PAKISTAN Nigel Kelly } | Updated for the Cambridge O Level Pakistan Studies syllabus 2059/01 from 2015utlished by FEAK PUBLISHING UMATED ue © Peak Pubishing Limited 2008 “ost © Wig! Kelly 2008 ‘ein test pushed 2008 Reprinted 2008 ew dion 2010 eprint 2011, 2012 ew ton 2013 New faiion 2004 Ison o016se679 Aligs served "Ne paagraphof this pulaton may be reproduce, copie or transmitted save wth written permission fr imaceordance wa the prvions ofthe Copyright Design and Patents At 1983 oF under the terms of {ny eee permitting limited coping Sued by the Copyright Lensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Roa, london WP SHE Acknowledgements: ‘The pubisnes woud He to thank the folowing for permission to reprosuce photographs Inside le page: Agence France-Presse Rosia Dawn 90,243,109 ‘The exam-stye quetions an sample answers this beak have Been wen by the author, Whi ever efor hasbeen made to tace copyright hades if any adnowedgerent hs been iadvertety ‘mite, the publishers wil be pleased to make he necesararangement at the is poor. ‘ny person who does any unauthorized cn relation to hs pubeaton maybe lable to timinl prosetion dev cams for damages Projet manager Tat Ain Pitan Malaysia Distributed by: Danesh Danesh Publications (Pvt) Limited KARACHI: 241/1E, Khaala Stet, PECHS, lok 2 aac. Ph 34529185 Fa: 34314107 E-mu aneshadanesh com pk LAHORE: 5-8, Tipu Black, New Garden Town, Lahore Ph O2 358587103 Emal sore @danes.com pk ‘Website: ww. daneshcom pk“the History eens Pakistan NIGEL KELLYCONTENTS Cultural and Political Background to the Pakistan Movement Foreward 3 Introduction 4 Chapter 1. How successful were the religious thinkers in spreading ftam inthe subcontinent during the 18th & 19th centuries? 5 Chapter 2 What were the causes and consequences of the decline ofthe Mughal Empire? " Chapter 3 What were the causes and consequences ofthe War of Independence 1857 - 58? a (Chapter 4 How important was the work of Si Syed Ahmed Khan tothe development of the Pakistan Movement inthe 19th century? 8 CChaptor § To what extent have Urdu and regional languages contributed tothe cultural development of Pakistan? a“ Exam Guidance a Source Guidance 9 The Emergence of Pakistan 1906 - 1947 Introduction ‘Chapter 6 How far did the Pakistan Movement develop during the early 20th century? (Chapter 7 How successful was the Khilafat Maverent in advancing the cause af the Pakistan Movement? (Chapter 8 How successful was the Pakistan Movement in the years 1927 to 1938? Chapter 9 How important were attempts to find a solution to the problems facing the subcontinent inthe years 1940 to 1947? 85 Chapter 10. How important were the contributions of Jinnah, Alama Iqbal and ehmat Alito the sucoess ofthe Pakistan Movement? 9% Exam Guidance 102 ‘Source Guidance 105 Nationhood 1947 - 1999 Introduction 107 Chapter 11. How succossful was the establishment ofan independent nation botween 1847 and 1848? 108 Chapter 12 How far did Pakistan achieve stability follwing the death of Jinnah? 119 Chapter 13 Why did East Pakistan sock and then form the independent state of Bangladesh? 134 Chapter 14 How successful was Pakistan inthe 20 years folowing the ‘Decade of Progress"? ut Chapter 15. How offective wore Pakistan's governments in the final decade of the 20th century? 158 Chapter 16 How important has Pakistan's role ben in international afars since 19472 168 Exam Guidance 193 Source Guidance 195 Index 198‘As long ago as the beginning of the twentieth century, the American President, Woodrow Wilson, was asked whether he thought it was important for young ‘Americans to study their country’s history, He answered: ‘A nation which does not know what it was yesterday, does not know what it Is today, nor what itis eying to do," If this was true for the United States one hundred years ago, itis even more true for Pakistan today. The History and Culture of Pakistan enables you to sain a full understanding of the epic struggle which resulted in the formation ff the new Muslim country in 1947 - and the challenges it faced in its first 50 years of exbtence. ‘Those using the book in preparation for the Cambridge Pakistan Studies O Level examination will find it an invaluable resource, as it has been written specitically to meet the needs of such students: ‘© The books divided into three sections in the same way that the Cambridge syllabus is divided. ‘* The book’s 16 chapters mirror the Key Questions’ set out in the Cambridge sylabus, with a coverage ofall the content set out in the ‘specified content ‘© The author has used his experience and knowledge to set 'Exam-style ‘questions’ at the end of each chapter. ‘© Throughout the text, examples of Source based questions, in the style of those appearing in the examination, are provided to give practice in this, new question type. At the end of each Section, guidance is given on answering the traditional paar (2), (b) and (c) questions and on answering Source-based questions. ‘© To assist learning, there are numerous Aids to Learning’ questions, designed! to assist comprehension and understanding. Whether you are using The History and Culture of Pakistan just to understand the exciting story around the establishment of Pakistan, or whether you also reed to achieve your best in your Cambridge examination, we are sure you «will enjoy what you are about to read, Nigel Kellyeer } | | | | Cultural and Political Background to the Pakistan Movement Introduction [At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Mughals ruled India. However, by the middle of the nineteenth century, external forces and internal weaknessess meant that the once mighty Muslim Empire was gone. ‘The decline of the Mughal Empire reflected a decline in the fortunes of the Muslims in general in the subcontinent, as the British tended to favour the Hindu community. Fortunately a number of great Muslim reformers emerged who helped bring about a revival of Muslim fortunes and place Muslims ‘on the road to an independent Pakistan. Shah Waliullah made the Quran accessible to large numbers fof Muslims by translating it into Persian; Syed Ahmad Barelvi launched a movement to restore Islam to its original purity and his work was continued by Haji Shariatullah’s Faraizi Movement. Perhaps the most important Muslim leader, however, was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. He played a vital role in restoring relations between the British and the Muslims after the unsuccessful War of Independence and in helping Muslims to appreciate the value of education. The work of these four great reformers played! a vital role in raising the ambitions and the status of the Muslim community in the subcontinent. In later years Urdu also played a significant part in unifying Muslims - particularly after the creation of Pakistan. ‘ig, Ld: The IndPaisin subcontinent 4HOW SUCCESSFUL WERE THE RELIGIOUS THINKERS IN SPREADING ISLAM IN THE SUBCONTINENT DURING THE 18TH & 19TH CENTURIES? Key Questions addressed in this chapter 1 The religous reforms ofSbah Walla 1 14s roe in the pole! and repius ont Hoy important were the religious reforms of of te ume Shah Waliullah? Ahmad Bar andthe real of Blam a > What influence did Syed! Ahmad Barelvi exert in the revival of Islam? in the subcontinent 1 The nhad movement ae! the Nyjahieen © Ha Sharan > How influential was Haji Shar Faraizi Movement? hand the Farsi Movement The Work of Shah Waliullah (1703 - 1762) Early Biographical Details ‘Shah Waliulah was born on 21 February 1703 during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir. Hie real name was Qutub-uc-Din, but he later Became known ‘as Shah Welullah because of his pity. His father was Shah Abdtl Rahim, who founded the Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi. When his father died in 1718 Shah \alullah began teaching at tne Madrasa, tn 1724 Shah Wallan went 1o Arabia to perform Ha) and to further his studies. He studied under the famous scholar Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim, before returning to Delniin 1732, Beets ‘© During his time in Arabia, Shah Waliullah thought deeply about the probloms faced by Musiims in the Mughal Empire. The Empire was in decine and ‘Muslims were disunited and vulnerable to attacks on their religion. Shah ied tha reform could not come from the weak leadership in ind that it had to come from within the Muslim community iselt ‘+ He believed that many of tne problems of the Muslims resulted from their incomplete knowledge of the Quran and about Islam in general ~ and it was necessary that Quranic teachings become more accessible to the people es '* Al poltical, sodal and economic behaviour should be based on Islamic principles. 1. What did Shah Waliulh A major problem for the Muslim community was the way it was divided into ‘think wore tho main ‘sectarian groups, such as Sunnis and Shias. Shah Weliullah wanted them Gusselte mbes! fconoertate onthe Yondemental pris of fla and put aie ha ° aaa ‘ differences, believing that this would create a more united community. wiewos| «yas ote fo fellow fe mera and spr pls of am ere eee Ry: to create a good society. Un-Islamic principles were not acceptable in any Sock so area of society, whether poltics, economics or just the day-to-day lives ofthe —— individual Muss.PSS Work ‘+ Shah Waliulah worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for other Muslims. His deep understanding of the Quran, Hadith, Fiqah and Tasawut ‘made him a highly knowledgeable scholar at an eerly age, ‘Since he believed that an emphasis on Quranic teachings was vital to ‘Muslims, he translated the Quran into Persian. Few Muslims spoke Arabic {and so the Quran had not been widely studied previously. Now it could be understood by a larger number of Muslims. The vlama eriicised Shah \Wliullan, but his work proved very popular. Later his two sons, Shah Abdul Cader and Shah Raf, anslated the Quran into Urdu, which meant that many ‘more people could study it. ‘In addition to translating the Quran, Shah Walillah wrote fifty-one books in Persian and Arabic. Amongst the most famous wore Mujat Aah al-Baligha ‘and IzalaAkhfa. He also wrote an account ofthe first four caliphs of Islam ina way that was acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis. He hoped that this ‘would help 1 heal the division between them, ‘+ His wings brought him great fame and prestige and enabled him to hav influence in other areas too. For example, in ecanomics he emphasised the ‘need for social justice and for peasants and craftsmen to be truly valued for {hair contribution to the economy. ‘© One of Shah Wallulah’s most important contrbutons to the Musim community Was his organisation of opposition to the Marathas, who were threatening to ‘over-un the Mughal Empire from the south. He realised thatthe Muslims hac to unite to deal with this throat, and that of the Sikhs who were attacking in the north. Shah Walillah wrote to all the Muslim nobles calling on them to Join together to save the Mughal Empire. It was partly his influence which helped to persuade Ahmed Shah Abdali of Persia to intervene. He joines forces with local Mustim leaders and defeated the Marathas at the Batle of Panipat in 1761. However, despite encouragement from Shah Walillah, the [Muslim leaders did not unite to take advantage ofthe defeat ofthe Marathas, Pethaps if they had done so, the Muslims would not have soon found themselves under non-Musim rule. Importance Shah Waliullah’s contribution towards Islamic revival was extremely important {or a number of reasons: ‘+ He was one of the first Musim thirkers to state thatthe deatne ofthe Mughal Empire and the vulnerable positon of the Muslims wre due to a neglect of the principles of Istam. He believed that if the deciino inthe position of the ‘Muslims was to be stopped, there had to be spintual and moral regeneration, ‘= He showed how this regeneration might take place, The Madrassa Rahimya Continued to play a vital role in teaching Islamic principles and researching Islamic thought ‘+ His writing in Persian made Islamic teaching available to large numbers of Muslims who had not been able to understand Arabie. He believed that "Muslims could only prosper if they followed proper Islamic customs and did Not indulge in social evs. Shah Walilish provided the inspiration forall Muslims to lead a pure life, based on the belief that anti-social atitudes incurred the displeasure of God. ‘+ Ho also showed that @ Muslim revival could ony take place i there was an ‘acceptance that sectarian division