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BLENDING
TECHNOLOGIES IN
SECOND LANGUAGE
CLASSROOMS
SECOND EDITION

Don Hinkelman
Blending Technologies in Second Language
Classrooms
 Don Hinkelman

Blending
Technologies in
Second Language
Classrooms
Second Edition
Don Hinkelman
Sapporo Gakuin University
Ebetsu-shi, Japan

ISBN 978-1-137-53685-3    ISBN 978-1-137-53686-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53686-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017960755

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: José Junior / EyeEm / GettyImages

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom
 Foreword

How do teachers make sense of all the changing technology in their class-
rooms? This is the fundamental question addressed by Don Hinkelman’s
second edition of Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms, a
question that is explored from multiple, diverse perspectives. While read-
ing this substantially reworked book I was reminded of Erving Goffman’s
(1974) distinction between two distinct ways in which we can view our
experiences—in terms of a game or the wider spectacle. Games, accord-
ing to this perspective, refer to events that are on display (such as a tennis
match, a sitcom, or a political speech) while the spectacle refers to the
broader context that encases the game and turns it into a social occasion
that is collectively experienced (whether in a gathering at home, a public
arena, or in the unfolding comments on YouTube). Until recently,
accounts of technology-mediated language learning and teaching tended
to focus on the ‘game’ to the neglect of the wider ‘spectacle’, meaning that
we have at best a partial view of the realities of how learners work with
technologies in classrooms and as part of their lifeworlds. Yet Goffman’s
view was that to understand the one, we need to understand the other: in
games participants have defined roles and scripts whereas the larger spec-
tacle is characterized by more diffuse interactions, activities, and episodes,
with both the game and the spectacle influencing each other. A key
strength of the approach taken in Blending Technologies in Second Language
Classrooms is the focus on blended learning as an ecology, meaning that
v
vi Foreword

events and practices are considered and examined as both a game and a
spectacle. In what lies ahead Don Hinkelman gives analytical attention to
what could be called the rules of the game, namely some of the principles
and parameters that define blended learning and teaching while also
focusing on the encasing spectacle and the ways in which it contributes
to the game.
Adopting and maintaining broader, more contextualized perspectives
on blending technologies in classrooms is a recurrent theme here and is
achieved in a variety of ways. For example, ‘tool-centric’ perspectives on
blended learning are avoided and in their place there is focus on sequences
of actions, groupings, timings, texts, and tools with on-going reference to
a rich range of examples and case studies. There is a sustained focus on
the complex processes that underpin blending technologies—as in the
title of the book—rather than viewing blended teaching as a ready-made
package that can be inserted into classroom practice. Tool-centric per-
spectives are also avoided through an all-encompassing view of class-
rooms and in the detailed attention given to formative assessment
processes, to the value of action research and ethnographic research
(including auto-ethnography and institutional ethnography), and to see-
ing blending technologies as part of educational change. Linked to this
latter point is the emphasis placed on change over time in blending tech-
nologies within a single classroom, between evolving instantiations of a
course, and in specific areas such as materials development. For example,
through careful observation and rich commentaries we see how both the
rate and complex paths of change are impacted by curricular schedules,
processes of materials production, and individual agendas together with
curricular and institutional goals.
Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms helps us to rei-
magine both the focus and the margins of language classrooms and the
contribution of virtual opportunities to both the game and the spectacle
of language learning. I was very pleased when the first edition of Blending
Technologies in Second Language Classrooms appeared given the questions
and debates about blended learning that (pre)occupy our field and for the
conceptual clarity that the volume brings. Earlier, in my TESOL
Quarterly review of this book (White, 2016), I observed that Gruba and
Hinkelman’s first edition was “the first book-length analysis of theory,
 Foreword
   vii

research, and practice in blended language teaching” (p. 533), featuring

“precise frameworks which are presented for analyzing trajectories of
change within blended learning programs” (p. 534).
This second edition will not disappoint as it illuminates and critically
considers newer fields of practice such as flipped learning, digital gamifi-
cation, and blending technologies in carouselling and bricolage. The on-­
going expansion and diffusion of tools, settings, research, and practices
for blending technologies in language classrooms is well captured in this
book; it makes for compelling reading and will for years to come, both to
establish a theoretical framework and shed light on innovative practices,
within and beyond second language classrooms.

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experi-

ence. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
White, C. (2016). Review of ‘blending technologies in second language
classrooms’. TESOL Quarterly, 50(2), 533–534.

Massey University Cynthia White

Wellington, New Zealand
 Preface

Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms is a story of research-

ers, teachers, administrators, and educators striving to create learning
environments that inspire and engage second language learners. This is a
conceptual journey and a practical guide of principles for academics and
practitioners involved in classroom teaching. These stories are not tall
tales of triumph but rather a trail of disappointing attempts, positive
steps, and promising revelations of learning success. It is a personal and
team journey, which perhaps reflects what thousands of other teachers are
doing to make sense of technology and trying to make a learning envi-
ronment that fills students with energy and love of learning languages
and cultures. In short, here is the main point of blending technologies:

A blended learning environment combines face-to-face and virtual technologies

in a process that engages learners and changes their ways of thinking and their
ability to use a second language. Blend language learning is not device oriented
because it views learning environments as ecologies, not tools. Ecologies are
configurations of pedagogic actions, groupings, timings, texts and tools. Blended
language learning does not separate the classroom world and the online world,
because it embeds all forms of face-to-face technologies and digital technologies
into a process that is communicative and task-based. The teacher’s role is to
design tasks and configure technologies to achieve those tasks. This creates change
that is more internally driven and bottom-up from direct classroom practice

ix
x Preface

and less externally driven by commercial publishing or mandated curriculum.

Innovation also happens when top-down social, economic and pedagogic condi-
tions force change in the learning environments. Teachers respond to these top-­
down actions by re-configuring their environments based on principles of
purposefulness, multi-modality, appropriateness and sustainability.

Since the first edition was published in 2012, the past five years have
seen a lifetime of new online technologies and a resurgence of interactive
face-to-face technologies in foreign language classrooms. Further, lan-
guage learning theory is undergoing a paradigm shift from computational
metaphors (input, output) to ecological metaphors (environments, col-
lective relationships). Teachers have not only incorporated mobile tools
such as tablets and smart phones into learning environments (Stockwell,
2016), but at the same time are attempting to increase the amount of
discussions and interactive dialogue in face-to-face sessions, often using
the flipped classroom model (Johnson & Marsh, 2016).
The shift in educational strategy to ‘flipped classrooms’ (Bergmann &
Sams, 2012) had just appeared just as our first edition came out, and has
since been applied to language learning environments. Emerging from
science, math, and technology teaching fields, research in flipped learn-
ing spread to second language learning immediately (Lockwood, 2014;
Pasisis, 2015), although some claim second language teachers have always
been doing this flipped process, just without online video. Now the
flipped classroom has become a reality (Johnson & Marsh, 2016), but it
is not yet clear why the ‘flip’ is working or what is being changed in the
learning environment. What has changed in the learning landscape due
to the ‘flip’ is actually the theme of this book—how technologies are
blended in classrooms and how learning changes as technologies change.
Gamification is another trend that has proved disruptive in learning
circles since 2010. By adding the principles of gaming to all aspects of the
learning cycle, teachers have intentionally created an atmosphere of
intensity that engages learners enough to generate a ‘flow’ experience
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Learning management systems have jumped
on this bandwagon by creating badges, points, progress bars, and levels,
which parallel the incentives used in the gaming world.
At the same time, task-based learning and teaching (TBLT) has grown
in stature as a leading force in the pedagogical evolution of our field. In
 Preface
   xi

