Language Variation

Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the
same thing. The term language variation refers to regional, social, or contextual
differences in the ways that a particular language is used. Variation between
languages, dialects, and speakers is known as interspeaker variation. Variation within
the language of a single speaker is called intraspeaker variation. All aspects of
language (including phonemes, morphemes, syntactic structures, and meanings) are
subject to variation. Variation in language use among speakers or groups of speakers
is a notable criterion or change that may occur in pronunciation, word choice, or even
preferences for particular grammatical patterns. Variation is a principle concern in
sociolinguistics. It has been discovered that variation is typically the vehicle of
language change.

Varieties of language develop for a number of reasons: differences can come about
for geographical reasons; people who live in different geographic areas often develop
distinct dialects—variations of standard English. Those who belong to a specific
group, often academic or professional, tend to adopt jargon that is known to and
understood by only members of that select group. Even individuals develop idiolects,
their own specific ways of speaking.

Therefore, language varieties not only indicate a speaker’s origin or aspects of their
social identity (for instance, their social class or ethnic group), but they also carry
certain social values related to the speakers who use them and the contexts in which
they are habitually used. Language varieties; therefore, can be classified on the basis
of:

a) Users – The focus is on language variations based on its users (ex: dialects and
accents).

b) Use – The focus is on language variations based on its use (ex: register).

c) Social relations – The focus is on variations based on social relations between

speaker and hearer (ex: formal, informal and intimate style).

Let us discuss each of these in detail.

Language Variation: Focus on Users

Dialects

Every language is a collection of many dialects. Dialects refer to a variety of language

of the same systematic difference spoken by people in different geographical regions
and from different social groups. The dialects of a single language may thus be
defined as mutually intelligible forms of that language which differ in systematic
ways from each other (Formkin and Rodman, 1974).

Dialect is related to variations, which can be regional (i.e. based on the place, region
or area where the users live). The variation can also be social (i.e. based on social
status or class of the users). Dialect also refers to language variation that comes from
a group of users that are relative in numbers, living in one particular place, region or
area (Chaer & Augustina, 1995:83). The users of a dialect have certain features that
mark them as people who have the same dialect. For example, people who use Arabic
with Egyptian dialect have their own specific features that are different from others
who have the Saudi dialect. But they can communicate well with each other because
those dialects are the varieties of the same language, Arabic.

In short, dialect is a complex concept for linguists. It is the collection of attributes (i.e.
phonetics, phonological, syntactic, morphological and semantic) that make one group
of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language.
Therefore, dialect is a variety related to user. It involves differences in pronunciation,
vocabulary and grammar. Dialect varies at four levels: individual level, regional level,
social level, and minority level. These levels are presented in the following sections

Idiolect

An idiolect is the distinctive speech of an individual, a linguistic pattern regarded as

unique among speakers of a person's language or dialect. Because each of us belongs
to different social groups, we each speak a language variety made up of a combination
of features slightly different from those characteristics of any other speaker of the
language. The language variety unique to a single speaker of a language is called an
idiolect. Your idiolect includes the vocabulary appropriate to your various interests
and activities, pronunciations reflective of the region in which you live or have lived,
and variable styles of speaking that shift subtly depending on whom you are
addressing.
 Almost all speakers make use of several idiolects, depending on the circumstances of
communication. For example, when family members talk to each other, their speech
habits typically differ from those any one of them would use in, say, an interview with
a prospective employer. The concept of idiolect refers to a very specific
phenomenon—the speech variety, or linguistic system, used by a particular
individual. All those idiolects that have enough in common to appear at least
superficially alike belong to a dialect.

One’s sense of her/his language as a whole is really an abstract combination of all of

the idiolects that she/he has experienced over the course of his/her life, especially at a
young and formative age. The conversations she/he has had, the books she/he has
read, the television she/he has watched: all of these give her/him a sense of what
exists out there as possible variants on her/his language. The elements that she/he
hears more commonly, or the features that she/he prefers for whatever reason, are the
ones she/he latched onto as prototypical.

Idiolect of a person can change in several ways:

a. Exposure to new languages and culture: when a person is exposed to new language
and cultures, she/he may adopt new words, expressions, and structures to be part of
her/his idiolect.
b. Socialization: socialization with different groups of people might affect the a person’s
way of speaking (i.e. her/his idiolect). For example, when a person spends a long time
with peers who use slang language, this can influence his idiolect.
c. Educational background: a person’s educational background can have an influence on
her/his idiolect. For example, the language a person learns in school or university can
influence her/his way of speaking.
d. Age: as a person grows up, her/his idiolect is changed due to age-related changes in
hearing, vocal cords and cognitive function.
e. Popular culture: popular culture, such as movies, music, television, video games,
sports, entertainment news, social media may alter how a person speaks. She/he may
start to use words, phrases and expressions that are popularized in popular culture.

