Chap 4. Transient Analysis (6+3B1)

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Chapter 4. Transient Circuit Analysis
Dr. Ngoc-Viet Nguyen
A4.605 Phenikaa University,
Yen Nghia, Ha Dong, Hanoi, Vietnam
viet.nguyengoc@phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
Hanoi, 2021
Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Monday, October 10, 2022 1
https://nslab.phenikaa-uni.edu.vn/
Contents
❖ First-order Transient Circuits

➢ RC Circuit
➢ RL Circuit
❖ Second-order Transient Circuits

➢ Series RLC Circuit
➢ Parallel RLC Circuit

EEE: Viet N., Nguyen 2
Introduction
Important characteristics of the basic elements.
Relation Resistor (R) Capacitor (C) Inductor (L)
𝑣 − 𝑖: 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑡 𝑑𝑖
1 𝑣=𝐿
𝑣 = න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
𝑡0
𝑖 − 𝑣: 𝑖 = 𝑣/𝑅 𝑑𝑣 𝑡
𝑖=𝐶 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑖 = න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
𝐿
𝑡0
P or w: 𝑣2 1 1 2
𝑝= 𝑖 2𝑅
= 𝑤 = 𝐶𝑣 2 𝑤= 𝐿𝑖
𝑅 2 2
Series 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Parallel 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
At de: Same Open circuit Short circuit

First Order Circuits
Definition
• A first order circuit is characterized by a first order differential equation.
• There are two types of first order circuits:
Resistive capacitive, called RC
Resistive inductive, called RL
• There are also two ways to excite the circuits:
Initial conditions
Independent sources

Source Free RC Circuit

• A source free RC circuit occurs when
its DC source is suddenly
disconnected.
• Energy stored in the capacitor is
released to the resistors.
• A series combination of a resistor and
a initially charged capacitor as shown:


• Since the capacitor was initially charged, we can assume at t=0 the initial
voltages is:
𝑣(0) = 𝑉0
• Applying KCL at the top node:
𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0
• Or
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
• This is a first order differential equation.


• Rearranging the equation and solving both sides yields:
𝑡
ln 𝑣 = − + ln 𝐴
𝑅𝐶
Where A is the integration constant
• Taking powers of e produces
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
• With the initial conditions:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

Natural Response
• The result shows that the voltage
response of the RC circuit is an
exponential decay of the initial
voltage.
• Since this is the response of the
circuit without any external applied
voltage or current, the response is
called the natural response.

Time Constant
• The speed at which the voltage decays can be characterized by
how long it takes the voltage to drop to 1/e of the initial voltage.
• This is called the time constant and is represented by τ.
• By selecting 1/e as the reference voltage:
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
• The voltage can thus be expressed as:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏

Time Constant
• After five time constants the voltage on
the capacitor is less than one percent.
• After five time constants a capacitor is
considered to be either fully discharged
or charged.
• A circuit with a small time constant has
a fast response and vice versa.

RC Discharge
• With the voltage known, we can find the current:
𝑉0 −𝑡Τ𝜏
𝑖𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑅
• The power dissipated in the resistor is:
𝑉02 −2𝑡Τ𝜏
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑅
• The energy absorbed by the resistor is:
1 2
𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉0 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡/𝜏
2
Source Free RC Circuit Summary

• The key to working with this type of situation is:
• Start with the initial voltage across the capacitor and the time constant.
• With these two items, the voltage as a function of time can be known.
• From the voltage, the current can be known by using the resistance and
Ohm’s law.
• The resistance of the circuit is often the Thevenin equivalent resistance.

Source Free RL Circuit

• Now lets consider the series connection of a resistor and inductor.
• In this case, the value of interest is the current through the inductor.
• Since the current cannot change instantaneously, we can determine its
value as a function of time.
• Once again, we will start with an initial current passing through the inductor.


• We will take the initial current to be:
𝑖 0 = 𝐼0
• Applying KVL around the loop:
𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝑅 = 0
• Or:
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡

• After integration: 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿

• Once again, the natural response is an exponentially decaying current.
𝐿
• The time constant in this case is: 𝜏 =
𝑅
• The same principles as the RC circuit apply here.

