REVIEW

PET VIRGINIA OPOSSUMS AND SKUNKS

Cathy Johnson-Delaney, DVM

Abstract
The Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) are often kept as
pets, although they are both wild animals. The opossum and striped skunk are usually docile and
sociable when raised from infancy. Many states and municipalities restrict ownership, and veterinarians
should familiarize themselves with local laws and regulations pertaining to these animals. The biology,
husbandry, diet, and general disease information is available for both species. Vaccination recommen-
dations are included for skunks. Copyright 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Key words: Virginia opossum; skunk; biology; care; disease; vaccination

T
he Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) are often
kept as pets. Both are nondomesticated animals and considered wildlife. Many states and
municipalities prohibit their ownership, so veterinarians should be aware of local laws and
regulations governing ownership. Although most skunks in the pet trade come from vendors
that breed the animals and are sold preneutered and having had their anal scent glands
removed, most opossums are raised from infancy as orphaned wildlife. Both species, when raised from
infancy, can be quite docile. Both are latrine animals and take readily to the household environment.

VIRGINIA OPOSSUMS ________________________
The Virginia opossum is the only marsupial native
to North America. It is often called a “possum,”
although Old World “possums” are “possums” and
New World “possums” are correctly named
“opossums.”1 In many areas, Virginia opossums
are considered vermin or pests. Most opossums
become pets when rescued as pouch babies or
newly outside of the pouch owing to the dam
having been killed, usually on the road. Owing to
the high incidence of opossums being roadkill,
they are usually thought of as unintelligent and
slow. In reality, the opossum is a successful
marsupial and has increased its habitat. It was
introduced into California and has since increased
its range northward into British Columbia. Pet
opossums respond to their names and seem to
respond to basic commands such as “no.” They are
fastidious in their grooming and are latrine
animals, taking to newspapers or even litter boxes.
Opossums appear to enjoy being held and may
curl up in their owner’s lap and enjoy riding
around on their owner’s shoulders.
Opossums found as furred infants and
beginning to spend time out of the pouch can be
successfully hand-reared and readily bond with
their human caregivers. Joeys that are unfurred in
the pouch are rarely raised to full size. The
National Opossum Society has published detailed
infant diets and feeding instructions and growth
information for the Virginia opossum.2 The basic
formula can be made using either Esbilac or Multi-
Milk (PetAg, Inc., Hampshire, IL USA) at either a
1:3 or 1:5 dilution with distilled water. Added to
the primary opossum infant diet are egg yolk,
brewer’s yeast, apple juice, or boysenberry low-fat
yogurt.3,4
House opossums should be spayed or neutered.
For female animals, removal of the ovaries and
reproductive tract decreases the likelihood of
chronic urogenital tract infections. In males,

Address correspondence to: Cathy Johnson-Delaney, DVM, Dip. ABVP (Avian; Exotic Companion Mammal), Box 1034, 11700 Mukilteo
Speedway Ste 201, Mukilteo, WA 98275. E-mail: cjddvm@hotmail.com.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1557-5063/14/2101-$30.00
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2014.07.011

Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326 3 1 7


FIGURE 1. Pouch spread to show nipples.
neutering decreases scent marking and odor. As
pets, the biggest challenge may be to prevent
obesity by providing sufficient exercise, as
opossums have a tendency to be sedentary. They
startle easily and do not usually interact or play
with other pets, so human supervision, when the
opossum is free within the house, is
recommended. A frightened pet opossum often
runs back to its cage/bed or to a place of safety.
One deterrent to having opossums as pets in the
eastern United States and California is the zoonotic
potential of Sarcocystis spp., which opossums may
carry and can cause major problems for horses, sea
otters, and Old World psittacines; therefore, one
needs to exercise caution when handling feces from
these animals. Stools should be examined
frequently for protozoa. Fecal flotation for
evaluation of gastrointestinal parasites is required
FIGURE 2. Lateral radiograph of an adult opossum showing
the pelvic ribs (e.g., the marsupial bones).
3 1 8 Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326
for newly acquired joeys as many are parasitized by
nematodes.
Anatomic Variations
Virginia opossums have 5 toes, including an
opposable thumb on both the front and hind feet.
The brain size is one-fourth that of a cat of
comparable weight and their dental formula is 5/4,
1/1, 3/3, 4/4. The female’s pouch has a variable
number of nipples (Fig. 1), while the vagina has a
central and 2 lateral canals with 2 separate uterine
horns. Ovariohysterectomy may incorporate the
lateral vaginas, but care must be taken to separate
the ureters from the loop between the central and
lateral vaginas.5 Both sexes have marsupial bones,
which appear as “ribs” extending proximally from
the pelvis (Fig. 2). Males have a forked glans penis
(Fig. 3), with the scrotal sac having a midventral
position. Castration is performed as in other
marsupials by ligating the single stalk, with
ablation of the excess scrotal tissue. Cloacal glands
are present in both sexes and secrete a strong-
smelling, thick greenish-colored fluid.
Opossum fur is wooly instead of smooth and
can be found in nearly any color from black to
white and, in some regions, nearly a cinnamon
color. Cinnamon opossums have shorter fur than
normal-colored opossums. True albinos with pink
eyes, ears, feet, and tail have been identified.
Another mutation has white fur but normally
pigmented skin.1
Behavior
Free-ranging Virginia opossums are solitary, but
males will roam when seeking mates in the spring.
Young opossums may hang from tree branches by
their scaly, prehensile tails, although adults are too
heavy to do so. Adults may use the tail to carry
bundles of leaves or bedding materials.
Virginia opossums are nocturnal but may adjust
to a human schedule, particularly if fed during
daylight. Opossums can run, climb trees, dig under
fences, and make 4 distinct vocalizations: hissing,
clicking, growling, and screeching. All 4 of the
vocalizations can be used in aggressive actions.
Nonneutered animals may pace around the house
making the clicking sounds, possibly seeking mates
or sounding out territory, which ceases following
neutering. When threatened, the opossum may hiss
and then freeze in position with its mouth slightly
open, showing the teeth. It can also go limp and
feign death, which is the classic “playing possum”
pose (Fig. 4).
Housing
Immature animals, pairs, or individuals may be
housed in caging 45 cm
75 cm (approximately
1.5 ft
2.5 ft) with a sloping roof 80 cm (2.7 ft) at
the highest point and 35 cm (1.2 ft) at the lowest.
Standard caging for rabbits with a solid floor may
also be used, although the author has used
converted large ferret cages (Fig. 5). Large groups of
opossums may be housed in gang yards measuring
30 m
50 m (approximately 100 ft
150 ft).
Group housed adults may fight if the quarters are
too small. Often opossums maintained as pets are
just allowed free range of the home or have a
modified rabbit or ferret cage with a nest box
available. Appropriate bedding includes recycled
FIGURE 3. Bifid penis.
newspaper pellets or shreds. A nest box (i.e., large
plastic storage container turned on its side) 30 cm