contrast to much in the field of computer-assisted language learning

(CALL), task-based learning approaches have focused on the pedagogy first
instead of the tools first. Instead of asking, ‘how can I use this tool?’, TBLT
asks, ‘what is the task and what tools will help achieve the task?’ In this way,
‘task’ becomes an organizing factor in second language learning. In short,
we can now define ‘technology’ as the process to achieve a task. For this
reason Chaps. 4, 5, and 6 have been expanded and will explore strategic use
of task-based approaches, flipped classrooms, gamified classrooms, and
other blended practices that are occurring in our educational landscape.
In the same way, the process of research in blended learning ecologies
has matured and expanded to include ethnographic approaches to
research. Therefore, the largest chapter in the first edition, on action
research, has been divided into Chap. 7 on principles of research and
Chap. 8 on action research in blended environments. Then a third
chapter, Chap. 9, is added to focus on classroom ethnography, auto-­
ethnography, and institutional ethnography.
Overall, the paradigm shift occurring now is the shift to ecological
thinking. We know that a learning environment or learning ecology
changes when one aspect within it changes. These changes are disrup-
tions. In natural environments, changes happen when a butterfly enters
the ecology, when the butterfly mates (groupings), when the caterpillar
builds a cocoon (tools) and hibernates (timings), when it communicates
with its colorful wings (texts) that it is ready to mate. Disruption in this
ecology may not happen until temperatures change and new inhabitants
enter the world. However, identifying the disruption in classrooms is dif-
ficult and deceptive. The disruption may not be the tool (the tablet com-
puter added) but rather when (timing) and where (spaces) and with
whom (groupings) the tablet is used.
For these reasons, this second edition has not only updated the original
seven chapters, but added five new chapters. The first one added is on
learning metaphors and ecologies (Chap. 3), followed by task-based
learning/flipped/gamification strategies (Chap. 5), ecology-based research
principles (Chap. 7), ethnographic research (Chap. 8), and technologies
in practice (Chap. 10).
In this edition, my co-author from the first edition, Paul Gruba, col-
laborates with me as a critical friend and reader while focusing his time
on groundbreaking research concerning program evaluation of blended
xii Preface

language learning (Gruba et al., 2016). Although, this edition is written

in the first person, much of the original chapters and especially the core
theme of four considerations in blended language learning: purpose,
appropriateness, multimodality, and sustainability reflect our co-­
authorship. In contrast to the wider view that program evaluation takes
by covering institutional designs and systematic results, this edition
focuses more narrowly on the design of technologies in classrooms. Gruba
et al. (2016) take the core considerations of this book (purposefulness,
appropriateness, multimedia, and sustainability) a step further by exam-
ining, evaluating, and assessing the cumulative and composite results of
students learning languages in formal institutional settings.
In comparison, this book is more for the practicing teacher with a
greater focus on classroom and mobile learning environments. It is not a
catalog of teaching practices, although examples of blended practices will
be useful to teachers seeking models to apply and modify in the field.
This book may, however, serve as a primer for new teachers entering the
field of second language education, because it provides a framework and
principles for selecting technologies, strategies, assessments, and tasks
that a teacher will configure on-the-fly in a classroom situation. It is also
intended for administrators and researchers seeking a theoretical basis to
take an ecological approach to technologies and learning design. My
attempt here is to connect mainstream theory with emerging perspectives
that help make sense out of seemingly complex, chaotic change. In that
sense, this book takes to heart an aim to redirect the philosophy of CALL
into a philosophy of blended language learning.
There have been numerous changes and additions in this second edi-
tion. In addition to recent publications, critical reviews of the first edi-
tion in academic journals have profoundly affected the direction of this
book. We would like to thank at least five reviewers that have spent time
evaluating each of the chapters and offer our apologies to others whose
reviews we may have missed. Recently, White (2016) in TESOL Quarterly
wrote that the some of the strengths of the first edition included:

this book … explores pedagogical design at three interrelated levels—micro,

meso, and macro; attention is given to both the social and political dimensions
of pedagogical design in blended contexts, thus bringing to light what may be
 Preface
   xiii

more hidden dimensions of those processes. Here too we see the significance of
the focus on blending technologies not only in the title but throughout the work,
as we get a behind-the-scenes look at the processes that contribute to blended
learning. (p. 533)

The cases are exemplary in their richness; their attention to the particular; and
their search for meaning attached to constellations of actions, groupings, tim-
ings, texts, and tools. (p. 534)

A real strength of this chapter is the social and political dimensions of pedagogi-
cal design in blended contexts, thus bringing to light what may be more hidden
dimensions of those processes. (p. 534)

However, White (2016) also notes a needed focus on new digital devices:

the book does not really explore broader macro-level considerations such as the
ways in which technological changes have put new tools and options for lan-
guage learning in the hands of learners, available to them in their life-worlds.
(p. 534)

That is partially because smartphones and tablets were not as ubiq-

uitous back then, but also because the ‘teacher’ and the ‘classroom’
have been the main focus in our earlier edition and this edition. The
world of the learner, who now is has multiple devices and multiple
venues to explore a new language, is now a topic in the strategies sec-
tion (Chap. 5), which tackles the trends of gamification and the
flipped classroom of language learners. Nonetheless, devices are still
not the focus, because ‘blended learning’ in this book stands from the
viewpoint of pedagogy (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005) and how the teacher
configures the options for a classroom community, rather than from
the viewpoint of devices as learners try various tools to learn with.
Hopefully, with 24-hour websites, individualized activities, and prin-
cipled design, the mobile world will be more tightly integrated with
classroom work in the coming decade.
In addition to these critiques, conferences and subsequent writing for
proceedings have pushed me to rearticulate and expand the principles of
blending technologies. These have included GloCALL, WorldCALL,
xiv Preface

World Congress of Extensive Reading, EuroCALL, Japan Association of

Language Teaching, JALTCALL, MoodleMoot Australia, MoodleMoot
Japan, and Task-Based Learning in Asia. Each of these conferences are
learning communities of practice, where practitioners demonstrate the
blending of technologies for teachers to learn from.
Despite the explosion of new devices, the roots of blending technolo-
gies are not at all new. My interest in exploring learning environments
was motivated at an early age. As a student during my own secondary
school days, I experienced dissatisfaction with the pursuit of grades as the
apparent goal of education, and came upon books such as Summerhill by
E.S. Neill and How Children Learn by John Holt. These books contra-
dicted a fixation on marks and instead focused on an engaging and moti-
vating learning environments to spur learning ‘naturally’ without the
extrinsic, artificial push of grades and report cards. Fifty years later, I
believe that even more, as teachers seek to create intrinsically motivating
worlds where both young and adult students can grow with learning.
The support and encouragement of this research comes from my col-
leagues at Sapporo Gakuin University, a small liberal arts school in the
heart of Hokkaido, deep in the northlands of Japan. I would like to thank
all the faculty who gave their valuable time and consideration, especially
Koichi Okazaki, Shuji Sugawara, Seiichi Miyamachi, Atsushi Nakamura,
Makiko Nishi, Shugo Yamazoe, Keisuke Sanada and Lisa Mizushima.
The vision, innovation, and energy for blending technologies needs the
acknowledgment of pioneers such as Frank Johnson, Phil Murphy,
Hideto Harashima, Tim Grose, Peter Schinckel, Matthew Cotter, Kate
Sato, Michael Fitzgerald, Rob Olson, Junior Koch, Gordon Bateson, and
many teachers that I have interviewed and collaborated with in field
research for this book. One common refrain was that ‘the curriculum’
always drove the design of blended learning rooms and technologies in
the classrooms. Both Paul Gruba and I returned to our roots in teaching
in EFL programs in Japan where teachers collaborated in curriculum
design, research teams, and in-house materials authoring. From these val-
ues, the considerations for blending technologies in second language
classrooms were created, offering a challenge that teachers embark as a
team in collaboration with other teachers and colleagues. I hope this
work gives inspiration to those who are fearful of new technologies as
well as those who embrace those technologies. The surprise of blended
 Preface
   xv

learning is that old technologies that some label as ‘traditional’ can be

reused and are re-empowered in the learning ecology of the any second
language classroom.
From this context, the second edition looks at four aspects of blending
technologies: concepts, approaches, research, and practice.
The ‘Concepts’ section includes:
–– Chapter 1: Evolution of Blended Language Learning
–– Chapter 2: Understanding Learning Technologies
–– Chapter 3: Learning Metaphors and Ecologies
The ‘Approaches’ section refers to:
–– Chapter 4: Designs for Blended Language Learning
–– Chapter 5: Strategies for Blended Language Learning
–– Chapter 6: Assessments for Blended Language Learning
The ‘Research’ section is expanded from one chapter to examine:
–– Chapter 7: Principles of Research in Blended Environments
–– Chapter 8: Action Research in Blended Environments
–– Chapter 9: Ethnographic Research in Blended Environments
The ‘Practice’ section now demonstrates:
–– Chapter 10: Blended Technologies in Practice
–– Chapter 11: Blended Language Lessons in Practice
–– Chapter 12: Blended Language Programs in Practice
Therefore the aim of this book is to provide experienced teachers,
teachers-in-training, program administrators, and classroom researchers
with four frameworks:

1. a theoretical framework to design blended language learning classes

and programs
2. a series of strategic, principled approaches that fit blended language
teaching
3. a focused methodology for researching complex blended learning
ecologies
4. a practical description and analysis of blending technologies in tertiary
education
xvi Preface

Throughout, cases, examples, and analysis of the process of blending

technologies in second language environments are described from a per-
spective of four principled considerations: purpose, appropriateness,
multimodality, and sustainability.

