MODULE-2 (5 HOURS)

BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE)
• Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in bioplastics
production,
• Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis,
• Proteins in food production,
• Lipids in biodiesel and detergents production,
• Enzymes in biosensors fabrication, food processing, detergent formulation and
textile processing.
 1. CARBOHYDRATES
(CELLULOSE-BASED WATER
FILTERS, PHA AND PLA AS
BIOPLASTICS)
CELLULOSE
• French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to
discover cellulose in the year 1838.
• Cellulose is a made up of thousands of D-glucose
subunits. The glucose subunits in cellulose are linked
via beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
• Cellulose is an unbranched molecule. The polymeric
chains of glucose are arranged in a linear pattern.
these chains are arranged parallel to each other.
• The hydrogen bonds are formed between these chains
due to hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups which
firmly hold the chains together. This results in the
formation of cellulose microfibrils that are firm and
strong. Cellulose is used as a structural component
due to the strength it has from the many hydrogen
bonds that form between the long chains of
β-glucose molecules
• Cellulose is present in plant cells in the form of
cellulose microfibrils. These microfibrils together form
polysaccharide or cellulose matrix.
 CELLULOSE-BASED WATER FILTERS
• Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate
polymer found in plant cell walls.
• They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an
alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters.
• The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose make it an
ideal material for water filtration.
• Cellulose filters can effectively remove particles, pathogens, and other
contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable.
• Cellulose-based water filters are widely used in both developed and developing
countries for household, industrial, and agricultural applications.
• They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as
they are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources.
 Properties of cellulose based water filter
• Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive choice for
water filtration:
• High Porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them to
efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
• Biodegradability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a biodegradable material,
cellulose, which reduces their impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional synthetic
polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and communities.
• Renewable resource: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.
• Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength, allowing
them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.
• Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals, including acids
and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.
• Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances their
filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.
Construction of cellulose-based water filters
• Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps:
• 1. Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water filter will depend on
the desired properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical resistance.
• Common cellulose materials include paper, cotton, and wood fibers.
• 2. Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small pieces, washing it
to remove impurities, and drying it for use.
• 3. Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either stacking it or
compacting it using heat and pressure.
• 4. Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium such as a mesh or a
support structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface area.
• 5. Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to modify its properties, such
as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents.
• 6. Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that provides a means to
attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered water.
• 7. Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired specifications,
such as filtration efficiency and flow rate.
• Note: This is a general outline, the exact process may vary depending on the specific requirements
of the water filter and the type of cellulose material used.
PRODUCTION OF CELLULOSE BASED WATER
FILTERS
• Water based filters have the potential to be made
affordable, lightweight and biodegradable.
• Focus on creating biobased membranes for micro- and
ultrafiltration from cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs).
• Filters based on cellulose pulp facilitate water
percolation but they do not sufficiently remove
bacteria through size exclusion; other techniques are
therefore needed to achieve a bacteria-reducing
effect.
• Incorporating antibacterial metal nanoparticles into
cellulose-based water filters; both silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) are known
to have good antibacterial effects.
• An alternative method is to use positively charged
filters that adsorb negatively charged bacteria onto
the surfaces of the filters.
Fig. Synthesis and use of cellulose based water
filters
BIOPLASTICS
– PHA & PLA
BIOPLASTICS
• Bioplastics are one type of plastic which can be generated
from natural resources such as starches and vegetable oils.
Bioplastics are basically classified as bio based and/or
biodegradable. Not all bio-based plastics are biodegradable
and similarly not all biodegradable plastics are bio based.
• Bioplastics are referred to as bio based when the focus of the
material is on the origin of the carbon building block and not
by where it ends up at the end of its cycle life.
• Bio plastics are said to be biodegradable if they are broken
down with the effect of the right environmental conditions
and microbes which in turn use them as a food source.
• The bioplastics are considered compostable if within 180 days,
a complete microbial assimilation of the fragmented food
source takes place in a compost environment
• Based upon this, we have PHA and PLA.
PHA AND PLA AS BIOPLASTICS
• Biopolymers which are produced with the help of microorganisms
require specific nutrients and controlled environmental conditions.