was to stop. Muslims had to concentrate ‘more on the basic principles of Islam, and not alow the differences betwoon ‘them to lead to confit. He tried to bulld bridges between the diferent Muslim ‘ects and to unite the community. He tried to do this by organising opposition to the Marathes ané uniting Muslims by emphasising the importance of Jihad against a common enemy, 6© Like all reat reformers, Shah Wallullah’s influence continued long after his {eath. Not ony aid his writings survive and be translated in many languages, but the Madrasa Ranimiya continued fo flourish as his sons carted forward his work and teachings, Many future Islamic leaders were inspired by him to fight for the good of the Muslim community. Syed Ahmad Barelvi (1786 - 1831) Early Biographical Details ‘Syed Ahmad was born near Lucknow in the small town of Rai Bareli in 1786. His father died whilst he was stil young and in 1806 he moved to Delhi and ‘onrolled in the Madrassa Rahimiya For two years he studied under the sons of Shah Walillah learning the Quran and the Hadith. ‘But Syed Ahmad was more a man of action than a scholar and in 1810 joined the forces of Amir Khan, a Pathan miltary leador. It was at this time that Syed ‘Ahmad learned how to use European weaponry. He showed himsolf to ba s0 ‘abla that he was given command of a group of soldiers. However, because of his piety he was also made responsible for leading the troops in prayer. In 1817 ‘Syed Ahmad retumed to Delhi, where his work became important in tying to ‘estore Islam fo its orginal puri Beliets ‘© As.a man of action, Syed Ahmad was an ideal person to act as a leader to ‘work against British power in India and fo try to ensure that Muslims were ruled by fellow Muslims. Ho belived that the freodom of Muslims could only ‘come as a result of armed struggle agains the foreign and non-Muslim forces which were oppressing them, ‘© Syed Anmad believed that there was a need to end the evils that had ‘corrupted Islamic society. Consequently, even when he served as an army Officer he surrounded himself with men of great piety who were prepared to ‘eject worldly wealth and work for improving the moral and intelectual lives of Muslims. ‘+ Tho Britsh had ensured that the Mughal Emperors had litle real power and the Sikhs were dominant in the Punjab. Syed Ahmad founded the Jihad Movement, which called for armed struggle to overthrow non-Muslim ‘oppression and restore Muslim power. He beloved that once this was done Islam could be rejuvenated and rescued from beliefs and customs contrary to Islamic beliefs which nad crept into every day le. Work ‘+ In 1821 Syed Ahmad went for Ha; before going he traveled across India and held mestings in order to spread his belles about jhad. When he retumed rom Arabia in 1823, he was ready to take action, ‘© Atthis ime the Punjab was under the contol of the Sikh regime of Ranjit Singh, who had also extended his authority into the North West Frontier. The ‘Muslims sufered under Sikh rule because they were unable to carry out many of theie religious practices ~ even the eal fo prayer was banned in some places. Syed Ahmad thought that this was intolerable and decided that the Punjab was the place to launch his jihad against non-Muslim rulers, ‘Syed Ahmad toured the Punjab and the North West Frontier to enlist men to fight the Sikhs. He travelled many hundreds of mis to raise a mujahideen force. His travels took him through Rajasthan, Sindh, Balochistan and into Afghanistan 7i 1.2 The vale of laos However, he found that the Afghan troops were suspicious of each other and ‘not always prepared to join him in his jhad. ‘= In 1826 Syed Ahmad established his headquartors near Peshawar. He sent ‘8 message to Ranjt Singh teling him that he must allow Muslims freedom ‘of worship or face the mujahideen. Ranjt Singh dismissed the ultimatum, so ‘Syed Ahmad was forced to attack first at Okara on 21 December 1828, and then shorty afterwards at Hazrothe: the Sikhs suffered defeat. © Syed Ahmad's victories established him as a successful miltary leader and fencouraged other tribes to join the mujahideen. Soon the army numbered ‘over 80,000 strong. A major problem for Syed Ahmad, however, was that his army consisted of men from many different communities which disagreed ‘over how the campaign was fought. The Skis tied to expla these diferencas by calling his army un-slamic. They claimed thet by following the teachings of Shah Welillah, Syed Ahmad's forces were not true Muslims. ‘© This view was not accepted by the Muslim leaders. In 1827 they agreed Lunenimously that Syed Ahmad should assum the authority of an Imam. His Word on religious matters was considered binding and his increased authority helped to unite the various Muslim groups forming the mujahideen force. ‘© Syed Ahmad was preparing to attack the ort of attock when he encountered fan army of 35,000 Sikhs near Okara. What he did not know was that Yar ‘Mutiammad Khan, a Pathan chief who tad joined his army, had been bribed by the Sikhs. First one of his servants tried to poison Syed Ahmad, then Yar ‘Munammad Khan deserted the battefeld along with his men thus creating Confusion and chaos in the ranks which ulimalely led to the defeat of Syed ‘Anmad's forces. He had no other option but to move his headquarters to the safely of Panjtrar near Kashmir. ‘© Although Yar Muhammad was later killed in battle against the mujahideen, his brother, Sultan Muhammad Khan also waged war against Syed Anmad. This constant ‘campaigning against felow Muslims was not what Syed Ahmad wanted, so he moved his forces to Balakot, hoping to liberate Kashi ‘and Hazara. Balakot was thought to be safe a8 it was protected on three sides by mountains. But once again Syed Ahmad was betrayed when local leaders told the Sikhs of ‘8 way through the mountains. They made a ‘urpie attack on the foreas of Syed Ahmad. The Battle of Balakot (1831) was a fiercely ‘contested one. Though the mujahideen had been taken by surpise by a much larger Sikh army they fought bravely but were heavily outnumbered and unable to resist the Sikhs. Six hundred mujahideen soldiers were killed, including Syed Ahmad and his commander, Shah Ismail ‘The defeat of the mujahideen in the Bate of Belakot, was a serious setback for the Jihad Movernent and it struggled to survive in the following years. The ‘movement continued on in the hils of the North West Frontier until 1863 when the British sent a large army to deal with the mujahideen threat. Even then the ‘movement survived through the determination of Is foiowers. The work of Syed ‘Ahmad had been vary influential because: ‘© It was the first example in Indian history of a movement formed to free the ‘Muslims from the tyranny of non-Muslim or foreign rulers. e_—— ‘Tous 1. Whatdd Hj Shaiaulah mean by Darul Harbt 2, Why washis movement calledthe Faraz Movement? —— ‘© It was not @ movement in order to place a particular leader in power but, Instead, to achieve religious and spintual freedom. ‘+The Jihad Movement was a uniting force for Muslims. Many of Syed Ahmad's| soldiers had been spiritual leaders or teachers, The fact that they wer prepared to die for their cause was an inspiration to all Muslims. ‘The Jinad Movement is regarded by many Pistorians as the fore-runner of, the Pakistan Movement in India, Syec Ahmad's efforts were an inspiration to all Muslims in defending thelr religion, their culture end thelr freedom, ‘Those Muslims who later campaigned for their own homeland saw Syed Ahmad as an example of a Muslim fighting for the Musi cause in much the same way, sinee he too wanted to see a state which was based on the principles of Islam. The work of Haji Shariatullah (1781-1840) Early Biographical Details Haji Shariatullah was bom in 1781 in Faridpur dstict in East Bengal (loday part of Bangladesh), His father was a fermer and his family was not very well off. in +1799 he travelled to Arabia on pigrmage and stayed there forthe next nineteen years. Ho became great influenced by the beliefs of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wana, (On his return to East Bengal he started his own reform movernent designed 10 priy Islam of the Hindu infuences. Haji Sharatullan died in 1840, but his work Was carried on by his son Mohsin-ud-Din, Beliets ‘+ Haji Shariatulah believed thatthe miserable condition of the Mustims in India led to the country being Dar-ul-Harb. This meant an area where non-Muslims ruled. Haj Shariatulah said that in such areas Friday and Eid prayers should not be offered. ‘¢ He also believed that the Muslim community had moved away from true Islamic practice, He wanted them to return to what he thought ws the proper observation of Islamic duties called faraiz. This was why his movement was called the Faraizi Movement. ‘+The Faraizi Movement supported the idea of jhad against the non-Muslims \who were undermining the true principles of istam. Work '¢ Haji Shariatullah found that the Muslims of East Bengal had been oppressed both by the Hindus and by the British, Previously the Muslims had been the ruling class in Blengal, but when the British took over, they werked with the focal landowners (zamindars), who were mainly Hindus. The Muslims hac also been given few opportunities in education and employment. As a result, many important Muslim families had been reduced to near poverty. Haji ‘Sharlatullah started the Faraizi Movement to restore the pride of the Muslims {and remove what he thought were the Hindu practices which had crept into their worship. ‘© Emphasis was placed on praying for past sins and on promising to lead a ‘ighteous fein the future. An important part of ths reform would ba to fllow the religious obligations of a true Muslim. °Now do Skills Book pages 1-2 ‘+ The succsss of Haji Shariatulah's movement caused great concam amongst the Hindus of East Bengal. In that region Hindu and British landloros nad Carried out economic oppression of the Muslim peasants. The landlords did ‘ot want Heli Sheriatulah creating dificutes for ther and were vary alarmed that the Muslim cutvators were uniting in a desire to improve their lives and purify thoir religion. They drove Haji Shariatullah out of the region to Nawabgan in Chaka cistrict, where he died In 1840, ‘+ His work, however, was carried on by his son, Mohsin-ud-Din, who continued to work to improve the position of Muslims in East Bengal and introduced Important economic measures. () He divided East Bengal into areas called circles, each under the ‘control of Khalifas. They were responsible forthe social and spiritual welfare of the people in their area. (i) He helped the peasanis to oppose the excessive taxes imposed by the Hindu and British landlords {Gi) Mohsin-ud-Din's opposition to the payment of taxes led to unrest in East ‘Bengal, but he went even further and twrestened to declare a jhad against the British government. Tho British arrested him and put him in prison. After his death in 1860, the Faraiai Movement declined Influence The Faraisi Movement was influential for a number of reasons: ‘+ It gave encouragement to Musims at a time when they wore damoralised by the oppression they suffered from the Hindus and the Britsh, ‘© It brought about aspirtua revival which led to a revival in the Islamic religion East Bengal. Hindu influences were removed trom Islamic practices ‘+ Ito had en important political and economic impact. The Bengal peasants ‘became united intheic opposition to the harsh treatment they raceived. They became more aware oftheir rights and a poltical unity began fo grow amongst them. This was to prove important in later years as the Muslim demands for their own homeland grew. It might be said that some of the seeds of the Patan Movemct were scum By the Fara Mover. yg wralal Movement? [4] lullah translate the Quran into Persian? [7] ‘Syed Ahmad Barelvi the most important factor n the revival of od 1700-1850? Give reasons for your answer. [14] 10WHAT WERE THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? icra munis dined waiatope} Key Questions addressed in this chapter (Tho inact of Aragztis pols onthe sabi ofthe Mughal Empire 1+ The fens os sxccessors sles 1 Prblens of contraing the fpie (©The see he Maratha ard Sy Epes. > How far was Aur ‘of the Mughal Empi > How far did the Mughal weaknesses from 1707 make decline inevitable? > What role did the East India Company play in the decline of the Empiret > How successful was British expansio subcontinent to 1857? .eb responsible for the decline ‘aura sons forthe deine othe