Ebetsu-shi, Japan Don Hinkelman

References
Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student
in every class every day. Alexandria: International Society for Technology
in Education.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience.
New York: Harper & Row.
Gruba, P., Cárdenas-Claros, M., Suvorov, R., & Rick, K. (2016). Blended
language program evaluation. Basingstoke/New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Johnson, C., & Marsh, R. (2016). The flipped classroom. In M. McCarthy
(Ed.), Blended learning for language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lockwood, R. B. (2014). Flip it: Strategies for the ESL classroom. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can blended learning by redeemed?
E-learning and Digital Media, 2(1), 17–26.
Pasisis, G. (2015). The flipped reading block: Making it work. New York:
Scholastic.
Stockwell, G. (2016). Mobile language learning. In F. Farr & L. Murray
(Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology
(pp. 296–307). New York: Routledge.
White, C. (2016). Review of ‘Blending technologies in second language
classrooms’. TESOL Quarterly, 50(2), 532–534. doi:https://doi.
org/10.1002/tesq.300.
 Contents

1 Evolution of Blended Learning   1

Overview of Blended Learning   2
Computers and Language Learning   7
Considerations in Blended Language Learning   10
Consideration 1: Purpose   10
Consideration 2: Appropriateness   11
Consideration 3: Multimodality   12
Consideration 4: Sustainability   14
Summary  16
References  17

2 Understanding Learning Technologies  23

Toward a Wide Definition of Technologies   24
Performance of Technologies  27
Dimensions of Technologies  28
Dimension 1: Actions   29
Narrative Actions  30
Interactive Actions  31
Adaptive Actions  33
Communicative Actions  34
Productive Actions  34

xvii
xviii Contents

Dimension 2: Timings  35
Dimension 3: Groupings   37
Dimension 4: Spaces   38
Dimension 5: Texts  39
Dimension 6: Tools  42
Summary of Technology Dimensions   42
Applying the Dimensions of Technology   44
Redefinition of Technology for Second Language Learning   45
Merging CALL and Task-Based Learning Theory   46
Summary of Blended Technologies  48
References  49

3 Learning Metaphors and Ecologies  55

The Evolution of Second Language Pedagogy   57
Issue of Metaphors  58
Metaphor 1: Learning as Instruction   60
Metaphor 2: Learning as Acquisition   62
Metaphor 3: Learning as Socialization   64
Succession, Dominance, or Balance? Which Metaphor Is
Best?  67
The Role of Environment   70
The Centrality of Environment   72
Can ‘Learning Ecology’ Unite the Language Learning
Metaphors?  73
Moving to Language Learning Ecologies   74
Normalization as Antidote to Computer Fixation?   76
An Ecological Paradigm of Technology   77
Summary of Foundations of Blended Language Learning   78
References  79

4 Designs for Blended Language Learning  85

What Is Design?   86
Bottom-Up or Top-Down Design?   87
An Ecological, Iterative, Multi-stakeholder Model of
Design  88
 Contents
   xix

Blended Environments as Hybrid, Human/Technological

Networks  89
Two Ways of Change: Design and Innovation   91
Educational Change as Incremental Design   93
Bricoleur Mode of Design   94
Applying the Principles of Design   95
Educational Change as Disruptive Innovation   95
Disruptive Innovation 1: Social Media and Gamification   97
Disruptive Innovation 2: Flipped Classroom   98
Disruptive Innovation 3: Learner Analytics   98
Disruptive Innovation 4: Visible Learning   99
Disruptive Innovation 5: Quantified Self   99
Disruptive Innovation 6: Virtual Assistants   99
Creative Classroom Research Model  100
Levels of Design: Micro, Meso, Macro  102
Micro-level Design Considerations  102
Task Design  103
Lesson Planning  106
Subject Guidelines  107
Meso-level Design Considerations  108
Graduate Attributes  108
Departmental Goals and Curriculum Structure  110
Risk Management  111
Ethical Vision  112
Macro-level Design Considerations  113
International and National Standards  113
Regional and Association Policies  115
Professional Development Benchmarks  116
Summary 116
References 118

5 Strategies for Blended Language Learning 125

Moving from Tool-Centric to Aim/Assessment-­Driven Design  126
PPP: A Dominant Strategy for Curriculum Design  127
TBLT: A Core Strategy for Curriculum Design  129
xx Contents

What Is a Communicative Task? What Is Not?  130

Types of Tasks: Pedagogic Categories for Differentiating
Levels and Qualities of Tasks  130
Goal of Blending Technologies: To Improve the
Learning Experience  132
Defining a Blended Task  133
Comparing and Separating Tasks and Technologies  135
Selecting Technologies for a Task  137
Analysis of the Task/Technology Relationship: Cases of
EFL Classes in Japan  138
Sequencing: Multiple Technologies Within a Task  140
Strategies in Designing Tasks  143
Flipped Teaching Strategies  144
1.Lectures Are Inverted from Classroom Activities to
Pre-class Homework Activities 144
2.Interactive/Communicative Activities Increase
During Classroom Time 145
3.Texts Change from Single Media to Multimedia 145
4. Synchronous and Asynchronous Activities Are
Remixed in Course Design 145
Case Analysis of Flipped Teaching in Language Learning  146
Gamification and Social Media Strategies  147
Is Gamification a Technology? Is It a Task?  149
Gamification Principles  151
Gamification Elements  152
Applying Gamification to Second Language Learning  152
How Does Gamification Expand Beyond Classroom and
LMS? 154
Summary of Strategies  155
References 155

6 Assessments for Blended Language Learning 161

Defining Assessment for Blended Learning  162
Metaphors of Learning in Assessment  164
Considerations of Blended Learning in Assessment  165
 Contents
   xxi

Assessment Purposes  167

Assessment for Qualifications  167
Assessment for Administration  168
Assessment for Learning  169
Assessment Principles  171
Clear Aims and Objectives  171
Authenticity and Value  172
Fairness and Objectivity  173
Efficiency and Practicality  174
Embedded Formative Assessment  175
Practice Activities  175
Feedback Activities  176
Graded Activities  177
Evaluation Activities  178
Construction of Blended Assessments  178
Assessment Participants and Roles  179
Modes of Delivery  180
Paper Assessments  180
Face-to-Face Assessments  181
Online Assessments  181
Assessment Formats  182
Transparency of Marking Through Rubrics  184
Choice of Language in Rubric Design  187
Ratios of Self, Peer, and Teacher Assessments  187
Student Development of Criteria  190
Annotations and Essay Assessments  193
Assessment in Programs  194
Action Research in Assessment  194
Institutional Obstacles  195
Instructor Attitudes  195
Perceptions of Technology  198
Learner Analytics  200
Summary 200
References 202
xxii Contents

7 Principles of Research in Blended Environments 207

Contextual Inquiry Versus Experimental Research  207
What Is ‘Effectiveness’ in Teaching and Learning?  210
Post-modernist Inquiry and Classroom Research  210
The Question of Effectiveness  211
Defining a Research Philosophy  213
Question of Epistemology  214
Question of Positionality  215
Question of Inference  217
Question of Validity  218
Reflecting on a Personal and Team Philosophy  221
Acknowledging Positionality  221
Discerning Personal and Collaborative Worldviews  222
Recognizing Potential Blind Spots  223
Reductionism: Analyzing Pieces of Information  224
Objectivism: Seeking Universal Truth or ‘Best Practice’  224
Determinism: Oversimplified Causality  226
Detachment: A Pretense of Non-bias  227
Minimizing Research Traps and Pitfalls  228
Ethical Considerations  229
Summary 231
References 233

8 Action Research in Blended Environments 237

Defining Action Research in Blended Environments  237
Differentiating Action Research from Other Approaches  239
Justifying Action Research in Blended Environments  240
Issues in the Design of Action Research  242
Individual and Collaborative Positionality  243
External Validity or Transferability  243
Non-human, Hybrid Agency  244
Conducting Action Research  245
Step 1: Problem-Posing (Establishing an Appropriate
Research Question)  247
Step 2: Designing (Creating the Intervention
Classroom and Online Texts/Activities)  250
 Contents
   xxiii

Step 3: Specifying (Deciding What Data to Collect)  250

Step 4: Configuring  250
Step 5: Promoting  250
Step 6: Collecting  251
Step 7: Analyzing  251
Step 8: Reflecting (Debriefing by Faculty and
Evaluation by Students)  252
Step 9: Publishing (Dissemination and Critique of
Research) 252
Step 10: Institutionalizing (Selecting Sustainable
Change and Next Actions)  253
Action Research Cases: Longitudinal Studies  253
Summary 254
References 256