They are produced either directly via fermentation or by chemical
polymerization of monomers, which are in turn produced through
fermentation.
 CONVENTIONAL PLASTICS V/S BIOPLASTICS
Conventional Plastics Bioplastics
Derived from fossil
Produced from
fuels and
Source natural, renewable
petroleum-based
resources
sources
Reliant on finite fossil Utilize renewable
Resource Availability
fuel resources resources
Most conventional
Many bioplastics are
Biodegradability plastics are
biodegradable
non-biodegradable
Contributes to Often considered
Environmental Impact environmental more environmentally
pollution friendly
Applied in
Used in packaging,
biodegradable food
bags, bottles,
Common Applications packaging, automotive
construction, textiles,
parts, biomedical
electronics, and more
tools, and more
Polyethylene
Polyhydroxyalkanoate,
terephthalate,
Examples of Materials polylactic acid,
 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) as
bioplastic:
• Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are biodegradable and biocompatible
polymers that can be produced by microorganisms from renewable
resources such as plant-based oils, waste cooking oil, and agricultural
waste.
• Made using plant feedstocks including waste, PHA is bio-based
biopolymer that can be created using bacterial fermentation with
vegetable oils, sugars, starches, and even methane and wastewater.
• PHA is a promising candidate for bioplastic production due to its
biodegradability and compatibility with existing manufacturing
processes. PHA bioplastics has several advantages over traditional
plastics. PHA is biodegradable, which means they can be broken down by
natural to processes. Additionally, PHA is non-toxic and does not release
harmful chemicals when it breaks down, unlike traditional plastics.
• PHA bioplastics also has a wide range of potential applications, including
in packaging, agriculture, and medical devices. PHA bioplastics have been
shown to be compatible with human tissues and have low toxicity,
making them an attractive option for medical applications.
• PHA bioplastics are a promising alternative to traditional plastics, offering
a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution to the plastic waste a
problem.
PRODUCTION OF PHA
• PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates) can be produced using bacterial fermentation.
Here are the general steps involved in PHA production:
1) Fermentation: Bacteria, such as Alcaligenes eutrophus or Pseudomonas
oleovorans, are cultured in a nutrient-rich solution that contains a carbon
source. The bacteria consume the carbon source and produce PHA as a
storage material.
2) Extraction: Once the bacteria have produced PHA, they are harvested and
the PHA is extracted from the cells by chemical extraction, enzymatic
digestion, or physical disruption of the bacterial cells.
3) Purification: The extracted PHA is then purified by filtration, centrifugation,
or solvent extraction and processed into a plastic form, such as pellets.
4) Processing: The PHA pellets are melted and molded into various shapes to
create products such as PHA films, fibers, or 3D-printed structures, packaging
materials, bags, and utensils.
PHAs have several advantages as a plastic
material:
• Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can be broken
down naturally by microorganisms in the environment. This
makes them an environmentally friendly alternative to
traditional plastic. materials that can persist in the
environment for centuries.
• Versatility: PHAs can be produced in a variety of different
forms, from flexible films to rigid structures, depending on the
specific production methods used. This makes them versatile
material that can be used for a range of different applications.
• Renewable: PHAs are produced using renewable resources
such as plant oils or waste streams from the food industry.
This makes them a sustainable alternative to traditional plastic
materials that are derived from fossil fuels.
• Non-toxic: PHAs are non-toxic and biocompatible, making
them suitable for use in medical applications such as sutures,
drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.
• PHAs have significant potential as a sustainable alternative to
traditional plastic materials.
POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA) AS BIOPLASTIC:
• PLA, or polylactic acid, is a biodegradable and compostable
thermoplastic that is derived from renewable resources such as
corn starch, sugarcane, and other plant-based sources. It is one of
the most widely used bioplastics and is increasingly popular as a
sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics.
• Properties of PLA :
• Biodegradability: PLA is biodegradable and can break down into
natural substances such as carbon dioxide, water, and organic
compounds under specific conditions.
• Renewable Resource: PLA is made from renewable resources,
which makes it a sustainable alternative to traditional plastics
made from fossil fuels.
