’estendere e
consolidare il dominio del santo padre, e intanto presterebbegli
mano soccorrevole per uscire dal caos dove l’hanno trascinato le
presenti vicende, e assicurargli il pacifico godimento de’ beni
rimastigli; e così darebbe all’universo una prova della sua
venerazione al pontefice, della protezione alla capitale della
cristianità, del desiderio costante di vedere la nostra religione non
inferiore a nessuna nella pompa delle cerimonie e in quel decoro che
alle nazioni può ispirare venerazione. Il papa si dovette contentare di
vedersi reso il cadavere del suo predecessore, e la statua della
Madonna di Loreto, spogliata è vero delle gemme.
Carlo Magno era anche re d’Italia, nè questo titolo dovea mancare a
Napoleone, il quale anzi nella nostra patria avea fatto il passo
d’esperimento verso l’impero [66]. Ad assistere alla sua coronazione
invitò dunque il vicepresidente Melzi e la consulta di Stato; e chiesti
di liberamente significare come in pratica riuscisse la costituzione
avuta a Lione, liberamente risposero essere quella evidentemente
provvisoria nè compatibile coi tempi, nè gl’Italiani ancora maturi per
la repubblica; e lo scongiuravano a dare loro un re, foss’egli quello,
erigesse il paese in regno con uno statuto. Rispose: — Ho sempre
pensato a creare indipendente e libera la nazione italiana, ma
capisco la separazione tornerebbe pericolosa or che la perfida
Albione rinnova le minaccie; verrò dunque a Milano a cingermi la
corona di ferro per ritemprarla e rinvigorirla, e perchè l’Italia più non
si spezzi fra le tempeste che la minacceranno: ma affretterò il
momento di deporla s’una testa più giovane».
E venne (1805); e gl’Italiani, con quell’entusiasmo che spesso non è
se non l’esternazione della speranza, e che con quella svanisce,
affaccendaronsi a preparare archi di trionfo con quelli che prima
erano alberi della libertà [67]. Napoleone fissò tutto, sin le divise
teatrali dei magistrati e de’ cortigiani; nel duomo di Milano (1805 16
maggio), con una pompa che più non fu superata, venne unto
dall’arcivescovo Caprara; e ponendosi di propria mano la corona
ferrea esclamò: — Dio me l’ha data, guaj a chi la tocca». Il qual
motto perpetuò sulle insegne d’un nuovo ordine cavalleresco.
Secondo lo statuto, giurò mantenere l’integrità del regno, la religione
dello Stato, l’eguaglianza dei diritti, la libertà politica e civile,
l’irrevocabilità delle vendite de’ beni nazionali; non levar imposizioni
o por tasse che in virtù di legge; governare solo per l’interesse, la
felicità e la gloria del popolo italiano, e non dare impieghi a forestieri.
Eppure destinò vicerè Eugenio Beauharnais, figlio di sua moglie e da
lui adottato, uom mediocre, buon soldato, attivo e intelligente,
sommessissimo all’imperatore, ignaro e non curante del farsi amare
dai popoli, il cui bene perorava. Aprì in persona il corpo legislativo (7
giugno) lodando sè, di quanto avea fatto, e nominò guardasigilli il
Melzi, che poi col pingue assegno e col titolo di duca di Lodi ridusse
alla nullità.
Insieme cogli applausi del popolo, qui ricevette gli omaggi dei re.
Corsini e Fossombroni, deputati dell’Etruria, lo chiarirono come il lor
piccolo paese dopo il 96 avesse consunto in spese straordinarie
cenventi milioni, trovandosi sempre gravato da una guarnigione
francese; Verdier comandante a Livorno erasi prese le casse regie;
le reclute côrse colà sbarcate permetteansi ogni prepotenza.
Napoleone diede parole; ma con un fare soldatesco che trascendeva
le convenienze, soggiungeva: — La regina d’Etruria è troppo
giovane, e il ministro troppo vecchio per governare a dovere».
Insultò l’ambasciadore di Napoli e la sua regina; a quel della
repubblica Ligure disse: — M’era accorto ch’era impossibile i Liguri
facessero cosa degna del loro padri»; a quello di Lucca: — Sarete
meglio governati da un principe francese». Insomma nè re egli
risparmiava nè popoli; e sebbene avesse rassicurato e il senato di
Francia e i principi nostrali che non dilaterebbe i confini, trovava
necessarie Genova, Lucca, Livorno, onde impedire gli sbarchi de’
perfidi Inglesi.