Singularity Functions:
• Before we consider the response of a circuit to an external voltage,
we need to cover some important mathematical functions.
• Singularity functions serve as good approximations to switching on
or off a voltage.
• The three most common singularity functions are the unit step, unit
impulse, and unit ramp.

Singularity Functions: Unit Step

• A step function is one that maintains a
constant value before a certain time
and then changes to another constant
afterwards.
• The prototypical form is zero before
t=0 and one afterwards.
• See the graph for an illustration.


• Mathematically, the unit step is expressed as:
0, 𝑡<0
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
1, 𝑡> 0
• The switching time may be shifted to t = t 0 by:
0, 𝑡 < 𝑡0
𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 =ቊ
1, 𝑡 > 𝑡0
• Note that this results in a delay in the switch.
• The unit step function is written as u(t)


• Equivalent Circuits
▪ The unit step function has an
equivalent circuit to represent
when it is used to switch on a
source.
▪ The equivalent circuits for a
voltage and current source are
shown.

Singularity Functions: Unit Impulse

• The derivative of the unit step function
is the unit impulse function.
• This is expressed as:
0𝑡 <0
𝛿 𝑡 = ቐUndefined 𝑡 = 0
0𝑡 >0
• Voltages of this form can occur during
switching operations.

Singularity Functions: Unit Ramp

• Integration of the unit step function
results in the unit ramp function:
0, 𝑡≤ 0
𝑟 𝑡 =ቊ
𝑡, 𝑡≥0
• Much like the other functions, the onset

of the ramp may be adjusted.

Step Response of RC Circuit

• When a DC source is suddenly applied to
a RC circuit, the source can be modeled
as a step function.
• The circuit response is known as the step
response.
• Let’s consider the circuit shown here.
• We can find the voltage on the capacitor
as a function of time.


• We assume an initial voltage of 𝑉0 on the capacitor.
𝑑𝑣 𝑣−𝑉𝑠 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
• Applying KCL: C + = 0 𝑜𝑟 + = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
• For 𝑡 > 0 this becomes: + =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
• Integrating both sides and introducing initial conditions

finally yields:
𝑉0 , 𝑡<0
𝒗 𝑡 =ቊ
𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡>0


• This is known as the complete
response, or total response.
• We can consider the response to be
broken into two separate responses:
• The natural response of the capacitor or
inductor due to the energy stored in it.
• The second part is the forced response

Forced Response
• The complete response can be written as:
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑣𝑓
• Where the nature response is:
𝑣𝑛 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
• And the forced response is:
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑉𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
• Note that the eventual response of the circuit is to reach 𝑉𝑠
after the natural response decays to zero.

Another Responses
• Another way to look at the response is to break it up into the transient response
and the steady state response:
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑠𝑠
• Where the transient response is:
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
• And the steady state response is:
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠

Step Response of RL Circuit

• Now we can look at the step response of a
RL circuit.
• We will use the transient and steady state
response approach.
• We know that the transient response will
be an exponential:
𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏


• After a sufficiently long time, the current will reach the steady state:
𝑉𝑠
𝑖𝑠𝑠 =
𝑅
• This yields an overall response of:
−𝑡/𝜏
𝑉𝑠
𝑖 = 𝐴𝑒 +
𝑅
• To determine the value of A we need to keep in mind that the current cannot
change instantaneously.
𝑖 0+ = 𝑖 0− = 𝐼0


• Thus we can use the t=0 time to establish A
𝑉𝑠
𝐴 = 𝐼0 −
𝑅
• The complete response of the circuit is
thus:
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐼0 − 𝑒
𝑅 𝑅
• Without an initial current, the circuit
response is shown here.

Application: Delay Circuit

• The RC circuit can be used to delay the turn on of a connected device.
• For example, a neon lamp which only triggers when a voltage exceeds a
specific value can be delayed using such a circuit.

Application: Delay Circuit

• When the switch is closed, the capacitor charges.
• The voltage will rise at a rate determined by:
𝜏 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶
• Once the voltage reaches 70 volts, the lamp triggers.
• Once on, the lamp has low resistance and discharges the capacitor.
• This shuts off the capacitor and starts the cycle over again.