• Versatility: PLA can be used in a wide range of applications,
including packaging materials, food containers, disposable
tableware, and 3D printing filaments.
• Mechanical Properties: PLA has good mechanical properties, such
as high tensile strength, which makes it suitable for various
applications.
• Low Environmental Impact: The production of PLA generates lower
greenhouse gas emissions and uses less energy than traditional
plastics, which makes it more environment friendly.
PRODUCTION OF PLA
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS IN
VACCINES AND DIAGNOSIS
 DNA VACCINES FOR
RABIES
• A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a small
piece of DNA to stimulate an immune response in
the body.
• The DNA used in the vaccine encodes for a specific
antigen, which is a protein found on the surface of a
pathogen.
• When the DNA vaccine is injected into the body, the
cells take up the DNA and use it to produce the
antigen, which then triggers an immune response.
• Rabies is a viral disease that affects the central
nervous system of humans and other mammals. It is
typically spread through the saliva of infected
animals, most commonly through bites or scratches.
The virus can also be transmitted through contact
with the eyes, nose, or mouth if infected saliva
comes into contact with these areas.
• A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that
uses a small piece of DNA that encodes the genetic
instructions for producing a protein from the rabies
virus.
• This protein is then produced by the cells of the
vaccinated individual, which triggers an immune
response and produces immunity against the virus.
DNA VACCINE
PRODUCTION
• A DNA vaccine, using a pCl-neo plasmid encoding the
glycoprotein gene of a Mexican isolate of rabies virus, was
developed to induce long-lasting protective immunity against
rabies virus in dogs.
• The worldwide incidence of rabies and high rates of therapy
failure, despite availability of effective vaccines indicate the
need for timely and improved prophylactic approaches.
• DNA vaccination based on optimized formulation of
lysosome-targeted glycoprotein of the rabies virus provides
potential platform for preventing and controlling rabies.
• A range of parameters including physical, physiological,
clinical, immunological, hematological along with
histopathology profiles of target organs was monitored to
assess the impact of vaccination.
• There were no observational adverse effects despite high
dose administration of the DNA vaccine formulation.
• Thus, this study indicates the safety of next generation of
vaccines as well as highlights their potential application.
RNA VACCINES FOR COVID-19
• Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2
virus (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoronaVirus 2).
• Messenger RNA, or mRNA technology, instructs cells to make a protein that
generates an immune response in the body, thus producing the antibodies that
provide protection against a disease.
• It is the basis for the Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines being used by
governments worldwide, and in the UN-supported COVAX global vaccine solidarity
initiative.
• Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a molecule that provides cells with
instructions for making proteins.
• mRNA vaccines contain the instructions for making the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.
• This protein is found on the surface of the virus that causes COVID-19.The mRNA
molecule is essentially a recipe, telling the cells of the body how to make the spike
protein.
• COVID-19 mRNA vaccines are given by injection, usually into the muscle of the upper
arm.
• After the protein piece is made, the cell breaks down the instructions and gets rid of
them.
• The mRNA never enters the central part (nucleus) of the cell, which is where our
DNA (genetic material) is found. Your DNA can't be altered by mRNA vaccines.
• The cell then displays the protein piece on its surface. Our immune system
recognizes that the protein doesn't belong there and begins building an immune
response and making antibodies.
PRODUCTION OF mRNA VACCINE FOR
COVID-19
 FORENSIC DNA
FINGERPRINTING
 FORENSIC-DNA FINGERPRINTING
• DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a
technique used in forensic science to identify individuals by analyzing their
unique DNA profiles. Developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys in the 1980s, DNA
fingerprinting has become a cornerstone of modern forensic investigations.
• Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) is a technique that exploits
variations in DNA sequences. DNA from differing sources will have variations
or polymorphisms throughout the sequence. Using Restriction Enzymes,
these differences in sequences may be teased out.
• RFLP analysis requires that a probe to a specific area of DNA be used to
identify specific locations. Agarose gels would be transferred to a membrane
or filter where they would be hybridized to these radioactive probes.
• Forensic scientists obtain DNA samples from a crime scene, such as blood,
semen, or hair follicles, and compare them to DNA samples taken from
suspects or victims. The DNA is then extracted from the samples and
amplified through a process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which
makes many copies of the DNA.