9 Ethnographic Research in Blended Environments 259

What Is Ethnography in Educational Environments?  260
Comparing Ethnography with Other Approaches of
Contextual Inquiry  262
Contextual Frameworks for Studying Blended Ecologies  263
Semiotic Analysis  264
Issues of Ethnographies  266
Types of Ethnographies  267
Type 1: Classroom Ethnography  267
Sample Classroom Ethnography of an Extensive
Reading Ecology  268
Out-of-Class ER Activities Description  269
In-Class ER Activities Description  270
Interpreting the ER Program Ecology  270
Type 2: Institutional Ethnography  273
Sample Institutional Ethnography of a Blended
Language Learning Ecology  274
Data Collection and Reduction with Excerpts  275
Purposive, Manual Coding  275
Analysis of Institutional Change  276
xxiv Contents

Type 3: Autoethnography  276

Defining Autoethnography  279
The Aims of Autoethnography  280
Data Collection and Analysis in Autoethnography  281
Conducting a Blended Learning Autoethnography  283
Data Collection with Publication Summaries  284
Theme Interpretation  286
Problems and Validity of Autoethnography  287
Summary 288
References 288

10 Blended Technologies in Practice 293

Technology 1: Carouselling  294
Dimensions of Carouselling  295
Variations and Blending  295
Technology 2: Quiz Gaming/Audience Response System  296
Technology 3: Video Assessing with Paper and LMS Rubrics  299
Research Focus: Issues of Rubric Design  300
Research Method: Action Research  301
Curriculum and Course Context  301
Types of Assessments Pre-2012  303
Types of Assessments from 2012  306
Rubric Design: Adapting from Paper to LMS  307
Rubric Design: Weighting Self/Peer/Teacher  311
Rubric Design: Scale Definitions  312
Further Research  313
Summary of Blended Technologies in Practice  315
References 316

11 Blended Language Lessons in Practice 319

Bricolage Process of Lesson Design  321
Blended Tasks and Lessons  325
 Contents
   xxv

Case 1: Blended Oral Communication Task  328

Task Background and Aims  329
Step-by-Step Lesson Flow  330
Technology Dimensions Within the Lesson  334
Pedagogical Actions  334
Pedagogical Groupings/Spaces  335
Pedagogical Timings  337
Pedagogical Texts/Interfaces  337
Pedagogical Tools  338
Discussion of Blended Technologies as Embedded in a
Lesson 340
Discussion of Blended Learning Considerations in a
Lesson 341
Case 2: Blended Process Writing Task  343
Case 3: Blended Inter-class Exchange  347
Summary 352
References 353

12 Blended Language Programs in Practice 355

Theme 1: Blended Learning Faculty Teams  356
Distributed Structure of Authority and Research  356
Sustained Professional Development  359
Theme 2: Blended Learning Materials Development  363
Years 1–2: Internet Projects and Wireless Notebooks  364
Years 3–4: In-House Project Booklets  365
Years 5–6: Customized Content-Based Materials  366
Considerations in Materials Development  367
Theme 3: Blended Learning Infrastructure  367
Curriculum-Driven Facilities Designs  370
Legacy Facilities and Redesign  371
Role of Infrastructure in Blended Language Learning  375
Principles for Blended Program Design  378
Principle 1: Collaboration  379
xxvi Contents

Principle 2: Localization  380

Principle 3: Variability  381
Principle 4: Accountability  382
Contributions to Practice  382
Summary 384
References 385

Postlude: Future of Blended Language Learning  387

Assessment Futures  388
Moving to E-assessments  388
Adoption of Video Assessment of Performance  389
Use of Learner Analytics  390
Alignment with Values and Goals  391
Conclusions and Questions: A Third Space for
Learning and Teaching  392
Teaching, Learning and Outcomes  392
Professional Development and Training  393
Policy and Leadership  393
Research and Theory Construction  395
References  397

Index 401
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Dimensions of blended technologies 27

Fig. 2.2 Dimensions of a language learning technology 44
Fig. 3.1 Illustration of the ‘learning as instruction’ metaphor 61
Fig. 3.2 Illustration of the ‘learning as acquisition’ metaphor 63
Fig. 3.3 Illustration of the ‘learning as socialization’ metaphor 67
Fig. 4.1 Ecological change in educational environments 92
Fig. 4.2 Creative Classroom Research Model (adapted from
Johnson et al., 2014, p. 4) 100
Fig. 5.1 Relationship of technologies employed in a 120-minute
EFL speech task 142
Fig. 6.1 Progress bar for feedback and gamification 176
Fig. 6.2 A video recording and online rubric for an EFL speech
class used by both teachers and students 188
Fig. 6.3 Report of combined self/peer/teacher assessment scores
and comments 189
Fig. 6.4 A student/teacher-developed rubric for a speech class 191
Fig. 7.1 Case study and action research models of educational
enquiry217
Fig. 8.1 Major stages in the action research approach 245
Fig. 8.2 Major stages and minor steps in the action research approach 247
Fig. 9.1 Features of a blended ethnographic approach 261
Fig. 10.1 Carouselling in a university EFL classroom 296

xxvii
xxviii List of Figures

Fig. 10.2 Carouselling in a university EFL classroom (with mobile

phone recording) 297
Fig. 10.3 Sample screen question given to EFL learners by a quiz
gaming technology 298
Fig. 10.4 Syllabus for university EFL presentation skills course 302
Fig. 10.5 Paper form for teacher assessment (Paper Worksheet 1) 304
Fig. 10.6 Paper form for audience assessment (Paper Worksheet 2) 305
Fig. 10.7 Screen display of rubric report for teacher and
self-assessment310
Fig. 10.8 ‘Assess’ screen of the video assessment module 311
Fig. 10.9 Rubric design in paper forms: Three scales, (Speech 1) 313
Fig. 10.10 Rubric design in online forms: Three scales, (Speech 1) 313
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 An early taxonomy of terms related to blended learning

(Smith & Kurthen, 2007) 6
Table 1.2 Views of computer use in second language learning 8
Table 1.3 Areas of normalization in language programs (Chambers &
Bax, 2006) 9
Table 1.4 Concepts related to purposeful blended language learning 11
Table 1.5 Concepts related to appropriate blended language learning 12
Table 1.6 Concepts related to multimodal blended language learning 14
Table 1.7 Concepts related to sustainable blended language learning 16
Table 2.1 Varying perspectives on learning technologies 25
Table 2.2 Pedagogic actions as a dimension of technologies
(Laurillard, 2002) 30
Table 2.3 Timing dimensions in technologies 37
Table 2.4 Grouping and space dimensions of technologies 38
Table 2.5 Text dimensions in technologies 41
Table 2.6 Tools as a dimension of language learning technology 43
Table 2.7 Applying dimensions of technologies: critical reading
example45
Table 2.8 Conceptual shifts in technology dimensions 46
Table 2.9 Conceptual shifts in second language learning views of
technology47
Table 3.1 Summary of learning metaphors in second language teaching 68

xxix
xxx List of Tables

Table 4.1 Qualities of single-venue learning design and blended

learning ecology design 90
Table 4.2 Education as innovation—disruptive trends, challenges,
developments (based on the Horizon Report: Johnson
et al., 2014) 97
Table 4.3 Creative Classroom Research Model—28 Innovative
Practices (based on the Horizon Report: Johnson et al.,
2014)101
Table 4.4 Micro-level design considerations 103
Table 4.5 Design considerations in blended lesson plan development 107
Table 4.6 Meso-level design considerations of institutional goals 109
Table 4.7 Potential mistakes in selecting technologies 111
Table 4.8 Possible issues, causes, and potential management tactics 112
Table 4.9 Macro-level design considerations 114
Table 4.10 Micro, meso, and macro levels of design 117
Table 5.1 Definitions of task in second language learning theory 131
Table 5.2 Classroom observation data categorized by task elements 139
Table 5.3 Technology analysis of an EFL speech-making task
(Class07)141
Table 5.4 Technology analysis of a TBLT, blended, flipped teaching
approach148
Table 5.5 Gamification features applied to blended learning 153
Table 5.6 Gaming mechanisms for second language learning  154
Table 6.1 Dominant metaphors of language learning and their
relation to assessment 165
Table 6.2 Mapping blended learning considerations to assessment 166
Table 6.3 Purposes of blended language learning assessment 170
Table 6.4 Questions related to assessment design elements 171
Table 6.5 Common question types in assessment authoring systems
for blended language learning 183
Table 6.6 Rubric for assessing participation in a blended approach 186
Table 6.7 Institutional obstacles 196
Table 6.8 Instructor attitudes toward technologies 197
Table 6.9 Perceptions of technologies 199
Table 7.1 Effect of learning metaphors on contextual inquiry 213
Table 7.2 Examples of researcher actions to establish positionality 216
Table 7.3 Validity types and sample questions 219
Table 7.4 Tactics to increase internal validity in contextual inquiry 220
 List of Tables
   xxxi