Mughal Engi Foeigninasions fam Peri ad Afghan ©The Et Inia Compr’ ivoherent te subcontinent (Bas lations with he te Mag arse Dt «etd expansion ror the 17501 the 18505 n the been «The anneraton of he tetores encompassing Pai way (©The Bits euch for rar aed coe NW Front Bits poly tomar Tb etry. "Fig. 2 Bab te first Masha Emperor Pie The Mughal Empire before Aurangzeb 2: The Mughal Empire under Mar Babur: The first Mughal Emperor Tho first Mughals wore a ruling family trom Central Asia and the first Mughal Emperor in India was Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad, or Babur as he is generally known. Babur was a Muslim who ruled in Turkestan and was keen to expand his tertory. In 1526 he defeated the Emperor of Delhi in the Battle of Panipat. He then defeated other Indian chiefs, and established himself as unchallenged ruler of northern India. Humayan: A Troubled Reign BBabur ruled northern India for just four years bofore he died. He \was succeeded in 1530 by his son, Humayan. The Afghan chet, Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in battle and took control of many of his terrtories. Humayan also had to face opposition frm his own brothers and it was not until 1585 that he restored his ‘control in the lands that Babur had won. But his success was ‘shortlived, Just one year later he tripped on his own robes on the steps of his library and fell to his deatht Akbar: The Empire Extended ‘Although he was only 13 years old when he succeeded his father, the next Emperor, Akbar, extended the Mughal Empire further. He was greatly influenced by Sufl beliefs and in 1881 announced, his ‘Din-e-lah’, @ new religion containing elements of both Islam and Hinduism. Ths religion did not take root and died ‘out after Akbar's death. ‘Akbar ruled for almost fity years and at his death in 1805, the Mughal Empire was strong and the foundations had been {aid for other Emperors to continue to expand the lands under Mughal control Jehangir and Shah Jehan ‘This expansion continued under Akbar's son, Jehangir, though it was Jehangir who signed a commercial treaty with the British in 1615, He did not realise that the British would ‘eventually overthrow the Mughals! Jehangir's son, Khurram, took the throne under the name ‘Shah Jehan. He was responsible for bulking the famous Taj ‘Mahal, in memory of his favourite wie, Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jehan also tried to extend the Empire in campaigns against the Persians and in modern day Uzbekistan, but his wars were costly and ineffective. He did, however, defeat the Portuguese after thay tried to forcibly convert Mustim gits to Christlanty. 2Pig 2.3 The Ta Mahal Exam-atyle Queail — |e. whac does che pier ofthe Taj Mahal tellus about the Mughal Empl The Reign of Aurangzeb (1707) ‘Aurangze Seizes Control In 4657 Shah Jehan fll seriously il, This presented a serious problem for the Emperor as he had four sons, all of whom were of mature age, were all Governors of important pats of the Empire and had large armies avaiable, They all wanted to be the Emperor! When it appeared that Shah Jehan was dying, they began to jostle for power, Two of them, Shah Shuja and Murad, actuslly hhad coins struck in their name showing them as the new Emperor. However, the ‘eldest son, Dara Shikoh, was thought to be the Emperor's preferred successor. But could he establish himsett in power? It seemed that he could not because in 1658 two of his brothers, Murad and Aurangzeb, joined forces and defeated Dara Shikon’s army. But then Shah Jehan recovered and ordered his sons not to march on Agra. Aurangzeb replied that his father had lost control and it was important that he, Aurangzeb, take over and re-establish order. In May 1658 he dofeated the Imperial army, led by Dara Shikoh and took his father prisoner. ‘Shah Jehan was allowed to remain in Agra unt his death in 1666, where he was buried in the Taj Mahal. 8Pig 2 Aargze Pig. 28 Te Ep of Arango ‘THE FATE OF AURANGZEB! ‘Murad as imprisoned ad later executed, ‘Shah Sha was killed wil trying to rise an army to oppose his brother. Dara Shikoh proved mor roublesome. Aurangzeb kad 6 pursue him and take hrm Prisoner before executing him in 1630, ‘The impact of Aurangzeh’s Polics fon the Stability of the Mughal Empire ‘After defeating the Imperial army Aurangzeb took stops to establish himself as Emperor. Although Shah Jehan had left the Empire larger and more peaceful than at any ther time in ts history, this did not last. Aurangzeb was soon finding that much of his time (and money) was spent fighting, * There was a war against the Rajputs from 1679-81 and rebellions by the Sikhs, and the Satnamis in Mewar and the Jats in Gokal, ‘© Since Aurengzeb was keen fo extend his Empire northwards, he also had to fight a tough campaign against Pathan tribes in the North West Frontier. ‘* Perhaps most costly for Aurangzeb was the campaign fought against the Maratha tribe in the Decaan. The Maratha leader, Shivaji, was orginally defeated in 1665 ‘and brought as a prisoner to Agra. However, he ‘escaped and was soon back inthe Deccan leading the ‘ight against Aurangzeb. Even ater 25 years of fighting ‘Aurangzeb had not subdued the Marathas. He had, however, almost emptied the Mughal teasury. Although ‘Aurangzeb did face many problems in extending the Empire, by the time of his death in 1707 it was larger than ithad ever been, stretching from Kashmir to the Kamatak and Gazni to Chitagong Aurangzeh’s Reforms Historians are divided about Aurangzob's attude towards religion. Some say that he was intolerant and wanted to dostoy other religions, They point out that he re-introduced the tax on non-Muslims, the Jzya, he destroyed @ number of Hindu temples and he tried to ban some old Hindu Practices, such as suttes. He also enforced Islamic law, making Hindus and Sikhs live according to the Quran, Other historians, however, argue that Aurangzeb was not Intolerant, but that he was more ‘orthodox’ than some. earlier Emperors, They emphasise that he omployed some Hindu advisors and there aro recorded instances of him ‘making donations to Hindu temples. “‘There are mixed views on how successful Aurangzeb was as an Emperor. Perhaps much of the oriicism is a result of his more austere measures, such ‘a8 appointing censors of publie morals, banning the consumption of alcohol, ‘Stopping singing and dancing at ‘court and evan determining the maximum length {for beards. But to many people these were wise and needy measures helping to ensure that paoples' lives were lived in the correct manner. ‘Aurangzeb made himself popular with traders by abolishing many local taxes, but generally taxation was very high during his reign. Not only did he have to pay for the cost of his military campaigns, But he aiso spent huge sums on buiding luxurious palaces. An example of his extravagance Is the famous Pearl Mosque at Delhi, which was bul for his pivato prayors. The taxes resulting from ‘Aurangzeb's heavy spending meant that, by his death in 1707, he hac become fan unpopular ruler. Aurangzeb was 89 years old when he died and had ruled the Empire for almost fity years. He achieved much, but itis also te the, during his eign, the start of decay in the Empire could be seen. |g) SL oe |, Auonaeb keeps he fos! on Fidoys ond dung the peso of Ramadan oe "meals and does no ston fo mus. In his cour, no wicked lk, no backbting ot ving is alowed. |The ie an exact rom The Histo of Aurangzeb! ween by an oficial in his court in 1658, } Now do Skills Book pages 3 Ry og en ’ Tsou ‘ay bgsen cow tl of mosques sted oe mot hideous tp. nied of akon hns ond Bean: cecas oor | tut deste wha Aangied say ni Kingdom every dey he mes! mensus eines the works xe | ciel | Tis was wien by an talan who stdin crn urongze’s el ard wrote 9 book cle t a : ad 1. What does source A make you thiok about Aurarzeb? 2 Do you ee that Source B makes you think about range i 2 igh ilerent way fom Source A? xpi your anwer. 2. AvSouree A and Source Bower writen taut the sae tine, why do youthiak they dotsay the same thing about the Emperor? a ‘The Effectiveness of Aurangzeb’s Successors Aurangzeb had become Emperor by defeating his rivals in battle, He was determined to avoid such a war after his death so he divided the Empire between hig tee sons. But he did not succeed. Fighting broke out between them, and eventually Prince Muazzum established himself as Emperor. He survived only 8 few years and then his four sons fought over the throne, but the victor, ‘Jahandar Shah, was murderod within a year. In the ten years after Aurangzob’s ‘eath, twelve diferent people claimed to be Emperor at one time! The stable Mughal Empire had become weak and divided Munammad Shah became Emperor in 1719 and ruled for almost thirty years, but he faced so much opposition, that he was really the last Mughal leader who Could claim to be Emperor. 18Invading Forces During the eighteenth century The Mughals found it increasingly dificult to cope with foreign attacks. The Persians In 1738 the Persian leader, Nadir Shah invaded the Mughal Empire. He defeated ‘Munammad Shat’s forces at Kamal in 1739, After that he caplured and sacked Delhi, taking over territories west of the Indus. Nadir Shah did not intond to ‘make himself Emperor, but only to win @s much booty as possible. When he lft ‘after two months, he took huge amounts of gold and jewels. He also took the prestige of the Mughals. Now people saw how weak the Empire had become, ‘The Marathas ‘Another problem for the Mughals was the Marathas. They formed a Hindu Empire in southern india and were a constant source of difficulty for the Mughals, ‘Aurangzeb spent over 25 years trying fo defeat the Maratha forces and after his death, they continued fo take land from the Mughals. In 1737 they defeated the Mughal army and plundered Delhi. By the middle of the eighteenth century the Maratnas had replaced the Mughals as the most powerful force in India ‘The Afghans ‘Athi invading force came from Afghanistan. In 1747, an Afghan general called ‘Ahmad Shan Durrani attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore, By 1749 he had ‘gained contro ofthe Punjab and by 1788 he added Kashmir and Multan to his Possessions, The weakness of the Mughal Empire can be seen by the fact that the Mughals were unable to stop Maratha or Afghan expansion and it was ‘actualy Ahmad Shad Durrani who defeated the Marathas expansion in 1761 at ‘tho battle of Panipat However, as you will read below, by far the greatest threat tothe Mughals came trom the British. ‘The End of the Empire ‘Ahmad Shah Durrani helped place Muhammad Shat's son, Ahmed Shah on the ‘Mughal throne. However, the Empire he ruled was shrinking rapily, a8 unrest In the Empire continued to increase. Indeed, Ahmed Shah was imprisoned by his own court and died in captivity. His succossor, Alamgir I, was assassinated (on the orders of his chief minister and the next Emperor, Shah Alam Il remained in Binar and chose not to retum to Delhi for another twelve years. In 1784 ho suffered defeat at the hands of the British atthe Battle of Buxar. ‘Shah Alam’s defeat led to the British taking control of Bengel, Bihar and Orissa, In 1803 they also occupied Delhi and placed the Emperor under ‘British protection’. The Briish were now winning a stranglehold on India and the final two Emporors ruled in name only. Shah Alam's son, Akbar I rule parts of Deh but lite more. His son, Bahadur Shah Il was expolled for his part in the 1867 War of Independence and died in exile in Rangoon, ‘The once-mighty Mughal Empire was over. 6Reasons for the Decline of the Mughal Empire ‘There are many reasons why the Mughal Empire declined. The decline was Gradual and although some historians blame Aurangzeb for sowing the seeds of decline, the Empire continued for another 150 years after his death. Perhaps the real answer tothe question Is that a number of factors combined to bring ‘about the fall of one of Asia's most famous dynasties. A. The Nature of the Empire Administration The huge Empire was very difficult to administer. Decisions often had to be tolayed over thousands of miles. Obviously Emperors could not know exactly ‘what was happening in every part of the Empire. This was one reason why ‘Aurangzeb encouragod the use of mansabdars, but many problems remained. \When rebelions broke out, it was often many months before the Emperors could take decisive action to end them © Military Costs ‘The Mughal Empire was huge and within the Empire there was an array of| different people and different