A Genova, multata da’ Tedeschi che se n’andavano e da’ Francesi
che vi venivano, afflitta in conseguenza dell’assedio da un’epidemia,
per cui l’ordinaria mortalità di tremila settecento crebbe a dodicimila
cinquecento, fu dai Francesi trattata come vinta, pur affidata
dell’indipendenza; ma riformasse la propria costituzione sul modello
consueto. Buonaparte nel 1802 la approvò eleggendo doge
Girolamo Durazzo, ma aveva detto: — Genova è destinata a formare
marinarj; ha seimila uomini sulle squadre, ed io n’ho bisogno», e la
volle. I patrizj, spinti dal Saliceti che dimostrava impossibile
sostenere l’immenso lor debito [68], gliel’offersero, si aprirono
gl’ingannevoli registri, dove pochissimi ebbero coraggio di votare per
l’antico stato, e il doge Girolamo Durazzo andò a Milano a supplicare
Napoleone «accordasse ai Genovesi il bene di divenire suoi sudditi».
Metteva alcune condizioni a cui non si badò. L’arcitesoriere Lebrun
mandato a sistemarli, era uomo moderato e prudente; ma quando
egli palesò lo scontento de’ Genovesi e le loro ragioni, Napoleone
rispose: — Ho riunito Genova per avere de’ marinarj. Chi può
governare popoli senza scontentarli in sulle prime? In fatto di
Governo, giustizia vuol dire forza: sarei io così barbogio d’avere
paura del popolo di Genova? La sola risposta che vi fo è Marinari,
marinari» [69].
Lucca, sovvertita nel 1800, dagli avvicendati conquistatori spogliata
di denaro e d’armi, nel 1801 fu ordinata in repubblica democratica
dal Saliceti, al quale in più volte quel tesoro sborsò brevi manu
618,750 lire [70]. Così pagavasi la libertà. Divenuto imperatore
Buonaparte, que’ cittadini furono tratti a domandargli una nuova
costituzione, e col mezzo de’ soliti registri presso le parrocchie, il
corpo degli anziani e il popolo chiesero signore (23 giugno)
Pasquale Baciocchi ed Elisa cognato e sorella di Napoleone, ai quali
parea poco il già attribuito principato di Piombino; avrebbero la lista
civile di quattrocentomila franchi; un consiglio di Stato, un senato di
trentasei membri: faceasi l’unica riserva di restare esenti dalla
coscrizione, ma tutti i cittadini sarebbero sistemati militarmente. E
così quest’aristocrazia di jeri trangugiavasene un’altra di
seicentotrentanove anni. A Lucca furono annesse per
l’amministrazione la Lunigiana ed anche Massa e Carrara, feudo
ducale dell’Impero; caricavansi due milioni di lire al piccolo
principato; il quale però, per ordine di Napoleone abolendo i quindici
conventi d’uomini e diciassette di donne, i capitoli, le confraternite, i
luoghi pii e fino i semplici benefizj laici, acquistava un patrimonio di
venti milioni. Con questi la vivace ed ingegnosa Elisa, oltre
tesoreggiare per sè, dotava spedali, soccorreva a poveri e invalidi,
aprì strade, incoraggiò artisti e studiosi e l’Accademia, che cominciò
l’importantissirna pubblicazione dei documenti della storia patria;
provvide d’acque la città, riformò le leggi penali e la procedura [71].