Table 7.5 Contextual inquiry in blended approaches 225

Table 7.6 Ethical questions in contextual inquiry 230
Table 7.7 Key ethical principles in contextual inquiry 231
Table 8.1 Areas of action research in blended classrooms 239
Table 8.2 Differences of research approaches in blended classrooms 240
Table 8.3 Perspectives on Action Research (AR) 242
Table 8.4 Stages and steps in a cycle of action research 248
Table 8.5 Evaluating research questions in blended language learning 249
Table 8.6 Three action research projects in a university EFL program
in Japan 254
Table 9.1 Example classroom ethnographic research aims and
questions in blended contexts 268
Table 9.2 Blended technology dimensions of an extensive reading
program, Kita University, 2013 271
Table 9.3 Interpretative analysis of an extensive reading program,
Kita University, 2013 272
Table 9.4 Institutional ethnographic research aims and questions
for blended learning contexts 274
Table 9.5 Data reduction of interviews with excerpts and initial codes 276
Table 9.6 Summary of initial codes, principal actors, and major
themes at Minami University 277
Table 9.7 Summary of ethnography: Shifts in leadership, personnel,
and infrastructure 278
Table 9.8 Questions for introspective and retrospective journaling 282
Table 9.9 Sample data from an academic review 285
Table 9.10 Sample autoethnography themes and sub-themes 286
Table 9.11 Criteria for evaluation of autoethnographic research
(Richardson, 2000) 287
Table 10.1 Blended technologies in practice—three cases
and their ecological dimensions 294
Table 10.2 Types of speech assessment used Pre-2012 303
Table 10.3 Types of speech assessment used from 2012 306
Table 10.4 Five types of assessment employed in an oral
presentation course 308
Table 11.1 Common fixed and flexible aspects of an overall curriculum
(meso level) 323
Table 11.2 Common fixed and flexible aspects of blended technologies
(micro level) 324
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
couple of thousand dollars that I don’t need just now. If you think your
carrier friend could use it, he’s very welcome to it.”
Dallas looked at him in great astonishment. This generous offer quite
took her breath away. Her tone was a little less hostile as she said:
“Why, that’s very kind of you, Mr. Hines; but I don’t think Owen—Mr.
Sheridan is in need of money.”
“I reckon he is,” replied Jake, with a grin. “I know very well that he ain’t
got a dollar to his name. I don’t like the feller—he’s a crook, and I ain’t got
any use for crooks—but at the same time, as I say, I feel sorry for him. And,
besides, he’s a friend of yours, and any friend of yours, little one, can
command Jake Hines’ bank roll. So you tell him the next time you see him
that if he can use a couple of thousand he’s welcome to it.”
With these words he hurried out of the office, satisfied that he had
succeeded in his mission.
“It’s sure to work,” he said to himself as he walked back to the club.
“From the look on that guy’s face, I’m sure that it’s only the lack of funds
which prevents him from beatin’ it. As soon as he learns that there’s a
chance for him to get hold of enough dough to make a safe get-away he’ll
grab at it quick.”
When Dallas saw Owen a little later she repeated to him what Hines had
said, and the young man, greatly mystified, went to report the incident to his
friend and counselor, Judge Lawrence.
“What on earth does it mean, judge?” he inquired. “What is their game in
offering me money?”
The lawyer laughed. “It is very clear what their game is, my boy. They
are in hopes that you are in such terror of the coming trial that you can be
tempted to seek safety in flight. The two thousand dollars is intended to pay
your expenses.”
Owen frowned; then his face suddenly lighted up. “Say, judge, I’ve got
another idea. Couldn’t we make great capital out of this offer? What’s the
matter with my accepting this money from Hines, in the presence of
concealed witnesses, then exposing the whole game? The very fact that they
are trying to induce me to jump my bail ought to be enough to prove that
they are behind this conspiracy.”
Judge Lawrence smiled. “I was thinking of that, but it wouldn’t work.
Those rascals are too smart to lay themselves open to a trap of that sort. That
is why Hines went to Miss Worthington instead of making that offer direct to
you.
“You see,” he went on, “while we can readily guess their motive, they
haven’t said anything that would incriminate them. Hines simply offered to
lend you some money, which might be taken as a philanthropic and
disinterested act on his part. He did not suggest that the money be used to
defray the expenses of your flight. He would claim that he thought you
might be able to use it to defray the expense of your defense.
“And, besides, you can rest assured that if you agreed to accept the
money, Hines wouldn’t be so careless as to make out the check to you. He
would make it out to Miss Worthington. There’s nothing criminal in a man
lending or giving a couple of thousand dollars to a young lady whose
friendship he ardently seeks. That’s the answer which they would make to an
attempt on our part to make capital out of the incident.”
Sheridan realized the logic of this, and Hines’ offer was turned down flat.
Boss Coggswell was greatly disappointed when his lieutenant reported to
him that the letter carrier had refused to avail himself of this opportunity to
seek safety in flight.
“It is too bad,” he sighed. “I would have preferred to let this unfortunate
young man down easy. He has chosen unwisely. A sojourn abroad is much
more pleasant than several years behind bars. But since he refuses to accept
my aid,” he went on, those expressive ears of his wagging rapidly, “I’m
afraid he’ll have to go to jail. Yes, Jake, as much as it pains me to have to
say it, I am quite certain now that he’ll have to go to jail.”
 CHAPTER XII.

ON THE STAND.