religions. As you wil have seen from the way that the Emperors were continually fighting rebelions, there was always a pressure (on the Empire from separatist elements. The cost of puting down rebelions and ‘fighting wars against Invaders, such as Nadir Sheh from Persia was enormous. © Succession It shou also not be forgotten that it was offen true that huge sums were wasted ‘when Emparors died and there was a succession dispute. When Shah Jehan fell ‘ick in 1657 al four sons enced up fighting to succeed rim - even though he had ‘not yet ded! It was fo avoid costly wars that Aurangzed decided to divide the Empire between his three sons, but this was not successful and succession disputes ‘continued to erode the Empire. B. The Consequences of Suecess ‘© Declining Mititory Expertise ‘When dynasties are in power for long periods, itis easy to become complacent ‘and to imagine that success will continue for ever. Tis happened with the Mughal ‘who let their army's expertise decline until it was no longer an effective fighting force. When it became obvious that Mughal strength was declining discontented ‘groups within tne Empire were quick to act. Consider how Aurangzeb was unable 10 deal with Shivajis rebelion in the Deccan + Pleasure Seeking “The weath created by the Mughals also encouraged the nobilty to become pleasure loving and degenerate. They betrayed the principles of Islam and instead enjoyed the pleasures brought about by wealth, Nobles often had the finest clothes, jewellery ‘and food. One fin of Akbar is sad to have ordered atleast 100 courses at each meal, The Emperors also set a poor example. Fine buildings were a symbol of ower and culture, but they were alse somotimes so expensive that they were @ symbol of extravagance ”Now do Skills Book pages 5-6 © Weak Control ‘As the wealth and influence of the nobility grew they became highly powerful at court and some of the Emperors found it very difficult o control them (some, such as Alamgir Il were assassinated by powerful couriers). With weak control from the centre, the mansabadari system was not sufficiently suporvised and ‘administrative efficiency declined. Discontent grew and revenue from tax collection dectined C. The Arrival of the British ‘The Mughal Empire wes in serious decine by the end of the eighteenth century \wmhat eventually pushed it nto nal decine was the ambition of the Britsh. Since the time of Jehangir the English East India Company (EIC) tried to take ‘advantage of the wealth to be gained by trade wit India, The EIC was a private trading company, but behind it was the goverment of what was possibly the most Powerful country in the world. England had been the fist country to experience the Industrial ) Revolution. Its industries wer producing cheap manufactured ‘eds which were sold around the f world, With the wealth this 4 created, the Bish could afford a | military strength which the a i. J | Mughals could not match. The t weaknesses of the Mughal ) Epo, together with stongth / of the Bish, meant hat the fal of one of ta migmesteynastios } ifs es abot evil, i 24: Bo fir ie aloe gel Emp Rerishi “Tom Bria which means England, Seotind, Wales and Irland, Although the king or queen of England rales all these lands, each of them has its ‘wn language However, the langue spoken by ‘most people and the oficial language, is English _ | AD TO UBLRERS es ws i. weiss. — Enter the British von bofore the Mughal Empio wont into decline, Europoans wore casting ervious ‘yes on India's wealth. The Portuguese established a base in Goa in 1510, butt was the Briish wno were most determined to establish trading bases in India In 1600 the English Queen, Eizabet | granted permission to @ group of merchants to set up the East India Compary (EIC). The British government dé not send out its own expadtions or cary cutis ovn trading. Instoad it gave permission to groups Df individuals todo tis. The government dal, however, make sure that these Groups ‘operated in a way which was aocepiable o the government. ‘The EIC was given the monopoly in tade between Britain and areas east of Aca That meant that no other Briish company could trade in that area, The merchants ‘were hoping to break into the spice trade in the East Indies (modern day Indonesia) but the Dutch had already won contol of the spice trade and would not let any ‘other European power share it So the East india Company turned to India as an alternative. They frst landed in Surat in 1608, but it was not unti 1612 that they were allowed to begin trading ‘When the Governor of Gujarat (the future Shah Jehan) granted this permission he could not have imagined that one day the British would end up ruling all finda BIC “The Briish influence in Inia grew slowly, At fst the EIC had just afew bases on the Indian coast, but by 1664 they had established their headquarters in Bombay. In 1690 a vading post Was estabiched in Caleula, The EIC purchased spices, sks ‘and cotton from the Indians and trade was ¢o proftabe that the company soon had its own huge private army to protect the trading posts, uence Grows, By the early eighteenth century, the EIC had three main bases, Bombay, Calcutta ‘and Maoras (Fi. 2.7). The company began to refer to these as ‘presidencies’ and ‘they were later to become the major provinces of British India, A first the arival ofthe British merchants brought benefits not only to the Brish but also to the Mughal Empire. Indian merchants were able to sel their goods and vecame wealthy from the large amounts of siver being sent out ftom Brain to pay for them. A ths time the British imported Indian goods but dit not export mucho India. However, the Bish began to develop plans for growth which would lead to cect competition with ‘the Emperor. By the end ofthe seventeenth century the EIC was talking about ‘English dominion fr all time to come’ The EIC even had the audacity to go to war with Aurangzeb in 1686, He defeated the company’ forces and pardoned thom only ater thoy had apologised for the ‘ll crimes they may have done’. The company ‘Fig 27: BIC bases India nthe carly 98 8180 forced fo pay a heavy fine. cighiconth century ‘But the EIC was more successful in fighting against other European nations who wanted the opportunity to share inthe highly profiable Indian trade. During the seventeenth century both the Portuguese and the Dutch wore defeated, but the main rivalry came from the French. They had set up thei rading company in 1664 ‘and soon came into confit with the EIC, The military skils of the Brtish general Robert Clive enabled the EIC to defeat the French and take advantage of Inca’ 19es Lunsetiod conditions to increase British influence and contra. t slowly began to ‘expand its forces to make local Indian princes accept its authority and was thus i able to set up ls own government in parts of india. | ‘After winning the Batle of Plassey, Robert Clive was made governor of Bengal, A ‘but his opponents in Bitsn carieg out an investigation int his behaviour in Indi. s [Although he was not found guy ofthe charge of ‘plundering India, the disgrace, “ Coupled with his addiction to opium, caused him to take his own ie in 1773, BR ewed Clive both asa courageous and reso » : imately became an imperial statesman and aso 1 Bie instr Fig 28: Sr Robert Clive housed his politico! ond military influence t Although he attempted to reform the Reng upton, Clive wos subjected to further pol British Expansion from the 1750s to 1850s ‘The Battle of Plassey ln 1756 the French encouraged the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah to attack the EIC base at Calcutta. He captured tho city, but was unable to keop contro! Of it. In 1757 Clive arrived with a force of EIC soldiers an dofeated Sira)-ud- 1761 _Pondichesry | Daulah’s troops inthe Battle of Plassey. The Nawab's body was found in a river aftr the battle CCive'sviclory had been made easy by the treachery of Sira-ud-Daulah’s general, Mir Jafar, The EIC rewarded him by making him Nawab of Bengal. This showed | how British control was growing. Thus one of India's richest provinces fll under British control. Mir Jafar was forced to gle the company git of land and money which helped make some of the EIC officals very rch In 1764 Mir Jafar’s son, Mir Qasim joined forces with the Nawab of Ouah and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam I, to drive the EIC out of Bengal. They were Unsuccessful and alter their defeat inthe Battle of Buxar in 1764 British influence actualy increased, The EIC now teok contol ofthe revenue calleton in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and also extended its influence into Ouch, Bengal Exploited ‘The East india Company had been established to gain as much proft as possible, but is greed after Buxar embarrassed the Briish government. The company made huge profits from its monopoly of the trade in Bengal and company merchants became accustomed to receiving personal ‘gts’ which increased their wealth ‘Whilst they made huge profits, the local people were exploited and many cied in a serious famine which hit Bengal. Robert Clive, who had been responsible for the military victory which brought EIC control of Bengal admitod that ‘Such a scone of (or earl of ina 2» [Ctve’s victories in India 17S Arcot[A British member of Parliament (M.P) was s0 angered by what was going on that he made a speech in the Britsh House of Commons claiming thet No civilised government ever existed ‘corrupt or more greedy than the 1765 to 1784. ‘The British Government Intervenes ‘The British government was forced to act to stop this misgovernment. In 173 it passed an Act of Parliament which required the EIC to provide good {Government to stop this snarchy. Then in 1784 the British government passed the India Act (eometimes called The Pits India Act) and took direct control ofthe Indian possessions. It appointed a Governor-General, who would have control ‘of the three presidencies, There would also be provincial governors and a Commander-n-Chief of the armed foroes. The EIC continued to trade, but lost ‘ost of its administrative powers. ‘To further improve elficioncy, a police force and legal system were set up on {British lines. A professional civil service was also introduced, but local people were not given jobs in. Only the Brilish were considered suitable to help run "Baiish Inca’. {Aer setting up their naw administration system in India, the British government ‘continued to expand British control ‘#111782 the frst Govemor-Ganeral of India, Warren Hastings, signed a treaty tending the Fist Maratha War between the British and the Marathas. Tis gave the British the opportunity to extend their influence elsewhere. ‘+ In 1799 Governor-General Wellesley invaded Mysore and kiled Tpu, the Sultan of Mysore. The Bris then took control of his lands. ‘* Inthe same year the Nanabs of Oudh were defeated and forced to grant large ‘araas of thei territory tothe Britsh In 1803 the Brtish entered Delhi and forced the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam, to accopt that he was rung under ‘Brtsh protection. ln 1818 the Merathas wore defeated by Bris forces and finaly forced to accept British contrat ‘Thu Mir ‘Titu Mie (roa! name Syed Mir Nisar ) was a great Bengal freedom fighter who led the people against the oppression ofthe zamindars and the British colonial ‘system, In 1822 Titu Mir went on a pilgrimage to Mecca and when he returned to Bengal in 1827 he was determined to free Bengal from un-Islamic practices and Brish rule. He proclaimed himself king and raised an army of 15,000 followers, He bult a ‘bamboo fort at Narkelbaria in October 1831 and defeated British forces sent to (Mg 29: The location of Sindh destroy IAS @ result the Brilish sent an army inckuding cavalry and cannon Tit [Mir forces could not withstand the power of the British modem weapons. Tity ‘Mir along with many of his fllowers dled afer five days of flercs fighting, In his ‘epost, the Bish commander praised the amazing bravery of Tity and his men. ‘The Annexation of Sindh - How did the British WA take over the area of modern day Afghanistan? By the early nineteenth century the Britsh were becoming increasingly concerned ‘about The Russian expansion, The British wanted to make sure tat Afghanistan ‘didnot fall into Russian hands. The British agreed with the Sikh ruler of the aPunjab, Ranjt Singh that Aighanistan should remain independent. They hoped ‘that Ranjit Singh would help them install a po-Briish ruler in Kabul. He did not ‘suppor them, s0 the