Nella pace coi Borboni di Spagna, Buonaparte avea stipulato che il
duca di Parma divenisse re d’Etruria: ma egli non accettò il baratto; e
quando morì nel 1802, Francia fece occupare il ducato, serbandolo
come un allettativo sia al papa che chiedeva un compenso alle
rapitegli Legazioni, sia alla Casa di Sardegna, sia all’Etruria che,
incorporando questo paese, sarebbe divenuta la seconda potenza
d’Italia. La rottura colla Russia avendo poi dispensato dai riguardi, fu
aggregato alla vigesimottava divisione militare della Francia, poi
ridotto a dipartimento del Taro. La repubblica Etrusca convertita in
regno, fu investita a Lodovico infante di Spagna, figlio del duca di
Parma, il quale ne trovava sconfitte le finanze, esorbitanti le
imposizioni, interrotto il commercio perchè gl’Inglesi minacciavano
da Porto Ferrajo; abbandonata l’agricoltura, soldati da costare un
milione al mese, eppure necessaria ancora la guarnigione francese;
nel 1801 l’entrata portava dodici milioni contro la spesa di sedici, e la
Corte fu sin ridotta a far coniare i proprj argenti. La vera regnante era
Luigia figlia del re di Spagna, tanto più quando, al morto padre,
succedette Carlo Lodovico (1803 27 maggio) di quattro anni. Ai
liberali costei metteva i brividi ripristinando le fraterie, le libertà
clericali, di coscienza, di corrispondenza col papa, l’indipendenza de’
vescovi coll’ispezione sui libri e sui luoghi pii; la deploravono
santocchia e raggirata, e le apponevano di avere «spezzato il suo
scettro, e buttatone la metà nel Tevere».
L’isola d’Elba rimase alla Francia, spogliandone la famiglia
Buoncompagni, i cui avi n’aveano compro il dominio nel 1634 per un
milione e cinquantamila fiorini, e che allora ne ritraeva
ducensettantatremila l’anno.
Vittorio Emanuele, succeduto re di Piemonte (1802 4 giugno), si
tenne in Sardegna, e avendo gl’Inglesi offertagli guarnigione e’ la
ricusò per non dare appicco di querela a Napoleone. Eppure questi
non cessava di lamentarsi perchè ricoverasse navi britanniche, e
servisse al contrabbando. Secondo gli accordi di Tilsitt colla Russia,
avrebbe dovuto riavere gli Stati di terraferma o un compenso, e
Napoleone glielo esibì sulle coste d’Africa; poi guastatosi colla
Russia, neppure a questa celia badò, e tenne il Piemonte come
ventisettesima divisione militare sotto l’amministrazione di Jourdan,
distribuito ne’ dipartimenti di Po, Marengo, Sesia, Dora, Stura.
Concessa amnistia ai fautori degli antichi re; soppressi gli Ordini
religiosi; coscritti quattromila giovani; assettata la taglia fondiaria a
nove milioni di franchi, e la personale a un milione e ducentomila;
soppresse sei abadie e nove vescovadi, restando solo quelli di
Saluzzo, Acqui, Asti, Alessandria, Vercelli, Ivrea, Mondovì e Cuneo,
colla periferia stessa de’ dipartimenti, e suffraganei all’arcivescovo di
Torino, non più a quelli di Genova e Milano.
Il Governo del Piemonte e del Genovesato fu più tardi (1808) eretto
in gran dignità dell’impero, a favore del principe Borghese, cognato
dell’imperatore; il quale così traeva la Francia dai limiti naturali, e
stabiliva un altro dominio forestiero in quell’Italia che dai forestieri
egli avea promesso riscattare [72]. E già col professarsi successore di
Carlo Magno, palesava aspirare a un predominio; e coll’occupare
nuovi Stati anche dopo la coronazione, parve gettare il guanto. Tutti
dunque i dominanti ne protestavano; Pitt, ministro inglese, ottenuti
settantacinque milioni per sostenere la sicurezza delle Potenze
europee, e collegatosi colla Russia propone (1805 aprile) che
Napoleone sgombri il nord della Germania, l’Italia, l’isola d’Elba;
Olanda, Svizzera, Napoli sieno lasciate indipendenti; ripristinato il re
di Sardegna, al quale si aggiungerebbero Genova ed eventualmente
il Lionese e il Delfinato; restituite Firenze e Modena ai prischi dinasti,
e all’Austria la Lombardia, cresciuta col Veneto [73].
Patti simili appena si possono imporre dopo irreparabili sconfitte:
pure fu il programma a cui si attese in dieci anni di guerra. Alla quale
tutta Europa sorgeva, avendo per tesoriere l’Inghilterra, per
retroguardo la Russia; e non più per estinguere la libertà in un paese
che se l’era conquistata, bensì proclamando l’indipendenza dei
popoli contro un’ambizione che la pericolava. Era insomma la
Rivoluzione che proclamava i proprj trionfi per bocca dell’esercito
coalizzato contro di lei.