Boss Coggswell was not present in the courtroom when Owen Sheridan’s
came up for trial. Not that he was not interested, nor was it a feeling of
delicacy which kept him away; but he realized that his presence might excite
comment and lend color to the accused man’s assertion that he was the
victim of a conspiracy.
“You’ll be there, of course, Jake,” he said to his subordinate, “and I’ll rely
on you to bring me the news just as soon as a verdict is reached.”
Hines grinned. “Yes, you can bet your boots, boss, that I won’t lose any
time gettin’ here with the glad tidings. I guess you’re right in decidin’ not to
be present. It’d look pretty raw for you to go to court. No use takin’ any
unnecessary chances.”
“It isn’t that, Jake,” replied Coggswell deprecatingly. “It isn’t that, my
boy. I have no reason to be afraid. When one’s conscience is clear, one
doesn’t have to worry about what people might think. But the fact is, Jake, I
have a tender heart—you ought to know that by this time—and I could not
bear to be present to witness that poor man’s sufferings.”
Hines grinned again, and looked at his chief admiringly. “All right, boss,”
he said. “You wait here, and I’ll bring you the news as soon as the jury
brings in a verdict.”
Hines had not the slightest doubt as to what that verdict was going to be.
He felt confident that the evidence against Sheridan was so crushingly
conclusive that the jury wouldn’t hesitate more than three minutes before
deciding that he was guilty.
If he had any apprehensions on the subject they would have been
dispelled by what he had seen that morning. He had encountered Owen on
the street, walking arm in arm with Judge Lawrence, and if ever two men
looked worried, the accused carrier and his counsel did.
“Poor gink!” said Mr. Hines to himself. “I guess he’s sorry by this time
that he didn’t take that money and beat it while he had the chance. Wonder
how he’ll look in a suit of stripes and with his hair close cropped.”
 There was a broad grin upon his face as he entered the courtroom and
seated himself on one of the rear benches. Catching the presiding judge’s eye
leveled sternly upon him, and suddenly realizing that his levity was hardly
decorous, he hurriedly assumed a serious mien.
He found it difficult to refrain from chuckling as the case progressed,
however, for as witness after witness took the stand to testify against
Sheridan, and the strong chain of circumstantial evidence was presented link
by link to the jury, the prisoner’s counsel, eminent lawyer though he was,
seemed to become more and more baffled and depressed.
Ex-Judge Lawrence was famed for his skill as a cross-examiner. This was
the only point on which Coggswell and Hines had been apprehensive. They
feared that there was a possibility of some of the witnesses going to pieces
under the vigorous, searching questioning of counsel for the defense.
But, to Hines’ great relief, the ex-judge, in this case, gave no evidence of
being an expert at the art of cross-examination. He did not succeed in
“rattling” a single witness; in fact, he handled them all so mildly and
apparently with so little spirit that Hines muttered to himself
contemptuously:
“Huh! Him a great lawyer! Guess he’s been very much overrated. Why, I
know a whole lot of ordinary police-court counselors that could give him
cards and spades.”
William Warren, wholesale liquor dealer, was the first witness to take the
stand. He testified that he had sent his good friend Michael Harrington, a
saloon keeper, a gold watch by registered mail. He had placed the watch in
the package in the presence of two witnesses, who had also been with him
when he handed in the package at the registry window of a downtown post
office.
Judge Lawrence asked this witness but four questions in cross-
examination:
“Are you acquainted with Samuel J. Coggswell, Mr. Warren?”
“I never had the pleasure of meeting the gentleman.”
“Are you acquainted with a young man named Jake Hines—a prominent
member of the Samuel J. Coggswell Association? Before answering this
question, Mr. Warren, let me remind you that you are under oath.”
“It ain’t necessary to remind me of no such thing,” retorted the witness
indignantly. “Yes, I know Mr. Hines. I am proud to say that he is a good
friend of mine.” He glanced across at the spectators’ benches, and Jake
smiled at him an acknowledgment of this compliment.
They had expected this question, knowing that it was the accused
carrier’s hope to be able to make the jury believe that he was the victim of a
conspiracy. They had decided that Warren should tell the truth, and admit
that he knew Hines. To have denied the fact would have been dangerous.
There was no telling that the defense did not have witnesses at hand ready to
take the stand and swear that they knew of the friendship.
“Yes, I know Jake Hines,” the witness repeated, almost belligerently; “but
that don’t——”
“Did you meet him, or in any way have communication with him, on the
day you sent the registered package?” interrupted counsel for the defense.
“Yes,” replied the witness unhesitatingly. “Mr. Hines came to my office
that day. He was in the neighborhood, and he dropped in to make a social
call.”
This question, too, had been expected. Warren had made up his mind to
answer it truthfully, for it was quite possible that Hines had been seen
entering his office.
“And at that meeting between Hines and yourself, Mr. Warren,” counsel
for the defense went on, “did either of you say anything about this watch
which you were going to send to Harrington?”
“Not a word,” emphatically replied the witness, who was prepared for
this question also. “Not a single word, sir. We never spoke about the watch at
all. Hines didn’t know that I was going to send it.”
As the conversation which had taken place that day between Hines and
himself had been behind a closed door, with no chance of anybody having
overheard them, Warren felt that he was quite safe in making this denial.
“That’s all,” said the cross-examiner, with an audible sigh, and the
witness, as he stepped down, exchanged a triumphant glance with Jake
Hines.
The next witnesses were the men who had been in Warren’s office when
he placed the watch in the package, and who had accompanied him to the
post office and seen the package handed in at the registry window. Both of
them were reputable business men, and Owen’s lawyer made no attempt to
impeach their testimony. In cross-examination he let each of them off with
but a single question, which was the same in each case:
 “On the way to the post office, where did Mr. Warren carry the package
in which you had seen him place the watch?”
“In the left-hand pocket of his coat,” the two witnesses both answered.
Michael Harrington, the saloon keeper, testified that the package
contained no watch when he opened it; which statement was corroborated by
several witnesses who had been present in the saloon when the accused
postman brought in the registered package.
Harrington made a good impression on the stand. He denied that he knew
Jake Hines, except by reputation, and volunteered the information that he
had “no use for Sam Coggswell, or any of his bunch,” being himself of the
opposite political party. Hines could not help grinning at Judge Lawrence’s
evident discomfiture.
The pawnbroker’s clerk, an exceedingly nervous young man, who took
the stand and swore that Owen had pledged the watch for forty dollars, was
cross-examined at greater length than any of the previous witnesses.
Counsel for the defense, however, could not shake his testimony. He
admitted that he was acquainted with Jake Hines, but denied that the latter
had been in the pawnshop that day, or had held any conversation with him
regarding the watch. Another audible sigh came from Judge Lawrence as
this witness left the stand.
The two post-office inspectors testified to having found the pawn ticket in
Owen’s trunk, and a half dozen of the employees of the Branch X Y took the
stand and reluctantly stated that Carrier Sheridan had tried to borrow thirty
dollars from them that day.
Owen’s counsel did not attempt to cross-examine any of these witnesses.
As the last of them left the stand and the prosecutor announced that this
closed the government’s case, Jake Hines leaned back in his seat and smiled
expansively.
“Let ’em beat that if they can,” he muttered confidently. “I can see from
the looks of the jury that they’ve made up their minds already.”

TO BE CONTINUED.
 HE WANTED TO KNOW.
It was customary with the French marshal, Bassompierre, when any one
of his soldiers were brought before him for heinous offenses, to say to him:
“By heavens, brother, you or I will certainly be hanged!” which was a
sufficient indication of their fate.
A spy, being discovered in his camp, was addressed in these terms; and
next day, as the provost was carrying the culprit to the gallows, he pressed
earnestly for leave to speak with the marshal, alleging that he had something
of importance to communicate.
The marshal, being made acquainted with his request, exclaimed, in his
customary rough and hasty manner:
“It is the way of these rascals; when ordered for execution, they pretend
some frivolous story, merely to reprieve themselves for a few moments.
However, bring the dog hither.”
When the culprit made his appearance, the marshal asked him what he
had to say.
“Why, my lord,” replied he, “when I first had the honor of your
conversation, you were obliging enough to say that either you or I should be
hanged; now I come to know whether it is your pleasure to be so; because, if
you won’t I must, that’s all!”
Needless to say that the rascal was pardoned.

HE COULDN’T UNDERSTAND IT ALL.

An Irishman, who was terribly afraid of ghosts, got a berth on board an
American vessel.
As the ship was leaving the port, he asked one of the sailors if there were
any ghosts on board.
One of them, for a joke, said it was as full of ghosts as a churchyard.
This frightened Pat so much that when he turned into his hammock he
drew his blanket so far over his head that his feet were left naked and cold.
He endured the suffering for a few nights, and then he went to the captain
and complained about his blanket.
 “Please, sor,” said Pat, “my blanket is too long at the top and too short at
the bottom, and sure, I even cut a bit off the top and sewed it onto the
bottom, but, faith it’s just the same as iver it was. I can’t undershtand it at all
—at all.”
 THE NEWS OF ALL NATIONS.

A Kangaroo Cat.
Mrs. Pussy Cat, who lives at the home of Thomas Evans, in Newport,
Ky., is greatly worried over one of her offspring. No other member of Mrs.
Cat’s numerous family is like the newcomer. This kitten has only two feet
and walks or hops about like a kangaroo. There are only tufts of fur where
the front legs ought to be. In hopping about, the kitten balances itself with its
tail, which it uses as a sort of rudder.

Gets Fifty-dollar Tip for a Shave.

Jack O’Reilly, barber in West Third Street, Los Angeles, Cal., had the
surprise of his life a few days ago. A prosperous-looking man walked into
the shop. When the job was done, the patron unlimbered a wad of bills,
stripped off a fifty-dollar yellowback, and said: “Things have come my way
handsomely. Here’s a bit of a tip.”
Leaving O’Reilly stupefied with astonishment, the man walked out. He
was a prosperous Los Angeles stock broker, O’Reilly said.

Asks $500 for Loss of Faded Army Uniform.

On the loss of a faded blue army uniform, a relic of the Civil War, Mrs.
Mary Heintzelman, seventy-three years old, of Minneapolis, Minn., bases a
claim for five hundred dollars against Hennepin County, which she has
already filed.
Five years ago Mrs. Heintzelman went to the Hennepin County poor
farm. Her only possessions were packed in an old-fashioned trunk. In the top
tray lay the old uniform and a packet of soldier’s letters, written on the
heavy blue stationery used in war times. They were the only links that bound
the old woman’s life to the highest happiness her life had known.
The uniform, more than half a century ago, had been worn to the war by
George Heintzelman of the Forty-seventh Pennsylvania infantry. They had
been betrothed, she and the young soldier, when he marched away to war.
The memories of those days when he and she were young have been the only
comforts in the old woman’s life.
Three years later Heintzelman came back, badly wounded. He recovered,
but a bullet through his lung had impaired his health. They were married,
and moved West. The husband’s health did not improve. A few years later he
died.
Mrs. Heintzelman stored the old uniform and the letters in the trunk and
set about to make her own way in the world. The years that followed were
lonely and full of hard work and trouble. The treasures in the trunk were the
only solaces in the woman’s life.
Finally, too old to work longer, she went to the home. Every spring, on
the anniversary of the day that her lover had marched away, Mrs.
Heintzelman would take out the old uniform and hang it on the line to air.
Softly she would caress the faded garment and read over the old letters, and
her sadness and loneliness would be lost in the flood of pleasant memories
that floated back from her youth.
A week ago, as the old uniform hung upon the line, a cinder descended
from a smokestack. It smoldered for a moment in the garment, flared up, and
Mrs. Heintzelman’s last treasure was gone forever.