British went ahead on their own. However, a rebellion in ‘Afghanistan in 1841 led to all British troops in the country being killed, ‘The Brish felt that their pride had been hurt by this loss in Afghanistan and decided to tum on Sindh. This territory was ruled by a collection of Amirs who had signed a treaty of friendship with Britain In 1809, However, the British wanted {o regain their prestige and also to make sure thai Sindh could not be @ target for Sikh expansion. Ranjt Singh had been following a policy of extending his, kingdom and this had worried the British, so they decided to annex Sindh. All they needed was an excuse. The British general, Sir Charles Napier provoked the Amirs of Sindh so much that thoy attacked the British Residency in 1843, He now had his excuse for war. He later admitted that We have no righ to bosage useful human plece of ‘The Amis were defeated and Sindh was annexed by the Britsh. Annexation of the Punjab and the North West Frontier Shorty aterwards the Punjab also fel into Brish hands. Ranjt Singh had signed « trealy of ‘perpetual friendship’ in 1809 but, after his death in 1838, rival chiefs ‘sxgued amongst themselves over who should be the king. The Sikhs were worried thatthe Britsh would invade the Punjab and so launched an attack on the Brtish ‘The Bilish defeated the Sikhs atthe Battle of Alwal in January 1846 and forced them to sign the Treaty of Lahore. The Sikhs had to cede land tothe British and pay a huge indemnity. The Raje of Jammu, Gulab Singh, who had helped the Eritsh, was alowed to purchase Kashmir (which the Bish had taken from the Sikhs) and was granted the tile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashi. In the Second Sikh War (1848-8) the Sikhs once more suffered defeat and the Sikh Empire came to an end. The Punjab and what later became known as the North West Frontier became part of the Brtsh Empre on 30 March 1849. ‘The Natural and Scientific Border “The acquisition of tho NW Frontier by the British was nearer to what Lord Curzon later called the ‘scientific and natural frontier of British India’. This meant estabishing a border which was based on natural geography, but also played 2 part in defending the teritory from outside forces, ‘The Briish were determined that such a border woulé also help in their relations With the “Tribal Territory to the north of the new teritory. Lord Lytton (who became Vicorby of Inca in 1876) put forward the idea of establishing a boundary to separate India from the tribesmen. He wanted to safeguard northern Incia {rom the non-stop tribal warfare and raiding. Eventually, Sie Mortimer Durand, ‘khan of Afghanistan ‘This agreement established what became known as ‘The Durand Line’, a boundary drawn on “scientific lines" reflecting British defence needs. A clause in the treaty stated thatae vo aD eters eo poe ‘Although much of ‘British India’ had been gained in battle, the British did not formally add all conquered lands to their Empire. In some places, such as Hyderabad Deccan, and Oudh, the local Nawabs had been forced to sign treaties with the East india Company. These treaties allowed tho rulers to siay on the throne and to rule their subjects, but gave Britain contrl of extemal affairs. 0 Indian rulers could not follow a foreign policy with which the British disagreed. Bish influence was futher extended by setting a Briish resident inthe teritory to ‘advice the ruler. ‘The Doctrine of Lapse In 1852 Governor-General Dalhousie extended British control even futher by applying the Doctrine of Lapse. When a ruler died without a natural heir the Bhiish would annex his lands. So Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi soon fll into British hands, Not surprisingly, this was an unpopular policy and caused much resentment, especially when It was used just as an excuse to take land. For ‘example, in 1858 the Nawab of Ouch died, and although he had several legal heirs, Datnousie declared that the Nawab had governed his people badly and took Oudh under Bish conta. More than anything, this act showed how Brain ‘was naw dominant in India. Why were the British able to conquer India? 1. The Weakness of India The Mughal Empira was already in decline whon the British began to expand their influence in Incia, At that time there was no strong uniting force in india. Itwas a colleotion of disunted territories with a varity of different rulers with different religions and cultures. They fought with each other and they often saw the British as possiole alles in their arguments with their neighbours, rather than potential enemies. It was also true that many rulers were wealthy feudal lords fiving on their past history and allowing thalr states to dectine through neglect rather than aiming 0 reform and reinvigorate them 2. The Strength of the British The Industial Revolution in Britain resulted in it being tachnoogicaly much more ‘advanced than India, Ita superior weapons, means of communication and the Confidence that went with these technological advantages. Quite simply, the Britsh ‘considered themealves superior tothe Indians. They did not doubt that it was their Fight not their duly, to spread thet ‘supenor culture across the globe. They saw India as a county in stagnation and deciine. There were great opportunities for profitable trade and for imposing efficient British adminisvative systems on the Sprawling giant of county. A major reason forthe British suocess in India was that they always believed that they would succeed. The'rpoltical belie, was that progress nas inevitable, Pat ofthat progress was a belie that they were net only Superior. But that they wore destined to rue large parts ofthe worl, British Rule Athough the British had been to blame for much of the warfare that occurred In India in the late aighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, they were determined to ry to da something about the impact of those wars. © Law and order had broken down in many places and there was frequent famine in some afea, Werfare had damaged many of the great monuments ofthe past and had also disrupted trade and agriculture. ‘= Some areas of India, such as Bengal, had groat woath, but ite oft was shared withthe ordinary Indian people. Instead it went into the pockets of the Indian nobility, or increasingly, the Britsh rulers, 2ae vo aD eters eo poe ‘Although much of ‘British India’ had been gained in battle, the British did not formally add all conquered lands to their Empire. In some places, such as Hyderabad Deccan, and Oudh, the local Nawabs had been forced to sign treaties with the East india Company. These treaties allowed tho rulers to siay on the throne and to rule their subjects, but gave Britain contrl of extemal affairs. 0 Indian rulers could not follow a foreign policy with which the British disagreed. Bish influence was futher extended by setting a Briish resident inthe teritory to ‘advice the ruler. ‘The Doctrine of Lapse In 1852 Governor-General Dalhousie extended British control even futher by applying the Doctrine of Lapse. When a ruler died without a natural heir the Bhiish would annex his lands. So Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi soon fll into British hands, Not surprisingly, this was an unpopular policy and caused much resentment, especially when It was used just as an excuse to take land. For ‘example, in 1858 the Nawab of Ouch died, and although he had several legal heirs, Datnousie declared that the Nawab had governed his people badly and took Oudh under Bish conta. More than anything, this act showed how Brain ‘was naw dominant in India. Why were the British able to conquer India? 1. The Weakness of India The Mughal Empira was already in decline whon the British began to expand their influence in Incia, At that time there was no strong uniting force in india. Itwas a colleotion of disunted territories with a varity of different rulers with different religions and cultures. They fought with each other and they often saw the British as possiole alles in their arguments with their neighbours, rather than potential enemies. It was also true that many rulers were wealthy feudal lords fiving on their past history and allowing thalr states to dectine through neglect rather than aiming 0 reform and reinvigorate them 2. The Strength of the British The Industial Revolution in Britain resulted in it being tachnoogicaly much more ‘advanced than India, Ita superior weapons, means of communication and the Confidence that went with these technological advantages. Quite simply, the Britsh ‘considered themealves superior tothe Indians. They did not doubt that it was their Fight not their duly, to spread thet ‘supenor culture across the globe. They saw India as a county in stagnation and deciine. There were great opportunities for profitable trade and for imposing efficient British adminisvative systems on the Sprawling giant of county. A major reason forthe British suocess in India was that they always believed that they would succeed. The'rpoltical belie, was that progress nas inevitable, Pat ofthat progress was a belie that they were net only Superior. But that they wore destined to rue large parts ofthe worl, British Rule Athough the British had been to blame for much of the warfare that occurred In India in the late aighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, they were determined to ry to da something about the impact of those wars. © Law and order had broken down in many places and there was frequent famine in some afea, Werfare had damaged many of the great monuments ofthe past and had also disrupted trade and agriculture. ‘= Some areas of India, such as Bengal, had groat woath, but ite oft was shared withthe ordinary Indian people. Instead it went into the pockets of the Indian nobility, or increasingly, the Britsh rulers, 2eee eed Now do Skills Book age 8 The early Governor-Generals tried to do something to improve tha situation. in 1833 the British goverment tried to give Indians a more important part in running their own country, The Charter Act of 1883 said that Indians could be part of the ‘hil service administering India. But in practice there was litle change. The Indian Civil Service employed about 1000 administrators. They wore chosen by open public examination, but those exams were taken in England, in English, So in really India was governed by an able, but entirely Briish group of officials. ‘The salaries paid to the officials became part of what Indian historians have called the ‘Drain of Wealth’. Revenue was collected from the local people, but Unie in the past, it was often used to buy goods that were then shipped out af the country ~ to England. No wonder that one English oficial at the time talked of how British rule was like a sponge, drawing up al the good things from the banks of the Ganges and squeezing them down on the banks of the Thames. 0 years ee of Plassey, a sum of ‘lot ilies vis waned ou ada eB Tus hep cpa poe ast ‘existe in Indi inthe Inst quarter ofthe nineteenth ceatury apd may explain ey the famines of 187,187, 189 and 1892 had sucha devastating ee. ss bee clelaed ‘tha around 15 million people died in these famines. By the mid-nineteenth century the Brtish were firmly established in India. For the Indlan peasants and workers, Ife did not change much in the early patiod of British rule ~ especially as the Brish were careful not to cause offence by ‘tying to change the religious and cultural practices ofthe Indian people (atnough they did ban suttes in 1829). For the upper classes, however, there was a big ‘change in their way of lf. If they wanted to succeed they had to bacome “Anglicized’. Two examples prove this point: ‘+ In 1834 English replaced Persian as the official language ofthe administration. ‘In 1835 it was decided that education should be in the English language. ‘These changes reflected the view of many Brits that they had ‘a great moral duty’ to gover India well ‘As the British began to introduce more reforms into India, opposition grew. Many Indians viewed the British as conquering westemers tying to impose thelr culture ‘on nda. They din like Christian missionaries and they were very apprehensive ‘about the new technological ideas such as railways. At the beginning of the ‘century an Englishman had claimed that ‘Natives of India do not really ike us’ He thought tat given the opportunity they would ‘gladly rise against us". That ‘opportunity arose in 1857.Why did the British call Tipu ‘The Monster of Mysore’? Tipu was Sultan of Mysore and he proved a formidable enemy for the British. The British called Tipu ‘the monster of Mysore’. But to his, followers he was known as ‘the Lion of Mysore’. ‘The British disliked the way that Tipu stood up to them and in particular they were worried that he received help from France. ‘There was a revolution in France and the British did not want revolutionary ideas spreading into their colonies. Tipu was determined to resist the British advance in India and believed that to defeat the British he had to match their weapons. So it is said that he had 50 cannons, 100,000 cannon balls and 10 muskets ~ as well as rockets and handguns. His army was so strong that he defeated the British in battle several times. The East India Company wanted to improve its army to defeat him. To do this it needed funds and support. It would be much easier to obtain these if the EIC could show that instead of being a brave Indian leader protecting his homeland against invaders, Tipu was some cruel tyrant who had to be overthrown. Tp Sulton ig into bet on i eephemt So we can see in our investigation of what they sald about him, that they were using propaganda to project him as wicked and cruel as possible. 