45 cm
40 cm (approximately 1 ft
1.5 ft

1.25 ft) should be provided. Environmental be allowed to flow. Pressure must then be applied
temperature ranges of 101C to 301C (501F to 861F) for several minutes to prevent hematoma
are acceptable, with 221C (721F) considered the formation. The cephalic and saphenous veins can
most appropriate; colder temperatures may trigger a also be accessed for blood collection. The pouch
torporous state. The environmental humidity should veins can be used in the female, although the
be maintained at 458%.1 opossum will most likely need to be sedated for
this approach. Hematologic and biochemistry
values are listed in Table 3.
Diet Injections may be administered intramuscularly
The diet eaten by free-ranging Virginia opossums is (thighs and arm muscle masses), subcutaneously
omnivorous; it may include any and all green and (intrascapular and flank area), and intravenously
yellow vegetables, grass, fruit, carrion, snails, slugs, (cephalic or lateral tail veins). Intraosseous
worms, insects, rats, mice, snakes, amphibians, catheters can be placed in the femur or tibia as in
eggs, crayfish and fish. They may eat birds but other mammals.6-8
rarely eat the entire carcass. In captivity, the adult
can be fed a varied diet as listed in Table 1.
Biological information is listed in Table 2. Common Clinical Conditions
Treatments of medical conditions found in
Techniques opossums can be based on the management of
Many pet opossums are comfortable when being
held like a cat or against the chest. Young hand-
reared opossums may feel more secure being held
partially in an appropriately sized pouch or pocket.
Opossums that are not accustomed to being held
may urinate or defecate when lifted. Successful
control of an adult can be sustained by using a cat
restraint bag or wrapping the opossum as a
“burrito” in a towel. Juvenile and adult opossums
may be restrained on a flat surface by holding a
towel over the animal’s head with one hand while
grasping the base of the tail with the other hand.
Blood collection may be from the lateral tail vein.
There are also ventral veins on either side of the
coccygeal artery (Fig. 6). A needle of 18 to 20 gauge
without a syringe should be inserted blindly into
FIGURE 4. Feigned death.
the ventral aspect of the tail, and the blood should

Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326 3 1 9


FIGURE 5. Cage adapted for the opossum.
similar conditions in dog/cat case. Opossums may
appear to be in normal health despite an
underlying illness, or they may have clinical
disease signs that take time to manifest. Clinical
signs may be exhibited in an inconsistent manner;
therefore, close monitoring is imperative.9 A
formulary used by the author is listed in Table 4.
Captive opossums may present with “crusty ear,”
which affects the pinnae and may be associated
with mange mites or a vasculitis; this also
predisposes these animals to secondary bacterial
infections. This ear disease affecting opossums has
been described as necrotizing fasciitis when due to
a streptococcal infection. This condition is
frustrating to treat with seemingly poor response to
antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs. “Crusty ear” may respond to therapeutic
laser therapy, as this treatment theoretically dilates
blood vessels in the tissue and possibly helps limit
necrosis. However, scientific evidence that
therapeutic laser therapy is an effective way to treat
“crusty ear” has not been reported.
Cardiomyopathy is not an uncommon disease
diagnosis in aging opossums, with both dilative
and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies being
diagnosed. Diagnostic and treatment regimens are
performed as with dogs or cats. Streptococcal
endocarditis and heartworms (Dirofilaria sp.) have
been reported in the Virginia opossum. Septicemia
is often a complication in rescued pouch joeys;
however, it often responds to treatment with
amoxicillin. Bronchopneumonia has been
associated with Pasteurella multocida and Bordetella
bronchiseptica. Endoparasites, most commonly
nematodes, have been found in both the intestinal
and respiratory tracts of opossums; levamisole and
3 2 0 Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326
ivermectin are commonly used for treatment.
Ectoparasites such as fleas, ticks, and mites may be
found on opossums. The author has used topical
feline Advantage (Bayer Corp., Pittsburgh, PA USA)
for parasite control at size designation per body
weight. Obesity is a common problem in captivity,
with pet opossums often eating other pets’ food if
available. Opossums will eat any given quantity of
food, consequently portion control is crucial.
Malnutrition can also occur and lead to conditions
such as metabolic bone disease and secondary
nutritional hyperparathyroidism (Fig. 7).9
Nutritional deficiencies may occur more readily in
young opossums fed an inadequate diet or one
with poor calcium content. Urogenital tract
infections, including chronic nephritis, can affect
opossums of any age. Dental disease is a common
problem in captive opossums; affected animals
often present with dental calculus, gingivitis,
epulis, periodontal disease, fractured teeth, and
necrotic teeth. Treatment for dental disease is
similar to that used for other small animal species
(e.g., dogs and cats). Neoplasia has been diagnosed
in geriatric opossums and is usually associated
with the liver and oral cavity.
SKUNKS ______________________________________
The striped skunk is native to North America.
Historically, it has been classified as a mustelid
largely because of its large anal sacs; however,
recent DNA identification has reclassified the
skunk as Mephitidae rather than Mustelidae.10
Skunks are bred in captivity for the pet trade and
usually sold from the breeder already neutered and
with the anal sacs removed. Anal sacculectomy can
be performed as it is done with the ferret, with the
advice to do so in an outdoor surgery setting in
case a sac is compromised or ruptures during
removal.11 The mercaptans in the striped skunk’s
anal sac fluid make the fluid extremely potent and
pungent. If surfaces or clothing become
contaminated, copious amounts of detergent and
ammonia can be used to try and eliminate the
odor.12 Skunks are inclined to be very friendly and
social when young and become less so with age.13
Many states and municipalities have restrictions on
the ownership of striped skunks, as they are a wild
animal.14 Therefore, veterinarians should be aware
of local regulations regarding the ownership of
these animals.
Behavior
Skunks are playful animals and require significant
socializing time with their owners. Socializing and
TABLE 1. Suggested diets for adult opossums TABLE 2. Biological information for Virginia
Choose one and use in entirety opossums
Diet 1 Life span (wild) Survive 2 winters
Evening: Life span 4 to 7
112.5-g Chopped mixed vegetables (not corn or (captivity) (y)
peas) Body weight adult 2
15-g Mixed chopped fruits (not citrus) female (kg)
15-mL Nonfat yoghurt Body weight adult 4 to 5
56-g Insectivore or omnivore zoo pelleted diet male (kg)
3 to 4 Times a week: Cloacal body 32.21C to 35.01C (901F to 951F)
0.25 Hard-cooked egg or 15-g canned salmon or 56-g temperature
cooked tofu Blood volume 5.7% of body weight in kg
50-mg Pharmaceutical grade calcium carbonate or Heart rate 70 to 228 Beats/min
calcium gluconate powder: mix into the vegetables/ Respiratory rate 25 to 40 Breaths/min
fruit at least 3 times a week Puberty 6 to 8 mo of age
Children's multiple vitamin can be given 1 to 2 Sexual maturity 12
times a week as a treat (mo)
Other treats: 1 king mealworm or 1 to 2 calcium gut– Breeding season Early spring for 6 to 7 wk, then
loaded crickets or 3 to 4 mealworms: 2 to 4 time a early summer for 1 to 2 mo
week (2 “seasons”)
Morning: Estrus Polyestrous 23- to 28-d cycle;
56-g Dry cat food, insectivore, omnivore kibble estrus lasts 1 to 2 d
Ovulation Spontaneous
Diet 2
Litters per year 1 to 2
Evening:
Gestation 12 to 13 d at which time the fetus
56-g Dry dog food, insectivore, or omnivore kibble
migrates to the pouch and
56-g Meat-based canned dog or cat food mixed into
attaches to a nipple
the kibble
Litter size 8 to 20 embryonic young
56-g Mixed fruit
Birth weight Approximately 2 g
56-g Mixed vegetables
Vibrissae appear 34
Calcium carbonate should be sprinkled on fruits/
(d)
vegetables and mixed in
Hair on back (d) 43
Morning:
Eyes open (d) 56 to 64
56-g Dry cat, insectivore, or omnivore kibble
Weaning age (wk) 10 to 12
Treats: once daily
5-mL Nonfat fruit yogurt or 1 children’s multiple
vitamin or 1 king mealworm or 1 to 2 calcium
loaded crickets or 3 to 4 mealworms
Skunks can be destructive as they climb open
Diet 3
cabinets, dig at carpeting, and steal objects.14
6 Tablespoons of a dry, high-quality cat food
Half cup of small vegetable chunks
Biological information is listed in Table 5.
2 to 3 teaspoons of fruit
7 Tablespoons of a high-quality canned dog food Housing
Several earthworms
1 Hard-cooked egg with shell Although many house pets are not caged, cage sizes
1 Whole mouse (approximately 30 g) have been published for confinement when not
Feed once a day. Unlimited fresh water attended.14 The minimum cage size for skunks
should be 90 cm
60 cm
60 cm (3 ft
2 ft