L’Austria mise in essere trecenventimila guerrieri; e ricevendo
dall’Inghilterra settantacinque milioni per quell’anno, si assunse
l’impresa d’Italia, mandò sull’Adige cenventimila uomini coll’arciduca
Carlo, altri trentacinquemila coll’arciduca Giovanni in Tirolo, per
connetterlo coll’esercito di Germania, a cui gl’imperadori Francesco
e Alessandro farebbero una terribile retroguardia in Moravia e
Gallizia; Russi e Inglesi doveano sbarcare a Malta e Corfù, e uniti co’
Napoletani, opprimere i trentamila Francesi che presidiavano Terra
d’Otranto, e spingersi in su per l’Italia fino a congiungersi cogli
arciduchi. Napoleone sentì che «gli bisognava un altro Marengo, e
subito»; e con uno di quei colpi arditi che solo l’esito giustifica, gira
alle spalle di Mack (1805 8 7bre), famoso per le rotte napoletane, lo
chiude in Ulma, e fa prigionieri trentatremila Austriaci senza stilla di
sangue. Obbrobrio, che fu chiamato tradimento, e il generale
condannato ai lavori in una fortezza.
Il principe Carlo, udita la turpe capitolazione, per proteggere Vienna
abbandona l’Italia; onde Massena, che con trentamila uomini
occupava Verona, cresciuto di coraggio, lo attacca a Caldiero (19
9bre); per tre giorni combattendo con grande strage, e inseguendolo
fin oltre le Alpi, non solo toglie all’Austria tutte le terre italiche eccetto
Venezia, ma occupa Trieste, Gorizia, Gradisca, Villac, e quivi si
congiunge con Ney; i Francesi sono a Vienna, e Napoleone ad
Austerlitz (2 xbre) riporta una vittoria, dove restarono quarantamila
Russi e Austriaci feriti o morti, nove generali e ottocento uffiziali
prigionieri, e a Presburgo obbliga Francesco II alla pace (26 xbre).
Separare l’Italia dalla Francia, ed escluderne l’Austria rimettendo
repubblica Venezia, togliendole il Tirolo e la Svevia, in modo che
fosse discostata dal regno d’Italia, dalla Svizzera e dalla Germania
meridionale, pareva a Talleyrand l’unico modo di spegnere le guerre,
da secoli alimentate per le pretensioni de’ Tedeschi sul bel paese;
l’Austria, padroneggiando tutto il corso del Danubio e parte delle
coste del mar Nero, diverrà vicina e perciò emula della Russia,
quanto allontanata dalla Francia, e perciò sua alleata. Napoleone
non volle nè guadagnarsi il vinto nè distruggerlo, fedele al sistema
suo d’indebolire i territorj, col quale non fece che creare malcontenti,
e condannare se stesso a combattere sempre coloro che non
sempre potrebbe vincere; laonde le sue paci furono quasi tappe
dell’esercito. Dall’Austria fece dunque cedere al regno d’Italia
Venezia colla Dalmazia e l’Albania, alla Baviera il Tirolo, e pagare
cenquaranta milioni per le spese. Tali scambj di dominio scioglievano
i legami tra popoli e re, ed irritavano oltraggiando le nazionalità.
Al cadere della Repubblica veneta, il procuratore Francesco Pésaro,
che n’era stato uno de’ più devoti, vi venne pienipotente dell’Austria,
sicchè gli uni stupivano che l’imperatore ad un patrizio concedesse
piena autorità nel proprio paese; gli altri esecravano il Pésaro d’aver
accettato di comandare a quelli che testè erano suoi pari, e di
rappresentare la straniera dominazione nel paese di cui avea difeso
la libertà; altri invece il glorificavano d’essersi così messo in grado
d’alleviare i mali della patria: ma dopo pochi giorni egli morì. Altri
patrizj non tardarono a conciliarsi coll’Austria e servirla; e Zusto,
Contarini, Erizzo, Gradenigo, Almorò Tiepolo, Giustinian, Quirini
Stampalia accettando alti impieghi, diminuirono il ribrezzo del
dominio forestiero. La guerra dell’800 avea conturbato la terraferma;
e i patimenti, gli esigli, il mal cibo vi svilupparono il tifo, del quale
molti morirono, fra cui il friulano medico Capretti che l’avea studiato
e curato.