25‘Tipu of Mysore [sar ae] PPT CEA TN ss wsaid wacetines wage ere Eee asetaee, peaaderetac ce ated ott Sie or Sat a ms sarcl oes ms os An extract rn history of india 28 f Tipu re Ais i vanity ‘According to Tipu no-one wos ever as wise, tear ‘05 him. He mutcered hs Englsh pisoners | ‘because he haled Inek bravery; he insulted his Hindu subjects Because he hated Ihe taligion, An Eng rs opir pu. _ a c |The Bitiéh cloimed that lou was 0 Musim fanatic In tact Tipu made offerings in Chislan churches and Kinda Jemples ef his loyal subjects He only desttoyes the places of ae eo | Acre Neepawa sty Ce eee you about Tipue ff 2. Ate cosdaing tee sources do yu thnk Tip wan a “note as ths at someting he Bahan people to think? nel able to expand its control of the sub-continent in the period lof the British the main reason forthe decline ofthe Mughal ‘your answer. [14] 23 WHAT WERE THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857-58? The course othe Wy Reasons fr tire The shee ipact ofthe Wa on Msi the sabcontnent The Beth ection: major constuiona, keaton! and adnate ret The atu of Bahar Su Zafar Key Questions addressed in this chapter > What were the long-term causes of the war? > What were the immediate causes of the war? > Why was independence not achieved? > What were the immediate consequences of the wart The Causes of the War Introduction In 1857 the British faced a serious challenge to their contol of India. In that year there were a series of uprisings which are known by Britsh historians as ‘The Ingian Mutiny’ and by Indian histosians as ‘The War of Independence’. These differing names for the same event show how history can be @ matter of Interpretation For the British the events of 1857 were a revolt against their authorty which had to be crushed in order to maintain control. To the Indians it was a war to throw off the shackles of foreign domination, ‘The reasons for tne outbreak ofthe war in 1857 can be divided into four areas, though different sections of the population were motivated by different factors. What they al had in common, however, was resentment of British rule. So to fully understand this topic, you will need to make sure you understand how the British imposed their rule on the subcontinent (see pages 19-26) 1. Political ‘As the British extended ther contro, the local leaders saw their authority decline, Lord Dalhousie's use of the ‘Docirine of Lapse’ was particularly unpopular a“The seizure of Ouch in 1856 convinced many Indian leaders that the British were simply greedy land grabbers. ‘The mistreatment of the Mughal Emperor was another cause of unrest. By 1857 the Emperor had litle power left, but was an important symbolic figure Dalhousie's decision to move the royal family from the Red Fort of Delhi to the ‘more obscure Qutub Sahib was seen as a sign of disrespect ‘Ata lower level in socity there was also resentment atthe lack of opportunities {or natve indians in the cil service, Added to this, English had replaced Persian ‘a5 the official language of the administration and as the language in which ‘education would be given. 2, Religious and Social ‘As British poltical control grew, so did the spread of British culture. We have ‘already seen how the British considered it their duty to spread their ‘superior’ talture, In 1835 one English administrator talked of how ‘single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia’ Many of the British wore more thoughtful than this, but in general the British tteated the Indians as an inferior race. Indians and Bish did not gonerally mox ‘as social equals and the British societies regarded themselves as small oases of culture in a largoly uncivlisod world. Tis arrogant atttude, coupled with the introduction of a new way of life with its railways, roads and telegraph, was Unacceptable to many Indians. ‘Many Indians feared that Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism were under threat from British rule. The British always denied this, but they were not believed. I was probably not the case, but it was true that Christian missionaries came to India to convert the local population as well as set up schools. In these schools the missionaries taught Christianity and expected locals who worked for them to give Up their religion and follow the Christian teachings. 3. Beonomie \We have already seen how the British merchants mado substantial pofts from their trading in goods such as textiles. The British also followed a practco of Imposing high taxation to ensure that they exploited India’s wealth to the ful Peasants and small landowners, in paricular found it dificult to pay the increasing taxes and resentment grew. it was also true that some tax collectors were comupt and kepl some ofthe tax money for themselves. At the same time 28 they were Imposing high taxes on India, the Briish were also keeping the salary of sepoys {lnfantry) low, causing more resentment, 4. Miltary {As you will road on page 29, the revolt started over the issue of ‘greased cartridges’. However, there were more deep-seated reasons for discontent ‘amongst members of the armed forces. Most of the soldiers in the East India ‘Company's army were Indian, The sepoys and sowars (cavalry) were almost exclusively Indian, but the officer class was almost exclusively British. ‘This caused great resentment. There were also regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu and Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity and that they ‘might be sent to fight abroad, which was unacceptable to the Hindus. The use fof Incian troops in Alghanistan had also proved unpopular as Hindu soldiers dit ‘ot went to leave ‘Mother Inca’ It was no wonder that one Indian observer in 41857 said ‘all tho native army is dissatisfied withthe government‘The Events ‘In January 1857 the Britsh announced that thoy were introducing ‘a new rife with a paper certridge covered in grease to keep the [powder dry. Bofore the cartridge could be loaded, the end had to be bilten off. Howover, it was rumoured thatthe grease on tho ‘cartridge was made from the fat of both cows and pigs. The ‘sepoys were so angered by this that they refused to use the new cartridges. ‘© InMarch a sepoy named Mangal Pandey defed his Bish offcers ‘and was executed, But the real trouble began two months later. ‘+ In May sepoys in Moot rofusod to touch the new cartridges. They ‘were court-martialied and put in prison, but thoi fllow-soldiers broke into the prison and freed them. Meerut was sacked and Briish officers and other Europeans wore put to death. Then the Fig 1 Reson forthe Worf ndependence soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. The Mughal Emporor, lp, 32: The maln conve of rising ‘aid the Brith 85 Now do Skills Book pages 9-10, _— ‘yo usroImeS 1. Why wasthe ise of ‘essed corte 20 Ipotant in 18578 2. What were the main ‘events the wat? Bahadur Shah ll became the unifying symbol for the uprising, winning te support of both Muslim and Hindu. “The war spread quickly and the British lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Alahabad as well as Delhi, Lucknow was also, taken and British rule ceased to exist throughout what is now called Uttar Pradesh In Cawnpore, Indian troops led by Nana Sahib rose up against the Betich and kept their forces tapped for over three weeks. Aer being promised safe passage out of the city, the British surrendered. However as they lft the city, Nana Sahib’s forces tumad en them and the Bish force, plus 300 wornen and children ‘were massacred. When the Bilish recaptured the city they carried ut even warse atrocties in revenge. However, the Brllsh proved to be 100 powerful to be defeated by ‘an uncoordinated uprising across many areas. In September 1857 Delhi was regained. Bahadur Shab Il surrendored peaceful, but his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakar wore brutally murdered. Their heads wore then presented to the Emporor as a lesson, Lucknow was algo regained by the British in September 1857, ‘© Aftr the fall of Lucknow, the main centre of opposition was Jhansi. Here the ‘sepoye wore led by Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi. She was assisted by TTalya Topee, an Indian general of great ability. But in June 1858 the British kiles Lakshmibai(cressed as a man) in bate. Although Tatya Topee escaped, hha was later captured and executed Following the defeat of Lakshmibai, the Britsh eliminated pockets of opposition ad ha war was ofcay decared a an end i August 1892. ay Why did the war fail? “Te attempt o overtvow the Bish and expel them from Inia was unsuccessful ‘The Brilsh were to impose sovere measures onthe Indian fr their ‘istoyaly ‘Why cid ho war fa? 1. Lack of Unity [Although resentment of the British wes a single cause to fight for the Indians ‘were not co-ordinateg or united in what they hoped to achieve. There was no ‘general plan and no attampt to work together, In diferent places diferent groups fought for diferent ressons. Although the Mughal Emperor was something of @ 2‘igurehead, most Indian princes didn't really want to see imperial power restored "Nor was there any real sense of national patriotism. India was too divided for such @ feeling. For example: ‘= Tho Punjab and Sindh had been conquered by troops from Bengal and CContral India under the command of British officers, So when those troops rebelled against the British, itis not surprising that the Punjab was not Interested in supporting them. ‘© Some of the Incian princes were interested only in restoring their own feudal Bowers. Sometimes ther powers actualy depended onthe support ofthe Brits, ‘Tris explains why the ruler of Kashmir sent 2000 troops to help the British win the war. His position was closely tad to the continuation of British rule, Perhaps the only real uniting force in the war was Islam. The Mughal Empire had boon created by Muslims and they were keen to see Bahadur Shah regain his powers. The fact that Muslims were in the minority in the country ang that it was mainly Musi rulers and kings that were being replaced by the British may also exolain why they were more prepared than any other group to oppose the British. However, any degree of unity amongst the Muslims alarmed the Hindus and Sikhs who were not prepared to fight to restore power to the Muslim Mughal Empire. These reasons may well explain why the British came to see the War of Independence as predominantly a ‘Musi Revol 2. British Strengths Perhaps the major reason for the failure of the Indians was thatthe Brtsh were to strong. Britain was one ofthe most powerful nations inthe world st this time ‘and its woope were experienced in warfare and highly trained in modern methods of fighting. They also had a good reputation for discipline on the battlefield “The only hope the Inclans had to defeat the Bish was that there should be a general uprising acioss most of India and for the Indian trocps to act together AS ‘was, the Bish Kept control in more than three quarters of thelr possessions, ‘They were skiled diplomats and they know that mest ofthe Incian rulers were fighting to restore their own rights, not to establish @ united India. So they found ‘easy to play the various groups off against each ether. Although there were a ‘numberof serous uprisings against the rsh, but being uncoordinated i was