2 ft) per skunk. A sleeping box or den should be
provided to help the skunk feel secure. The den
gentle handling, along with neutering or spaying a may be a cardboard box or large plastic shelter,
pet skunk, may reduce the incidence of biting. such as a dog carrier, and should contain cloth
Skunks should be neutered before 6 months of age blankets, sheets, or other bedding material that can
to reduce aggression and prevent complications be removed and frequently washed.14
secondary to extended estrus in females. Although The home environment must be “skunk
wild skunks are nocturnal, pet skunks readily adapt proofed” by installing child-proof locks on
to their owner’s schedules. Threat displays include cabinets; securing vents to prevent escape; and
stomping with the front feet and raising the tail. removing potted plants, chemicals, electrical cords,

Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326 3 2 1

 they may become frustrated. Skunks can be trained
to use a litter box.13 Foraging provides exercise
with hard food (kibble) hidden throughout the
cage or home environment for both physical and
psychological stimulation. The food can also be
hidden in a basin filled with vermiculite or pelleted
recycled newspaper litter, which also encourages
digging. Disposable or easily cleaned toys should
be provided (e.g., small hard rubber toys, Kong;
Kong Company, Golden, CO USA). Other toys
include ping pong balls, tennis balls, brown paper
bags, cardboard boxes, and old socks tied in
knots.14

Diet
FIGURE 6. Demonstration of blood draw from the ventral Skunks are omnivores and their natural diet
tail.
consists of whole prey, insects, and some fruit and
vegetable matter. Obesity is a common problem in
and fragile or expensive household items from pet skunks, as they will eat almost anything and
within the animal’s reach. Skunks should be everything offered. Although it is commonly fed,
provided with a place and opportunity to dig or cat food is not appropriate because of the high fat
content.10 In zoos, skunk diets vary from
TABLE 3. Hematologic and biochemical reference
commercial carnivore and insectivore diets to
ranges for Virginia opossums
natural diets consisting of items such as mice, rats,
Parameter Range day-old chicks, and live insects. Most zoos also
6
RBC (10 /mm ) 3
3.4 to 6.5 supplement with varied amounts of vegetables and
PCV (%) 33 to 51 fruits.14 Pet skunk diets may consist in large part of
Hb (g%; g/dL) 11.7 to 17.9 vegetables with additions of cottage cheese, yogurt,
MCV (mm3) 73 to 113 and wheat germ, along with calcium and vitamin
MCH (pg) 24.4 to 39.5 D supplementation to prevent metabolic bone
MCHC (g/dL) 32.7 to 40.0 disease. One published resource recommends a
WBC (103/mm3) 3.9 to 12.6
diet of 37% premium dog food (PMI Nutrition
Neutrophil (%) 11 to 48
International, Brentwood, MO USA), 37% canned
Lymphocyte (%) 26 to 82
Monocyte (%) 0 to 8 cat food (Old Mother Hubbard, Lowell, MA USA),
Basophil (%) 0 to 3 23% fruits and 3% other items such as insects or
Eosinophil (%) 6 to 17 treats.14 The author has used 2 parts commercial
Total protein (g/dL) 3.8 to 7.2 insectivore diet (Reliable Protein Products,
Albumin (g/dL) 0.3 to 4.9 Phoenix, AZ USA) to 1 part chopped mixed
BUN (mg/dL) 23 to 38 vegetables. Fruit is used as a treat and should not
Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.4 to 7.3 be more than 5% of the daily intake. Skunk owners
Glucose (mg/dL) 64 to 130 must understand that regulating the portion size is
Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.1 to 0.8 key to the prevention of obesity. Treats may also
Cholesterol (mg/dL) 85 to 203
include calcium gut–loaded insects (e.g., crickets).
Calcium (mg/dL) 9.6 to 11.2
Skunks should have access to a water bottle or
Phosphorus (mg/dL) 2.1 to 7.7
Alkaline phosphatase (IU/L) 15 to 137 sturdy, spill-proof bowl of water at all times.14
AST (IU/L) 250 to 339
ALT (IU/L) 20 to 68 Grooming
Sodium (mEq/L) 101 to 129
Occasional bathing using a ferret shampoo may be
Potassium (mEq/L) 3.1 to 5.1
beneficial, with many striped skunks appearing to
ALT, alanine amino transferase; AST, aspartate amino transfer-
ase; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; Hb, hemoglobin; MCH, mean
enjoy the water. Routine nail clipping and
corpuscular hemoglobin; MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglo- brushing are also important. Regular dental care
bin concentration; MCV, mean corpuscular volume; PCV, should be introduced at an early age, using a small
packed cell volume; RBC, red blood cell; WBC, white blood brush and a poultry-flavored toothpaste (CET
cell. toothpaste; Virbac, Fort Worth, TX USA). Toys