Regional dialect

Regional dialect is a form of language unique to a geographical area or region. It

spoken in one part of a country based on region. It is characterized by distinct features
of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and usage that different from other dialects of
the same language spoken in other area. Regional dialect differences occur when a
change in a language grammar or vocabulary arise in one region of the language
community and fails to reach the other regions. In this case, a new distinctive version
of the language appears, giving that region a particular language taste. It is involves
the use of different words to refer to the same object or situation. For example, the
English spoken in Yorkshire and Scotland are regional dialects. Similarly, Arabic
spoken in Egypt and Libya are regional dialects. Regional dialects tend to show less
differences from their close neighbours and greater differences from distant
neighbours (Spolsky, 1998:29). Regional variation or regional dialect can also be
found in the international world. The variation can be distinguished from the
pronunciation, vocabulary and even from the grammatical differences (Holmes,
2001:124). Pronunciation and vocabulary differences probably are the easiest
differences that people are aware of between different dialects of English. The
pronunciation differences will be discussed separately in accent. Here we will focus
on vocabulary and grammatical differences. For instance, in some parts of the United
States the word 'pail' is used to mean 'bucket'; faucet is substituted for 'spigot'; 'blind'
for 'shades' or curtains'. There are many more examples like the way in which
different regional dialects express the concept of the word 'motorway'. It is 'freeway'
in Los Angeles, a 'thruway' in New York, a 'parkway' in New Jersey and an
'expressway' or 'turnpike' elsewhere.

Moreover, we have different varieties of English spoken across the world. We have
British English, American English, Canadian English, Australian English. The
examples of the vocabulary differences can be found in the term used by Australians,
people of England and New-Zealanders. Australians use the term 'sole parents', while
people who live in England use 'single parents' and New-Zealanders call them 'solo
parents'. South Africans use the term 'robot' while British call exactly the same thing
as 'traffic light'. Similarly, there are some grammatical differences, which are found in
different varieties of English. For example, Americans prefer to use “do you have”
while the British English use “have you got”, Americans use “gotten” while most
people in England use “got”, many Americans use “smelled” while most British
English speakers prefer “smelt” and Americans ask “did you eat?” while the English
ask “have you eaten? ”
This indicates that regional dialect has different types which are international
variation, intra-national/intra-continental variation, and cross continental variation.

a. International variation shows how different parts of the world use the same
language differently in the sense of the pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammar.
b. Intra-national or intra-continental variation occurs within a country.
c. Cross-continental variation (Dialect chains) refers to a linguistic phenomenon
where neighbouring dialects gradually change from one region to another
across a large geographical area. Dialect chain are very common a cross the
whole of Europe, and it refers to continuum of language from one town and
village to the next. (ex: French spoken in border towns of Italy, Spain and
Switzerland).

Social Dialect (Sociolect)

A social dialect is also called a sociolect and is spoken by a group of people

belonging to a particular social class. For example, English spoken by upper, middle
and the lower class in London are social dialects. Sociolects are dialects determined
by social factors rather than by geographical ones. They often develop due to social
divisions within a society, such as those of socio-economic class and religion.

In New York City, for example, the probability that someone will pronounce the
letter r when it occurs at the end of a syllable, as in the word fourth, varies with socio-
economic class. The pronunciation of a final r in general is associated with members
of higher socioeconomic classes. Another example is that among older European-
American speakers in Charleston, South Carolina, the absence of r in words such
as bear and court is associated with aristocratic, high-status groups (McDavid 1948)
whereas in New York City the same pattern of r-lessness is associated with working-
class, low-status groups (Labov 1966). Such opposite social interpretations of the
same linguistic trait over time and space point to the arbitrariness of the linguistic
symbols that carry social meaning. In other words, it is not really the meaning of what
you say that counts socially, but who you are when you say it.

Minority dialect

Minority dialect is a language variation spoken by minority group within a larger

population. In general, Members of particular minority ethnic group have their own
variety which is called minority dialect. This variety is used as a marker of identity of
this group usually alongside a standard variety. It also reflects their unique culture and
historical background. Examples are African American Vernacular English in the
USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in Australia.