Blasted Romance of Poor Aunt Emily.

When board of health inspectors of Indianapolis, Ind., went to the home
of Emily Smith, a recluse, to remove piles of dust-covered books and papers
which literally filled her little house, they uncovered a hidden fortune and
unearthed a story of a blasted romance.
Fifty years ago the woman was a belle in the English settlement in New
York City and was preparing to be married, when the man who had won her
was stricken with fever and died.
She moved to Indianapolis twenty-five years ago, and, residing in a slum
district, has been an object of charity for many years. About eight thousand
dollars was found secreted in the house, which was cleaned only after the
indignant woman had shrieked in protest.
The following is the supposed pauper’s riches: Currency, $846.97;
certified check, $200; bank deposits, $1,800; mortgages, $5,000, and
insurance papers of undetermined value.
 “There is nothin’ there you’d want to see, and, besides, it would kill Aunt
Emily if you disturbed her papers,” a negress told the officers.
“This is my home; it’s none of your business what I have beneath these
papers!” Miss Smith shouted, as the officers started to move the newspapers
and pamphlets.

Fighting Man’s Square Meal.

Charles Weber, a pugilist from New York, while in a cell in Philadelphia,
Pa., on a charge of forgery, having been brought here from Moyamensing
Prison, told Turnkey Gordon, of the Thompson Street police station, that he
hadn’t eaten for a week; that he was as hungry as a polar bear, and wouldn’t
Gordon please get one dollar from his money in the sergeant’s desk and take
his order for a square meal? Gordon did.
Ten minutes later Gordon faced the house sergeant with a wry face.
“What do you think of that fightin’ guy?” he asked. “ ’E said ez ’ow ’e
wanted a square meal, and sent me out fer a dollar’s worth of cream puffs,
and blow me if ’e didn’t eat every bloomin’ one of ’em.”

Answers the Call of Cupid.

After having answered nearly four million calls, Miss Theresa Cox, chief
telephone operator at the Minnesota State House, has fallen victim of Cupid,
and given up her job. For ten years, ever since the capitol was completed,
Miss Cox has guarded the switchboard day in and day out, the
personification of efficiency and amiability, and long years ago gained the
reputation of being a model telephone girl.
On ordinary days she made between one thousand and twelve hundred
wire connections. When the legislature was in session, or in other times of
stress, the demands on her switchboard were greatly increased, and she
would be called over the lines sixteen hundred times or more.
No one ever applied for her job, and she probably was the only one in the
capitol whose job was not in danger. The uncertainties of political positions
had no fear for her, for no governor ever could have thought of removing
Miss Cox. There would have been a storm of protest akin to a riot.
But what governors could not do, Henry Jopling accomplished. He
invited Miss Cox to marry him, and Dan Cupid advised her to surrender.
 “I’m awfully sorry to leave here,” she said to a gathering of State House
officials and employees who gave her a wedding “shower,” and her voice
shook a little. “You have all been so kind to me.”

Old-time Circus Man’s Will.

William Washington Cole, an old-time circus owner, at one time of Cole
Brothers and later a part owner in the Barnum & Bailey show, left an estate
valued at five million dollars, according to his will filed with Surrogate
Daniel Nobel in Queens County.
Mr. Cole died in Whitestone, L. I., March 10th. He left a widow, but no
children, brothers, or sisters. Distant relatives live in England and in
Scotland.
He left to his widow, Mrs. Margaret Cole, two hundred thousand dollars
and two-eighths of the residue after the bequests are paid. Mrs. Cole is also
to receive certain specific bequests. Sixty-five persons receive bequests and
annuities aggregating about five hundred thousand dollars. The will also
makes bequests to churches and institutions to the extent of one hundred
thousand dollars.

Transcontinental Pedestrians.
In competition with Edward Payson Weston, the veteran walker, and to
win a fifteen-hundred-dollar prize offered by the Panama-Pacific Exposition,
Mr. and Mrs. Tom Jackley are walking across the country, with the
requirement that they “make” the capital of each of the forty-eight States
within three years. They left San Francisco September 12, 1912, and seem
sure of winning, as they are now in the East, and have four months to reach
Augusta, Maine. They are forbidden to ride in any way, and may obtain
money only by selling pictures of themselves.

Gets $7,000,000 from Uncle.

Using the name of Albert Brown nearly cost Albert James Bourne, a
transient farm hand, a fortune of seven million dollars, left him by an uncle
who died several months ago in Melbourne, Australia.
 After a search through seven States, Bourne was located on a farm near
Lincoln, Neb., by private detectives who had been hired to search for him. It
was discovered he had been in a hospital in St. Joseph, Mo.
The property left him consists of 339,000 acres of free land, 25,000
sheep, 400 horses, hundreds of cattle, and 50,000 pounds sterling. Bourne is
Irish, and fifty years old.

Sues Farmers, but Vanishes.

Two years after filing suit against wealthy Howell County farmers of the
South Fork, Mo., neighborhood, whom he accused of slanderous statements
concerning himself, the whereabouts of Wiley C. Goldsby, the plaintiff, are
unknown, and caused the dismissal of the suit, which had been taken to
Ozark County on a change of venue. Goldsby was last seen when he left for
the Kansas wheat fields.
After Goldsby had been in charge of the ranch house of Doctor R. A.
Sparks for some time, stories were circulated in the neighborhood that he
was a woman masquerading in male attire. It was said he often wore a
kimono when preparing breakfast for the ranch hands, and devoted his spare
time to crocheting and other fancywork. It was these statements that Goldsby
made the basis of a suit for heavy damages.

University Student at Ten.

Helen Bradford, of Ottumwa, Iowa, ten years old, has made arrangements
to enter the University of Iowa in September.
She was graduated from high school, and is heralded as one of the best
mathematicians among grade students of the State. She will be the youngest
girl to attend Iowa in more than ten years.

Cupid Tricks Truant “Cops.”

Cupid has had Minneapolis, Minn., school-attendance officers dodging
around corners in pursuit of children under sixteen who were not attending
school, only to have them flash a marriage license. This has happened
several times during the present school year, and school-attendance officers
are getting vexed at Cupid.
 The law is that children must attend school until they are sixteen, unless
they have completed the elementary-school course. However, attendance
officers have given up the chase after the truants when it has been proved
they have been married.
Teressa Amundson, Alida Sandeen, Ruth Rosendahl, Lillian Jordan,
Agnes Gratz, and Alice Hanson are the girls who have abruptly ended their
education by the marriage route and had attendance officers guessing.

Fight Lake of Burning Oil.

Recently, citizens of Oilton, Okla., and neighboring towns witnessed the
most extensive oil fire that has ever occurred on the river since the field
opened. It was one mile northeast of the town, on the Cimarron River, where
the oil had formed a lake in the bend of the stream. It burned for hours,
sending up a column of smoke and flame that was noticeable from towns
twenty miles away.
William Murdoch, traffic manager of the Oil Belt Terminal Railroad,
headed a squad of men who prevented a spread of flames, which would have
been disastrous to the big railroad bridge.

He Helped to Found Republic of Texas.

J. W. Darlington, ninety-four years old, of Austin, Tex., is the only person
now living who heard the sounds of the guns at the battle of San Jacinto,
seventy-nine years ago.
Mr. Darlington was one of the band of Texans who met and defeated the
Mexicans under Santa Anna, but was prevented from fighting in the battle
itself by being detailed to look after the supply train.
Mr. Darlington came from Virginia to Austin in 1839, the year that Austin
was laid off as a town, and the first capitol was built. He married Miss
Eleanor J. Love in 1843, and has four daughters and one son living. He is an
honorary member of the Daughters of the Republic, and still takes an interest
in affairs of the State. His chief delight seems to be recalling his life in Texas
in the early forties.
In the battle of Plum Creek, in 1840, Mr. Darlington, at the head of about
two hundred citizens, whipped the Comanche Indians so that they gave the
early settlers no more trouble. He was also engaged in a battle at Plum Creek
in 1842.
Mr. Darlington helped to plane the logs for the first capitol during
Lamar’s administration, and also to build the fort around the capitol, to
protect it from the Indians on one side and the Mexicans on the other. The
capitol was then used not only for the sessions of Congress, but as a church,
school, opera house, dance hall—in fact, for all public gatherings.

Rounded “The Horn.”