3 2 2 Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326

TABLE 4. Formulary for Virginia opossums
Drug Route Dosage Comments
Alfaxalone- IV 0.1 to 0.2 mL/kg Immobilization and sedation
alfadolone acetate IM 0.25 to 0.5 mL/kg
IV 15 mg/kg
Amoxicillin Orally 20 mg/kg once every 12 h Antibiotic
Aspirin Orally 18 mg/kg once every 72 to 96 h Cardiac disease
Atropine IM, IV, and SC 0.02 to 0.04 mg/kg Control salivation during sedation;
preanesthesia
Buprenorphine IM, IV, and SC 0.01 to 0.05 mg/kg once every 10 Analgesic
to 12 h
Butorphanol IM, orally, and SC 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg once every 6 to As needed, also as preanesthetic;
8h analgesic
Dexamethasone IM, IV, and SC 0.2 mg/kg once every 12 to 24 h Anti-inflammatory
0.5 to 2.0 mg/kg Shock
Diazepam IM, IV, and orally 0.5 to 2.0 mg/kg Calming, higher dosage IV for
seizures
Digoxin Orally 0.0011 to 0.0012 mg/kg once Cardiac disease; monitoring as for
every 24 h cats
Enalapril Orally 0.25 to 0.5 mg/kg once every 24 h Cardiac disease; ACH inhibitor
Enrofloxacin Orally, IM, and SC 2.5 to 5 mg/kg once every 12 to Antibiotic
24 h
Furosemide IM and SC 1 to 4 mg/kg once every 6 to 8 h Diuretic
Orally 1 to 5 mg/kg once every 6 to 12 h
Gentamicin IM, IV, and SC 1.5 to 2.5 mg/kg once every 12 h Antibiotic, make sure stays well
hydrated
Glycopyrrolate IM, IV, and SC 0.01 to 0.02 mg/kg Control salivation during sedation,
preanesthetic medication
Griseofulvin Orally 20 mg/kg once every 24 h
30 to Antidermatophyte (antifungal)
60 d
Ivermectin Orally and SC 0.2 to 0.4 mg/kg For nematodes, may repeat dose
once every 14 d
Ketamine IM 3 to 5 mg/kg Immobilization
Ketamine þ IM 2 to 3 mg/kg ketamine þ 0.05 to Immobilization; reverse
medetomidine 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine medetomidine with
atipamezole 0.05 to 0.4 mg/kg
IM and SC
Levamisole Orally 10 mg/kg Anthelmintic
SC 6 mg/kg repeat every 3 to 4 wk Immune stimulation, adjunctive
therapy
Orally and SC 3 mg/kg every 3 to 4 wk
Meloxicam Orally and SC 0.2 mg/kg once every 24 h Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
and analgesic
Metoclopramide IM, IV, orally, and 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg once every 6 to Antiemetic and gastrointestinal
SC 12 h PRN motility enhancer
Orbifloxacin Orally 5 mg/kg once every 24 h Antibiotic
Pimobendan Orally 0.5 mg/kg once every 12 h Dilative cardiomyopathy and
positive inotrope
Piperazine Orally 100 mg/kg Anthelmintic and may repeat at 2
to 4-wk intervals
Prednisolone IM, orally, and SC 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg once every 24 h Corticosteroid and anti-
inflammatory
Propranolol Orally 0.55 to 1.10 mg/kg once every 12 Cardiac disease
to 24 h
Sulfadimethoxine Orally 5 to 10 mg/kg once every 12 to Antibiotic; make sure stays well
24 h hydrated
Trimethoprim/ Orally 10 to 20 mg/kg once every 12 to Antibiotic; make sure stays well
sulfamethoxazole 24 h hydrated
ACH, acetylcholinesterase; IM, intramuscular; IV, intravenous; PRN, as needed; SC, subcutaneous.

Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326 3 2 3

 USA) is often used to facilitate thorough physical
and dental examinations.14 Blood collection may
be performed in very docile skunks from the
cephalic vein, but collection of larger volumes
from the jugular vein or cranial vena cava (i.e.,
similar to the ferret procedure) requires sedation.
Hematologic and biochemistry values are listed in
Table 6. Injections are administered
intramuscularly (quadriceps muscles),
subcutaneously (suprascapular area), and
intravenously (cephalic vein). The cephalic vein is
often used for intravenous catheter placement.
Intraosseous catheters can be placed in either the
femur or the tibia, as for ferrets.

FIGURE 7. Metabolic bone disease. Vaccinations

designed to prevent tartar in dogs are also
beneficial in maintaining dental health in skunks.
Techniques
Skunks can be restrained by grasping the scruff of
the neck with the right hand while the left hand
extends the rear legs and tail. When scruffing, the
hindquarters must be supported. Skunks
frequently attempt to bite when they are being
restrained. Many pet skunks are comfortable with
being held like a cat, and it is advisable to work
with the owner as to how the skunk should be
handled. From a public health standpoint, any bite
from a skunk should be treated as from that of a
rabies suspect regardless of vaccination status.
Health regulatory agencies often require euthanasia
and rabies testing. Tranquilization with ketamine
(10 to 11 mg/kg intramuscular, ketamine
hydrochloride injection; Zoetis, Florham Park, NJ
Exact vaccination requirements for pet skunks are
unknown, as vaccine efficacy studies have not been
performed using currently available vaccines.14
Skunks are susceptible to canine distemper, feline
panleukopenia, and rabies. Wild skunks are a
major reservoir for rabies virus. It has been
published that a vaccine protocol should include,
in addition to canine distemper and feline
panleukopenia, canine adenovirus, Leptospira
bacterin C1, and rabies.14 Killed or recombinant
vaccines should be used when possible. Rabies
vaccination is accomplished in pet skunks using a
killed product (IMRAB; Merial, Duluth, GA
USA).15
Zoonotic Concerns
Rabies is widespread in wild skunks, but pet
skunks bred for the pet trade, which live indoors
and are vaccinated using a killed vaccine, are

TABLE 5. Biological information for the striped skunk

Average life span (y) 8 to 10
Average body weight 2 to 4 kg (7 to 10 lb)
Total body length 50 to 80 cm (21 to 32 in)
Tail length 18 to 40 cm (7 to 16 in)
Body temperature 361C to 371C (971F to 981F)
Heart rate 140 to 190 Beats/min
Urine pH 6.0
Dental formula I 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2
Sexual maturity (y) 1
Estrus Monestrous
Breeding cycle Mating in February/March; single litter in early May
Gestation period 62 to 66 d (delayed implantation)
Litter size 6 to 7
Birth weight 30 g (1 oz)
Eyes open (wk) 3 to 4
Weaning (wk) 7 to 8
Diet Omnivore