only ‘a matter of ime belore the highly efficient Britsh miliary machine restored order, The Effects of the War The fallure of the war confirmed the British as mastors Cf india. It had baen intended to loosen the yoke of Bish control, but instead it tightened it. The British {issued a prociamation al Allahabad in 1858 bringing the war lo an end: In the proclamation the British recognised some of the grievances ofthe Indian people but, in practic they paid lite attenton to thelr promises. The Bris reaction to the war was to cary out brutal reprisals ‘aainst the Indians, as was seen at Cawnpore. ‘The War of Independence: Looking at the Evidence Historians work with sources, but somotimes those sources do notte the whole story. In the case ofthe War of Indopondonco, the Briish wented people in Britain to Delieve that they had acted correctly and that the wey they defeated the Indians was just. So some of the things they said or published were heavily slanted against the Indians. »an voter eT AANA RINNE 8 Net rm ea fowl and patridges and a Ts together twas the matinee. that gave the best spor. A British officer describes the hunt for Indian fighters in fields of wheat. @. What does this source tll you about the atte of some British oir?” ‘The picture shows British officers blowing sepoys apart with large guns. This drawing came from a book published in T86B. Q. Look at Source A ‘Why do you think the Bish are acing so cruel inthis pcre [etl eey hoctte eget ie eee Siege cate ECAR Seniesa a ) mate capable of carying weapons was guly of sich eames, OM@M Rn the cartoon represents British justice, ‘A odain axkich hud baiirling isde che wer scare an ample Bats rons Road Source € Wy do you think the Brg igh have exaggerated tries What do you think the mesage is and how nln aly 18578 dos he Cartoon ty ap acrost Lona iia Any Nantes sD re ee aval British Rule ‘After the War of Indapendence the East India Company was abolished. Now the Britsh government would take full responsibility fr all raters in India. A member ofthe Briish Cabinet, the Secretary of State for India, was given responsibilty for the goverment of the county However, the direct responsibilly was in the hands of the Governor-General, ‘ow called the Viceroy. He had over one thousand members ofthe Indian Civil Service (ICS) to help him administer the country. These ranged from highly pad judges to lowly paid junior administrators, Despite the proclamation of 1858, by 41870 only one Indian had become an officer in the ICS. AS forthe Indian princes, those who had shown themselves to be loyal were allowed to remain on their thrones. Yel they had litle or no real power and were obliged to folow the policy laid down by the Britsh government. 3‘Alter the war Bahadur Shah was put on trial and sentenced to life imprisonment. He was sent to live out his years in Burma. In January 1877 the British Queen, Victoria, was appointed Empress of India. The Indian royal family had formally been replaced The Muslims ‘The British considered that the Muslim community was largely to blame forthe war and it as to be many years before they once more began to trust Musims. Inthe army the British began to recruit men mostly from groups such as Sikhs, Pathans and Gurkhes, who they thought were "tustworthy’. ‘The Muslims objected to British education and to the use of English, both of \which they considered to be un-Islamic. But the Briish withdrew funding from Muslim schools and Muslim education fell into dedine. It may well have been part of the British plan to keep the Muslims iterate and ‘thus prevent them from gaining public office. As 2 well-known British historian ‘of India wrote at the time: In contrast the Hindus soon found favour with the Bi by adapting themselves ‘othe new rue, They ready accopied Brich education and many of thom quickly learned to speak Englisn. Although only minor posts were offered to Indians, almost all of these went to Hindus educated in English type’ of schools, ‘Thus the Muslim community suffered as a result of the War of Independence. The Birth of Nationalist Ideas [Alor the War of Independence the Brilish took slrong measures to ensure that ‘heir control of nia was unchallenged. The East India Company was abolished ‘and contro of India now passed to Her Majesty's Government. In other words, {o the Brilish government in London. In 1877 Queen Vieioria was proclaimed Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Det ‘© British rule proved unpopular with many Incians. They were largely excluded fom governing India. A member of the British Cabinet, the Secretary of State for india, was in charge of deciding the policy fr India, working with affteen- ‘man council. In india itself, the policy was administered by the Governor- General (sometimes called the Viceroy’) based in Calulta, He was advised by an Executive Council and the everyday business ofthe ‘Bish Raj’ was carried out by the Indian Civil Service. In 1858 Queen Victoria had asked that “our subjects of whatever race or creed be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service’. However, by 1870 there was only one Indian officer inthe Indian Civil Service. So the Indian poople had litle say in how thoir ‘country was run In other areas also the Brish made sue that India was run in a way to benefit themselves, instead of putting the needs of the local population first. Aer 1857, there were fewer opportunities for Indian soldiers in the British army, as the rato of Brsh fo Indian soldiers was increased from 1:6 to 1:2. Recruitment from less ‘trust worthy’ areas, such as Oudh, was stopped. Viceroy Lord Lytion ended import duties on British cotton good entering India ‘These cuties had made Briish goods expensive and s0 the loca cotton had sold easily. With the duties ended, British cotton was cheaper and local ‘manufacturers found it harder to sell their goods. 2In 1907, Bhikaii Rustom Cama, a Parsi from Bombay, attended the Intemational ‘Socialist Conference in Germany. There she made a fiery speech attacking how India had suffered from the ‘terble tyrannies of British rule fustom Coma said: fr “thi fve millon pounds have been taken annusily fom Inala to England without return. Asa consequence people in India have died at arate of haf milion every month.” - 1. What do you think Bhikhalj Rustom Cama was trying to say? 2. 0 you think the figures 35 milion and half a millon will be wery accurate figures? Does it matter? “The lack of opportunities for Indians led to wide-spread eriticism of the British In newspaper articles wetten in regional languages. The Brilish response was to pass the Vernacular Act of 1878, which placed strict controls on these newspapers. In the same year, the British passed an Arms Act which made it Impossible for most Indians to own weapons, to ensure that if there were another Indian uprising, it would be less effective In this environment itis not surprising that nationalist ideas bogan to grow in India, ‘© In 1866 Rajinarayan Bose founded a society for the promotion of national feeling In 1867 the yearly Hindu Mela was started in Bengal ‘+ Poitcal groups also began to spring up, such as Sarvajanik Sabha founded |n 1870. The most significant ofall these was the Indian National Congress founded in 1885. Look carefully at the picture of the Viceroy. 1. What impression do you get of the Viceroy ‘rom this source? Do you think ths ‘drawing was done by someone who supported the sith rule or opposed it? Explain your answer. Give reasons for your ns Fig. 23: The Viceroy of Indha eeving a vist Netc hw he has al he trappings af ol: Boi on ipa of the Epres of Pia, Queen Victor"A. What was the Doctrine of Lapse? [4] |B. Why did the British toke tough measures ogoinst the Muslim community after the War of | Independence? (7) G Doyou agree that the British defeated the Indians in the war because the Indians were ‘not united? Give reasons for your answer. [14] SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN AND ‘THE CAUSES OF THE INDIAN REVOLT’ Sir Syed Ahmad khan wrote “The Causes of the Indian Revolt’ in 1858. He had witnessed events very closely and had lost both a cousin and an uncle in the fighting. In the summer of 1957 he had rescued the British population of Bijnaur district and had almost lost his life in doing so. He also witnessed the revenge carried out by the British when they recaptured Delhi in September 1857. He witnessed large numbers of Muslims driven from the city and the confiscation of numerous estates belonging to Muslims. He Is quoted as saying: "For some time I wrestled with my grief and, believe me, it made an old man of me. My heir turned white’. He was particularly disturbed by the way that the British came to view the war as 2 Muslim conspiracy and that they should be punished for it. Syed Ahmad complained that Hindus were gaining revenge on Muslims by incriminating them in the eyes of the British. No proof was needed to establish guilt. Being Muslim was enough. ‘It is from the voice of the people only that Government can learn whether its projects are likely to be well received. The voice of the people alone can check errors in the bud, and warn us of dangers before they burst upon and destroy us’ Indian representation would have another advantage too. It would prevent misunderstandings of the government's intentions and help counter the widely held belief that the government wanted to convert Indians to Christianity - or, at the very least, to threaten established customs and practices in India, It was from these misunderstandings that Syed Ahmad thought all causes of the war ‘could be traced. He didn’t believe that the war was a Muslim conspiracy and he didn’t ‘see it as part of the development of Indian nationalism and a desire to restore the Power of the Mughal Emperors. PaHOW IMPORTANT WAS THE WORK OF SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT IN THE LOTH CENTURY? Hs socal and polis sete wld Masi Logue Fig. Sr Syed mad Kha © Se yes content the ection of Muss ‘ed the mevilsatinof eatin The impact of hs work on Mins and he «lations wth de Bots and de wlara The rason for the funda of Agu College 1 Hs oe the nan National Congress and the (©The meaning and eng of is Tao-Natone Theory and the Hind Lic contenesy Key Questions addressed in this chapter > What was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s contribution to education, politics and religion? ory and is orgs How important was his Two-Nation Theory’? What was the Hindu-Urdu Controversy? > How successful was the Aligarh Movement? Sir Syed Anmad Khan (1817-1898) Early Biographical Details ‘Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was bom in 1817 in Delhi. He came from a wealthy family which was well known and respected in the area, Great care was taken by his father to ensure thal he received a high-quality education. By the age of 18 Sir Syed was skiled in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics and ‘Medicine. He had also been introduced to some of Incia’s most able writers end hhad developed a love for Literature In 1898 Sir Syed's father died and he was forced to seok employment. He quickly tose from a lowty poston in the legal system to become @ judge in Delhi in 1846. ‘That year he wrote his well-known book on archaeology called Athar-al ~ ‘Sanadeed. When the War of Independence broke out in 1857 Sir Syed was ‘working as chief judge in Bijnaur and is said to have saved the lives of many ‘women and children during the fighting. In retum for his loyalty the British offered him an estate with a large income, but he refused the offer. Hig belief that armed uprising against the Brish was pointless made him unpopular with some Muslims, butt did nt stop him from working towards & Feconcliation between the British and the Muslim community ater the war. He Was appointed Chief Justice in Muradabad and later was transferred to Ghazipore. n 1964 he was transferred to Aligarh where he played an important part in establishing a new college. In 1876 he retred from his workin the law fo concentrate on running the college and to devote himself to improving the position of Musims in the sub-continent through education. Algarh became the Centre of a Muslim renaissance’. He dled on 27 March 1898, having served his fellow Muss in a way which few had rivalled 38pr Betiets Sir Syed was extremely unhappy about the position of the Muslims in the subcontinent. Since the days of the Mughal Empire their social and economic | status had declined sharply. The role of Muslims