Ora Venezia acquistava un terzo padrone in otto anni; riceveva la
costituzione di Lione (1806 3 febb.) e le altre forme del regno italico;
ed Eugenio vicerè andava ad accogliervi il giuramento e le feste. Vi
venne poi Napoleone stesso (1807 29 9bre), e vi godette lo
spettacolo ond’era più ghiotto, di una vistosa forza marittima; emanò
molti ordini per la salute e il prosperamento di quella città, riconobbe
cento milioni che la Repubblica doveva alla zecca e al banco, un
quarto pagandone con beni demaniali, il resto iscrivendo sul Monte
Napoleone; fece ingrandire il porto, che volea rendere atto a
bastimenti grossi, incaricando Lessau d’una via diretta per trarre
dall’arsenale in mare vascelli da 80; munì le lagune coi forti di
Marghera e e Bróndolo; assegnò centomila lire annue a riparare i
porti e i canali. Allora venne aperto un giardino pubblico, abbattendo
edifizj ricchi di pitture e di sepolcri; si eresse un palazzo regio:
Antonio Selva, scolaro del Temanza, ridusse la Carità ad accademia
di belle arti, a cui fu preposto Leopoldo Cicognara ferrarese.
Malgrado di ciò, e sebbene decorata del titolo di seconda città del
regno e portofranco, Venezia si vide tolto ogni commercio, perito sin
il traffico delle conterie, e i beni nazionali non trovando compratori
che lo Stato o forestieri.
Solo Padova aveva accolto l’imperatore col silenzio, che è la lezione
dei re; ed egli, che non era uomo da inghiottirsela, maturava il
castigo, quando la città spedì il Cesarotti a placarlo: accolto con
amorevolezza, fatto sedere a tavola fra l’imperatore e il vicerè,
blandito con decorazioni e pensioni, il perdono lo ripagò colla
Pronea. Ma Vittorio Barzoni di Lonato già prima nel Solitario delle
Alpi avea posto a dialogare un entusiasto della rivoluzione e un
Veneto, una volta assalì il Villetard con una pistola: fu fatto passare
per pazzo; ora non perdonando a Napoleone il tradimento di
Venezia, lo descrisse sotto il personaggio di Flaminio ne’ Romani in
Grecia, e collocatosi a Malta, perseverò nell’infervorare gli odj contro
di esso [74].
Restava ancora il regno d’Etruria; e la regina Luigia, repugnante da
Napoleone e come borbonica e come devota, lasciava che merci
coloniali e manifatture inglesi, coperte dalla bandiera americana,
affluissero a Livorno, donde si propagavano ai mercati di Roma, di
Napoli, dell’alta Italia, anzi sin alla fiera di Lipsia. Napoleone non
volle soffrire questa disobbedienza, e ordinò al generale Miollis di
marciare sopra Firenze, indi a Livorno, e sorprendervi le merci
inglesi; poi col trattato di Fontainebleau (1807 30 agosto) assegnava
le provincie settentrionali del Portogallo in cambio dell’Etruria, la
quale veniva riunita alla Francia, e divisa nei dipartimenti dell’Arno,
del Mediterraneo, dell’Ombrone.
La pia donna neppure udienza potè avere da Napoleone a Bajona;
fu lasciata prendere e ammobigliare una casa a Passy; poi quando
montava in carrozza per condurvisi, un uffiziale la impedisce; le
vengono assegnate quattrocentomila lire, ma le si stentano, e le
sono usate cento soperchierie. Domanda di passare a Parma suo
dominio, e n’ottiene promessa, poi invece la fermarono a Nizza.
Dopo spossessati i reali di Spagna, mandò a Londra alcuno per far
valere le proprie ragioni: ma il duca di Rovigo ministro di polizia
arrestò Francesco Sassi della Tosa e Ghifenti di Livorno, e come
colpevoli di tale incarico, li fece condannare a morte, eseguita sul
Ghifenti; la regina come rea d’aver tentato fuggire, venne chiusa nel
convento de’ santi Domenico e Sisto a Roma colla figliuola; Miollis le