3 2 4 Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326

TABLE 6. Hematologic and biochemical reference
ranges for striped skunks
Parameter Range
PCV (%) 30 to 52
RBC (106/mm3) 6.0 to 10.2
Hb (g/dL) 7.9 to 15.3
WBC (103/mm3) 2.2 to 14.2
Neutrophil (103/mm3) 1.31 to 7.65
Lymphocyte (103/mm3) 0.59 to 6.71
Monocyte (103/mm3) 0.06 to 0.38
Eosinophil (103/mm3) 0.1 to 1.7
Basophil (103/mm3) 0 to 0.12
Platelets (103/mm3) 143 to 437
Glucose (mg/dL) 80 to 118
BUN (mg/dL) 14.5 to 29.0
Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.46 to 0.82 FIGURE 8. Obese skunk anesthetized.
Total protein (g/dL) 5.9 to 8.0
Albumin (g/dL) 2.7 to 3.7
Globulin (g/dL) 2.87 to 4.67
Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.05 to 0.21 Common Conditions
Alkaline phosphatase (IU/L) 4.0 to 9.4
ALT (IU/L) 28 to 266 By far, the largest health concern with skunks is
AST (IU/L) 55 to 155 obesity (Fig. 8). Skunks on an inadequate diet may
GGT (IU/L) 0 to 9 present with metabolic bone disease (nutritional
LDH (IU/L) 303 to 1923 hyperparathyroidism). Hepatic lipidosis has been
CPK (IU/L) 128 to 1235 diagnosed in the obese animal that abruptly
Cholesterol (mg/dL) 105 to 171
becomes anorectic. Skunks develop dental disease
Triglycerides (mg/dL) 24 to 303
similarly to dogs and cats, therefore dental
Calcium (mg/dL) 8.65 to 10.55
Phosphorus (mg/dL) 3.6 to 7.0 prophylaxis programs are necessary as with the
Sodium (mEq/L) 147 to 157 other species. Topical flea-preventive agents can be
Potassium (mEq/L) 4.5 to 5.5 used in skunks following dosing recommendations
Chloride (mEq/L) 107 to 125 for a cat of similar body weight. Lice have been
Magnesium (mg/dL) 0.7 to 2.6 reported in pet skunks along with illnesses such as
ALT, alanine amino transferase; AST, aspartate amino transfer- gastroenteritis, abscesses, and dermatitis.14 Rectal
ase; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; CPK, creatine phosphokinase; prolapse has been diagnosed in skunks, primarily
GGT, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase; Hb, hemoglobin; LDH, lactic in juvenile animals. Treatment to reduce the
acid dehydrogenase; PCV, packed cell volume; RBC, red blood
cell; WBC, white blood cell.
prolapse is similar to that for other species.16
Canine distemper is a top disease differential
unlikely to become infected. As mentioned earlier, diagnosis in a skunk that presents with respiratory
if a bite occurs, public health authorities are likely signs, and particularly if the skunk has not been
to treat the pet skunk the same way as a wild vaccinated for canine distemper. Seizures in
cohort and require its death and subsequent rabies juveniles have been reported and are linked with
testing. Wild skunks also may carry Baylisascaris hypoglycemia and hypocalcemia.14
procyonis and/or Baylisascaris columnaris.13 Owners Cardiomyopathy is a common disease condition
need to be informed about the possible zoonotic diagnosed in aging skunks. In the author’s
diseases associated with striped skunks and have experience, dilated cardiomyopathy is the most
their animals regularly tested to ensure a clean common form of cardiovascular disease in skunks.
health status. Skunks should be treated for Treatment for heart disease in skunks follows
parasites on a regular basis to reduce the risk of guidelines used in ferrets and cats. Neoplasia has
shedding B. columnaris eggs. It has been been reported in aging skunks, specifically a
recommended that fenbendazole (50 mg/kg, retroperitoneal teratoma.17 Skunks are susceptible
orally, once a day for 5 days) be administered at to feline panleukopenia, with signs similar to the
least twice yearly to treat for B. columnaris; however, disease presentation in cats (e.g., weight loss,
the animals can be treated as frequently as once a weakness, diarrhea, panleukopenia, and secondary
month with this medication.13 infections). Skunks are also susceptible to Aleutian

Johnson-Delaney/Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 23 (2014), pp 317–326 3 2 5

 mink virus, West Nile virus, and infectious canine
hepatitis (canine adenovirus).10
Formulary
Dosages are generally extrapolated from those used in
ferrets or cats. The clinician is advised that no
pharmaceutical studies have been performed in
striped skunks to establish dosage, efficacy, or toxicity.
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