in the War of independence | had led to a further decline in their fortunes as the British took measures to ensure that their control would not be subject fo further challenge. Sir Syod felt that tho poor status ofthe Muslims was due to the way they were tteated as second-class cizens by the British and the Hindus, but that they also had to take some of the responsibilty themselves. Many Muslims considered ‘the British tobe litle more than invaders in India and wanted nothing to do wth thom. Sir Syed beloved thatthe Musi carwmunity had to accept thatthe Bish ‘were rules who intended to stay for many years. The Musim positon could only be improved i they adopted a more positive approach to the Bish. They needed to accept more Bris ideas and to take advantage of Briish education. If they did not, then the Hindus would continue to prosper because of their more ‘cooperative approach, Sir Syed wanted to see the Muslims united and prospering. He also wanted to ‘see an improvement in their economic, socal, poltical and religious fortunes, He made this ambition his ife's work and, because so much of his effort revolved around a “Musk renaissance’ taking place In Aligarh, he Is said to have founded "The Aligarh Movement The central aims of the Aligarh Movement were to ‘improve relations between the British and Muslim communities by removing Britsh doubts about Muslim loyalty and Muslim doubts about Britsh intentions, | ‘+ improve the social and economic position of Muslims by encouraging them to receive Wester aducation end take up posts in the cil service and army, ‘+ increase the political awareness of the Muslim community in order 10 make them aware ofthe threat to their position from the Hindus policy of co- ‘operation withthe Brith. Work 1. Improving Relations between the British and Muslim Communities | ‘Sir Syed believed thatthe positon ofthe Musims inthe subcontinent coulé only be improved if relations with the British were improved and Muslims gained higher-quality education. There were two major obstacles to good relations, ‘A The British had put the entire responsibilty forthe War of Independence in 1857 on the Muslims. As 2 result they carried out policies of repression ‘against the Musims after 1857. The Hindus and other religious groups were ‘considered to be loyal and prepared to assist in governing india, but the Muslims were seen as rebellious and unhelpful. Even as early as 1843 the Briish Governor-General had stated ‘Teannot close my eyes to te | tous. Our true policy isto Sir Syed wanted to ensure that this false view was corrected. B There was a deep-seated resentment of the Bish among many in the Muslin ‘community’ This was sometimes based on the fac! that the Brilsh were seen as foreign invaders’ and sometimes because they ware thought to be tying to replace Islam with Christianity. Other Muslims rejected all Western ideas because they wore oftan not inline with Islamic beliefs. Sir Syed wanted to the benefits and advantages of British rule, particularly in the nce and technology, were embraced by the Muslim community {to improve the ives of the masses, 6— AD VO WENO wat si syed belie ‘sere he fs ain ‘obstacles to ood elation been the Pts and the Muss? 2. Why di he write The Ljal Muhammad of Indian "Ces the Indian Revol @ Be Convineing the British In 1860 Sie Syed wrote The Loyal Mohammadens of india. In this work he defended the Muslims from the British accusation that they were disloyal. He {gave a detalled accaunt ofthe loyal service which Muslims had given and named Various Musims who had shown particular loyally to the British. At the seme time he called on the British to end their hostily towards the Muslim community In order to convince the Briish that they were wrong to pu the ful blame forthe events of 1857 on the Muslims, Sic Syed wrote a pamphiet called ‘Essay an the Causes of the Indian Revol’. inthis, he pointed out the main reesons for the prising were: 4. The lack of representation for Indians in the government ofthe country. 2, The forcible conversion of Muslims to Christianity. 3. The poor management of the Indian army. He also listed many other measures taken by the British which created ‘dissatisfaction and led to resentment among the Muslim community ‘This pamphlet was circulated free amongst the Britsh officials in india and was also sent to members of pariament in England Even members of the Royal family recolved copies. Some British officials wore angered by what Sir Syed wrote as he seemed to be blaming them for the Uprising. Others read what he wrote with sympathy and accepted that there was truth in his words, Sir Syed also tried to clear up @ misunderstanding amongst the British who resented being called ‘Nadarath’ by the Muslims. The Bish thought that this was an insult, But Sir Syed pointed out that the word came from "Nasir, an Arabic word meaning helper. So the term was @ reflection of the positive image Muslims had of the British, not an insult ‘Convincing the Muslims Sir Syed was aware that the Brish knew very litle about Islam. Indeed, on a visit to England he was so oflanded by an Engih book on the life ofthe Prophat (peace 'be upon him) that he immodiataly wrote his own work correcting the many errors. It was also true, however, that the Muslims in India knew very title about Christianity, He tried to overcome this by writing Tatyin-u/-Kalam, in which he pointed out the similarities between islam and Cheistianity. Due to lack of Fesources the work was not finished, but It showed Sir Syed's commitment to improving relations. Another example of this was the British Indian Association which Sir Syed testablished to ty to increase cooperation between the two peoples. 2. Encouraging the growth of Western Education ‘As wo have seen, ailer 1857 the Musim community was subject to discrimination fat the hands of the British, whist other groups were supported. The Hindus, for ‘example, had decided that they should work with the British. This helped the Biriish to see them a8 a counter to the supposedly ‘disloyal Muslims’. So Hindus ‘wore keen to learn the English language and to ecquite a British education in the subcontinent. This helped them to gain employment and to make progress in society. By 1871 there were 711 Hindus in government employment compared with only 92 Muslims, ‘The ‘Hindu Movement’ gained strength as more and more Hindus received ‘education in the new schools, colleges and universities which were springing up. ‘This increased confidence among Hindus also led them to view Muslims with an Increasing lack of respect. 3Sir Syed took steps to change Muslim attitudes towards receiving Bish education, In doing this he came ito confict wih the ame, They beleved atthe acceptance of Westom sciontifc end technological ideas might undermine islamic beliefs. Sir Syed believed that the Holy Quran emphasized the need to study and that an Understanding of modern scientific beliefs actully helped reveal the fll majesty of Gos, ‘+ To gain support for his views Sic Syed set up an Urdu journal called Tahzb- l-AKhvag. This journal contained artes from influential Musins who agreed with Sir Syed that there was 2 need for a new approach to education, Although some ulama attacked the journal, i played a major part in bringing ‘about an inellecval revolution amongst Muslim thinkers ‘In 1863 Sir Syed founded the Scientific Society at Grazpore. is main purpose was to make scientific wrtings avaliable ta wider market by translating them from English, Persian or Arabic into Urdu When he was raster to Aligarh In 1864 he continued his work and in 1866 began issuing a joumal called the Aligarh Insitute Gazette ‘+ He had already shown his commitment to expanding educational opportunities ‘when, in 1859, he opened a school in Muradabad, In 1864 he opened another schodl In Ghazipore. ‘© In 1869 Sir Syed travelled to England to study the university system there He dreamed of setting up a university for Muslims in the subcontinent. He was very impressed by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and hoped to set up an educational insitution based on their model. However, ‘on retuming home, he found that his plans were often met with suspicion He could not start with a university straight away. So instead he dacised to begin with @ school ‘committee was set up, which toured the country raising funds for a new Muslim school. On 24 May 1875, the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College ‘was sel up in Aigarh on the patton of the English public school system, The Britsh would not alow ito be afated with a Musi university outside Briish territory So, for the moment i could not become the Muslim University that Sir Syed wanted ‘The college offered both Western and Incian education, though Islamic ‘education was also provided. It became much more than an educational institution, In the days before the Muslim League, it became a symbol of ‘Muslim unity. Many ofthe future leaders of Pakistan, such as Liaquat Ali Khan {and Ayub Khan, were educated there and some historians have commented that the college was the institution which contributed mare than any other to the formation of Pakistan, ‘+ Howover, Sir Syed's workin education did not fend with the formation of the college. He wanted to publicise the new educational ‘methods being used at Aligarh. Soin 1886 he Set up the Mohammedan Educational Conference. Its aim was to raise educational standards among Musiims. It held mastings at a number of cites across the subcontinent and sub-committees were formed in many places. The Conference attracted famous Orators and writers and also played a major role in establishing a political platform for Muslims, in the days before the formation of the Musiim League ‘In 1920 the college became the University of ‘Aligarh ig 42 Members of the debating lb, MAO College 18863 Increasing Political Awareness Sir Syed was determined to improve the status of the Muslim community. By writing his Essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt and The Loyal |Mohammadens of India he had shown a desire to re-establish qood relationships ‘with the Briish, as he hoped this would lead to greater opportunites for Muslims. ‘This earned him a reputation of being too moderate and too British. Bu, infact, Sr Syed realised that the Brien wore too powerul to overthrow and that Muslims ‘would gain more by co-operating with them, He also belioved that Muslims should have good relations with Hindus, es they had.a common longterm aim — to estore the authorty ofthe local people in thelr ‘own country. na speech tothe Indian Association he said ‘We, Hindus and Muslims, tive a ‘government Our interests and the two factions as one nation.” However, Sir Syed soon realised that the Hindus were not so Keen on working with Muslims and this led him to the conclusion thatthe two groups could not ‘work together In ime he came to believe that Hindus and Muslims wore cfferent ‘enough to be considered as two separate groups within the subcontinent. Indian National Congress ‘In 1885 the Indian National Congress was formed. The Britsh saw this body ‘as a mears by which they coukt hear the views ofthe educated ele in Indian Society, The Congress Said that it would represent the views of all the ‘communities within india, regardless of tholr religion. However, it soon became ‘Spperent thal the Congress was a HindU-dominated body which was working {to esladlish Hindu supremacy over the Muslims, Political Representation ‘# A good example of this was the call by Congress for the introduction of @ ‘democratic system of poilical representation similar to that practised in Brain, ‘This sounded fai, Dut since there were four times as many Hindus as Musi, they would win every election. Democracy would leave the Muss wih ne representation at all Sir Syed spoke out angrily against any such plans saying: ‘1am convinced that the introduc would be attended with evils of gr ‘would totaly override the inter’ Competitive Examinations ‘© Congress also suggested that appointments in the government service should be by competitive examination. Since Musims were not receiving education fof a standard similar to that received by Hindus, this would greatly disadvantage them, Sir Syed commented that only whon equal educational ‘opportunities were provided could such an idea work creatures of God have equal rights. No man is entitied to allow one j igs of this world, and to bar the rest from participat rent to observe this divine law in all its integrity.