Questions
Calculate time constants,
voltage v(t) and current i(t)
for t > 0?
(a)
(b)
Questions
First-order circuit?

Second Order Circuits
Definition
• First order circuits which only required first order
differential equations to solve.
• However, when more than one “storage element”, i.e.
capacitor or inductor is present, the equations
require second order differential equations.
• The analysis is similar to what was done with first
order circuits.
• This time, though we will only consider DC
independent sources.
Finding Initial and Final Values

• Working on second order system is harder than first order in terms of
finding initial and final conditions.
• You need to know the derivatives, 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 as well.
• Getting the polarity across a capacitor and the direction of current through
an inductor is critical.
• Capacitor voltage and inductor current are always continuous.

Source Free Series RLC

• Consider the circuit shown.
• The energy at t=0 is stored in the
capacitor, represented by 𝑉0 and in
the inductor, represented by 𝐼0 .
1 0
𝑣 0 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉0
𝐶 −∞
𝑖 0 = 𝐼0


• Applying KVL around the loop:
𝑑𝑖 1 𝑡
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞
• The integral can be eliminated by differentiation:
𝑑2 𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑖
2
+ + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
• Here you can see the second order equation that results


• Two initial conditions are needed for solving this problem.
• The initial current is given.
• The first derivative of the current can also be had:
𝑑𝑖(0)
𝑅𝑖 0 + 𝐿 + 𝑉0 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Or
𝑑𝑖(0) 1
= − 𝑅𝐼0 + 𝑉0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿


• Based on the first order solutions, we can expect
that the solution will be in exponential form.
• The equation will then be:
𝑠𝑡 2
𝑅 1
𝐴𝑒 𝑠 + 𝑠+ =0
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
• For which the solutions are:
𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − 𝜔02
𝑅 1
𝛼= 𝜔0 =
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶

Overdamped 𝛂 > 𝛚𝟎
• When α > 𝜔0 , the system is overdamped
• In this case, both s1 and s2 are real and
unequal.
• The response of the system is:
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
• From this, we should not expect to see
an oscillation

Critically Damped (𝛂 = 𝛚𝟎 )
• When 𝛼 = 𝜔0 , the system is critically damped.
• The differential equation becomes:
𝑑 𝛼𝑡
𝑒 𝑖 = 𝐴1
𝑑𝑡
• For which the solution is:
𝑖 𝑡 = (𝐴2 + 𝐴1 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
• There are two components to the response,
an exponential decay and an exponential
decay multiplied by a linear term

Underdamped 𝛂 < 𝛚𝟎
• When 𝛼 < 𝜔0 , the system is considered to be
underdamped
• In this case, the solution will be:
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐴1 sin𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
Where 𝑗 = −1 and 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔02 − 𝛼 2
• ω0 is often called the undamped natural frequency

• ωd is called the damped natural frequency

Damping and RLC networks

• RLC networks can be characterized by the following:
1.The behavior of these networks is captured by the idea of damping
2.Oscillatory response is possible due to the presence of two types of energy
storage elements.
3.It is typically difficult to tell the difference between damped and critically
damped responses.

Source Free Parallel RLC Network

• Now let us look at parallel forms of
RLC networks
• Consider the circuit shown
• Assume the initial current and voltage
to be:
1 0
𝑖 0 = 𝐼0 න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 −∞
𝑣 0 = 𝑉0


• Applying KCL to the top node we get:
𝑣 1 𝑡 𝑑𝑣
+ න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝐶 =0
𝑅 𝐿 −∞ 𝑑𝑡
• Taking the derivative with respect to t gives:
𝑑2 𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣 1
2
+ + 𝑣=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
• The characteristic equation for this is:
2
1 1
𝑠 + 𝑠+ =0
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶


• From this, we can find the roots of the
characteristic equation to be:
𝑠1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − 𝜔02
1 1
𝛼= 𝜔0 =
2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
• As in last time, there are three

scenarios to consider.