Vanburen Crompton, of Allen Dale, Ill., is one of the few men living who
went to the California gold fields by way of “the Horn.” Most of the
emigrants went overland by wagon, enduring many hardships. Mr.
Crompton, then a young man, with two companions chose the water route.
Taking a boat at New Orleans, they followed along the Mexican and South
American coast, rounding Cape Horn, and then up the western coast, to San
Francisco. The ships in that day were slow, and it required many weeks to
make the journey. Thousands of men were called westward by the lure of
gold, but only a comparatively small number found riches. Mr. Crompton
was among the unlucky ones, and returned home after six years. He now
lives on the farm on which he was born, and in one of the first frame houses
erected in southern Illinois. In the early days there was a fort near the farm, a
refuge from the Indians.

Still Another “Pick” to Feed.

Former President Roosevelt’s fear of race suicide would have received a
rude shock had the colonel been in the front office at the Young Men’s
Christian Association in Nashville, Tenn., when “Bee,” a crippled porter, and
quite a fixture at the building, asked for a day off.
“What in the world do you want with a day off, Bee?” asked one of the
secretaries to whom this request, coming from Bee, was something unusual.
“Well, suh,” said the old negro exultantly, “Ah have a visitor at mah
house dis mawnin’. It’s de nineteenth, suh. Ah shore has a hard time to sport
’em, suh. Eatin’s am high and money am mighty procrastinatin’.”
Bee’s request was granted.
 “Up, You Dead!” Cry Saves the Trench.
A French lieutenant, now lying wounded in a Paris hospital, has given
this account of the thrilling action in which he received his injury:
“We were fortifying a trench which we had taken. Behind a barrier of
sacks which blocked one end of it, two sentinels kept careful watch. We
could work in all security.
“Suddenly an avalanche of bombs tumbled down on our heads. Before
we could recover, ten of our men were stretched on the ground, dead or
wounded, pell-mell.
“I opened my mouth to urge them on again, when a stone from the
parapet, torn out by a projectile, hit me on the head. I fell unconscious. My
stupor lasted a second only. A splinter of shell tore my left hand, and the
pain brought me to.
“As I opened my eyes, weakened, my mind benumbed, I saw the ‘boches’
jump over the barrier of sacks and invade the trench. There were about
twenty. They had no guns, but they carried in front of them a sort of wicker
basket filled with bombs.
“I looked to the left. Our men had gone, the trench was empty. The
boches advanced; a few more steps and they were on me.
“Just then one of my men, lying on the ground, a wound on his forehead,
a wound on his chin, blood streaming from his face, dragged himself to a
sitting position, seized a sack of grenades near him, and cried out: ‘Up, you
dead!’
“He pulled himself to his knees, dived into the sack, and flung the
grenades at the group of assailants.
“In answer to his cry, three more wounded men dragged themselves up.
Two of them, who had broken legs, took guns, and, opening the magazines,
started a rapid fire, each shot of which hit home. The third, whose left arm
was inert, seized a bayonet with his right.
“When I picked myself up, having quite recovered my senses, about half
the hostile group had been felled, the rest having retreated in disorder.
“All that remained was a huge, perspiring subofficer, congested with
rage, who, leaning against the barrier, protected by the iron shield, continued
most courageously, I must say, to fire his revolver in our direction.
 “The man who was first to organize the defense, who had cried, ‘Up, you
dead!’ received a bullet straight in the jaw. He collapsed.
“Suddenly the soldier with the bayonet, who for some minutes had been
crawling from corpse to corpse, stopped about four feet from the barrier,
drew himself up, dodged two bullets fired at him, and plunged his bayonet
into the German’s throat.
“The position was saved. The wounded soldier’s sublime appeal had
resuscitated the ‘dead.’ ”
 Alleged Dead Man Denies the Report.
Once upon a time the city editor of a newspaper printed a story about a
man being dead who wasn’t dead.
Much to his consternation, the man arose the next morning and read a
lurid account of his death. He pinched himself to see if he were dead or
alive, and, coming to the conclusion that he was very much alive, after
looking at a black-and-blue mark where his fingers had closed together
upon his tender flesh, he sought the city editor.
“I read in the morning paper that I was dead,” he remarked to the
newspaper man at the desk.
“Well,” laconically responded the city editor, “what about it?”
“I am here as a living witness to testify that I am not dead,” responded
the man who was printed dead, “and that the reports of my death are very
much exaggerated.”
“I want you to understand here and now that if this newspaper says you
are dead, you are dead,” retorted the city editor.
“But don’t you see that I’m very much alive?” queried the astonished
dead man.
“All right,” replied the city editor, “we’ll put you in the birth column to-
morrow morning.”
Well, there is a parallel case to this in Montana, as is shown in an
opinion by the State supreme court, written by Associate Justice Sanner.
Frank Lemmer, a taxidermist, was the object of an obituary notice in the
Great Falls Tribune, W. M. Bole’s newspaper. The notice had him dead, and
dead to rights, because of an overdose of morphine, administered upon a
prescription by a physician, but evidently the Tribune made the mistake of
not putting Mr. Lemmer in the birth column the next morning, although it
explained later that Lemmer had arisen from the dead, with due apologies to
the supposed dead man.
Now, Lemmer objected to being called a “dead one,” and promptly
instituted suit against the Tribune, claiming that he was not dead, and that
his business as a taxidermist had been injured by the alleged malicious
publication that he was dead.
 Naturally, the defendants demurred both generally and specifically,
which demurrer was sustained by the Cascade District Court. The plaintiff
thereupon declined to plead further, and suffered judgment of dismissal
with costs. Naturally an appeal was taken.
Justice Sanner, Chief Justice Brantly, and Associate Justice Holloway
concurring, calls attention to the inference contained in the publication of
the alleged death of Lemmer.
“The necessary inferences are,” says the opinion, “that Frank Lemmer
died; that he died from an overdose of morphine; that the morphine was
procured on a doctor’s prescription, which prescription was obtained at
Lemmer’s instance by a stranger. None of these circumstances, nor all of
them, suggest anything disgraceful or criminal.”
The opinion then proceeds to say that it is no disgrace to die, and that
one may die without moral turpitude from an overdose of morphine
procured by a doctor’s prescription, even though a stranger acted as
messenger in the transition.
“Speaking generally,” continues the opinion, “there is no doubt that one
may suffer such damages from almost any publication whatever,
particularly a publication to the effect that he is dead; but whenever such
damages are sought, it is not enough to aver generally that in consequence
to the publication the plaintiff has been damaged in his business; the facts
showing such damages must be alleged or no cause of action is stated.”
The opinion then proceeds to show that the demurrer to the complaint
was properly sustained, and the judgment is affirmed.

“Movie” Mysteries Are Here Explained.

Rumbling bass notes from the unbridled, unleashed piano. Thunderous
roars from the big bass drum. Frequent crashes of brassy cymbals. You
instinctively clap your hands to your ears and breathlessly await the
bursting of the awful tornado that is scurrying over your head.
Then comes a pause in the deafening and ominous roar—the house is so
still you can hear the clicking of the projecting machine as the film is reeled
off.
Yes; we are in the midst of a fearsome forest, and the heroine is just
about to merge from the inky blackness with all her troubles—there she is,
now!
What was that? A flash of lightning! The drummer redoubles his
sonorous roll, ending with a wild, spine-stiffening thump. Some storm. The
heroine’s hair is blown so violently you fear it may be torn out by the very
roots.
She falls to the moss-grown forest floor. Livid flash and another
thunderous roll. Then the deluge. The heavens open, and while the fanfare
is loudest and the lightning is lividest, our fair lady is soaked to the skin
with real water and falls to earth, beaten down by the very force of the
torrent from on high.
Great scene, that!
Come with us now and see how the game is played. Ah, the movie
studio!
Here’s a patch of nice green grass on the studio floor, and back of it a
few shrubs and some sizable trees. Up on a scaffold high enough to be out
of the camera’s ken are a dozen men, each armed with a huge watering pot.
The heroine stands on the side lines, waiting for the storm to begin.
Storm in broad noon of a sunny day? Sure thing. Just watch.
An excited-looking individual holding a bunch of manuscript stands
beside the heroine—yes, you’ve guessed it, he’s the movie director.
She gets behind the trees, and the man at the camera crank starts turning.
She pushes her way through the tangled wildwood and stubs her toe,
looking unutterable anguish the while.
“Down stage!” yells the excited director.
She staggers on as directed, the camera man cranking nonchalantly with
one hand while he takes puffs at a cigarette with the other. The poor girl
tries to rise, and wabbles feebly.
“Fall in front of the camera!” bawls the director.
She falls at the proper focal distance.
“Stretch out your arms—look wild!” yells the boss of the works.
“Let her go!” this time to the men with the watering cans.
And poor heroine, struggling and staggering, is drenched to the skin with
the downpour, not from the heavens above, but quite as wet.