Damping
• For the overdamped case, the roots are real and unequal (negative),
so the response is:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
• For critically damped, the roots are real and equal, so the response
is:
𝑣 𝑡 = (𝐴2 +𝐴1 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡

Underdamped
• In the underdamped case, the roots are complex and so the response will be:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
• To get the values for the constants, we need to know v(0) and dv(0)/dt.
• To find the second term, we use:
𝑉0 𝑑𝑣(0)
+ 𝐼0 + 𝐶 =0
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

Underdamped
The voltage waveforms will be similar to those shown for the series network.
Note that in the series network, we first found the inductor current and then
solved for the rest from that.
Here we start with the capacitor voltage and similarly, solve for the other
variables from that.

Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit

• Now let us consider what happens when a DC voltage is suddenly applied to a
second order circuit.
• Consider the circuit shown. The switch closes at t=0.
• Applying KVL around the loop for t > 0:
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡
• but
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡


𝑑2 𝑣 𝑅 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
• Substituting for i gives: + + =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
• This is similar to the response for the source free version of the series circuit,
except the variable is different.
• The solution to this equation is a combination of transient response and steady
state response: 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)
• The transient response is in the same form as the solutions for the source free
version.
• The steady state response is the final value of v(t). In this case, the capacitor
voltage will equal the source voltage.

• The response is a combination of transient and steady state responses:

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜏1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜏2 𝑡 (Overdamped)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (Critically Damped)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (Underdamped)
• Here the variables 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are obtained from the initial conditions, v(0)
and dv(0)/dt.
Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit
• The same treatment given to the parallel RLC circuit yields the same result.
• The response is a combination of transient and steady state responses:
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 + 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜏1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜏2 𝑡 (Overdamped)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (Critically Damped)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 + 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (Underdamped)
• Here the variables 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are obtained from the initial conditions, i(0)
and di(0)/dt.
General Second Order Circuits

• The principles of the approach to solving the series and parallel forms of RLC circuits
can be applied to second order circuits in general:
• The following four steps need to be taken:
1. First determine the initial conditions, x(0) and dx(0)/dt.
2. Turn off the independent sources and find the form of the transient response by applying KVL and KCL.
Depending on the damping found, the unknown constants will be found.
3. We obtain the stead state response as: 𝑥𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥(∞)
Where x(∞)is the final value of x obtained in step 1.
4. The total response is now found as the sum of the transient response and steady-state response.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)
Duality
• The concept of duality is a time saving Resistance R Conductance G
measure for solving circuit problems. Inductance L Capacitance C
• It is based on the idea that circuits that Voltage v Current i
appear to be different may be related to Voltage source Current source
each other. Node Mesh

Series path Parallel path
• They may use the same equations, but the
Open circuit Short circuit
roles of certain complimentary elements
KVL KCL
are interchanged.
Thevenin Norton
• The following is a table of dual pairs
Duality
• Once you know the solution to one circuit, you have the solution to the dual circuit.
• Finding the dual of a circuit can be done with a graphical method:
1. Place a node at the center of each mesh of a given circuit. Place the reference node
outside the given circuit.
2. Draw lines between the nodes such that each line crosses an element. Replace the
element with its dual
3. To determine the polarity of voltage sources and of current sources, follow this rule: A
voltage source that produces a positive (clockwise) mesh current has as its dual a current
source whose reference direction is from the ground to the non-reference node.
When in doubt, one can refer to the mesh or nodal equations of the dual circuit.


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FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

❖ First-order Transient Circuits

❖ Second-order Transient Circuits

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Source Free RC Circuit

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Source Free RC Circuit

• This is a first order differential equation.

Source Free RC Circuit

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Source Free RC Circuit Summary

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Source Free RL Circuit

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Source Free RL Circuit

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Source Free RL Circuit

• After integration: 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿

• The same principles as the RC circuit apply here.

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Singularity Functions: Unit Step

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Singularity Functions: Unit Step

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Singularity Functions: Unit Step

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Singularity Functions: Unit Impulse

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Singularity Functions: Unit Ramp

• Much like the other functions, the onset

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Step Response of RC Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Step Response of RC Circuit

• Integrating both sides and introducing initial conditions

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Step Response of RC Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Step Response of RL Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Step Response of RL Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Step Response of RL Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Application: Delay Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Application: Delay Circuit

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Finding Initial and Final Values

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Source Free Series RLC

Nanosensors and Applications Laboratory

Source Free Series RLC