• The amplified DNA is then subjected to a process called gel electrophoresis,
which separates the DNA fragments according to their size. The resulting
pattern of bands, known as a DNA profile or DNA fingerprint, is unique to
each individual and can be used to identify person with a high degree of
accuracy. Suspects or victim can be identified by matching the bands of DNA.
• Forensic scientists can compare DNA profiles from different samples to
determine if they come from the same individual or related individuals This
information can be used to identify suspects or link individuals to a crime
scene. DNA fingerprinting has been used to solve numerous high- profile
cases and has revolutionized forensic science.
3. PROTEINS IN FOOD
PRODUCTION
PROTEIN AS FOOD:
WHEY PROTEIN
• Protein is a key part of any diet. The average person needs about 7 grams of protein every day for every 20
pounds of body weight. Because protein is found in an abundance of foods, many people can easily meet this
goal.
• However, not all protein “packages” are created equal. Because foods contain a lot more than protein, it’s
important to pay attention to what else is coming with it.
• Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) tend to be good sources of complete protein,
while plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds) often lack one or more essential amino acid.
• Whey protein is a mixture of proteins isolated from whey, the liquid material created as a
by-product of cheese production. The proteins consist of α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum albumin and
immunoglobulins. Glycomacropeptide also makes up the third largest component but is not a protein. Whey
protein is commonly marketed as a protein supplement, and various health claims have been attributed to it.
• Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production, and contains everything that
is soluble from milk after the pH is dropped to 4.6 during the coagulation process.
• It is a 5% solution of lactose in water and contains the water soluble proteins of milk as well as some lipid
content.
• Processing can be done by simple drying, or the relative protein content can be increased by removing the
lactose, lipids and other non-protein materials.
• The primary usage of whey protein supplements is for muscle growth and development. Eating whey protein
supplements before exercise will not assist athletic performance, but it will enhance the body's protein recovery
and synthesis after exercise because it increases the free amino acids in the body's free amino acid pool.
SS
MEAT ANALOGUES
• Meat analogues find raising interest of many consumers who are looking for indulgent,
healthy, low environmental impact, ethical, cost-effective, and/or new food products.
• High moisture extrusion cooking enables the production of fresh, premium meat
analogues that are texturally like muscle meat from plant or animal proteins.
• The appearance and eating sensation are similar to cooked meat while high protein
content offers a similar nutritional value.
• Here, we focus on plant-based meat analogues and cover process and product-related
aspects including ingredients and structure formation, flavor, taste and nutritional value,
post extrusion processing, packaging and shelf life, consumer benefits, and
product-related environmental impacts.
• Meat analogues, can be defined as products that mimic meat in its functionality, bearing
similar appearance, texture, and sensory attributes to meat. Production of meat
analogues has been on the increase, targeted at satisfying consumers’ desire for
indulgent, healthy, low environmental impact, and ethical meat substitutes.
• The factors that lead to this shift is due to low fat and calorie foods intake, flexitarians,
animal disease, natural resources depletion, and to reduce greenhouse gas emission.
• Currently, available marketed meat analog products are plant-based meat in which the
quality (i.e., texture and taste)are similar to the conventional meat.
• The ingredients used are mainly soy proteins with novel ingredients added, such as
mycoprotein and soy leghemoglobin.
PLANT BASED
PROTEINS
• Plant Based Protein is simply a meaningful food source of protein which is from
plants. This group can include pulses, tofu, soya, tempeh, seitan, nuts, seeds,
certain grains and even peas.
• Pulses are a large group of plants, which include chickpeas, lentils, beans (such as
black, kidney and adzuki beans) and split peas.
• Plant proteins are highly nutritious – not only as good sources of protein, but also
because they provide other nutrients such as fibre, vitamins and minerals.
• Our intake of fibre tends to be too low, however by incorporating certain plant
proteins into your diet, such as pulses, peas and nuts, you can easily boost your
fibre intake.
• Consumer demand for plant protein-based products is high and expected to grow
considerably in the next decade.
• Factors contributing to the rise in popularity of plant proteins include:
• (1) potential health benefits associated with increased intake of plant-based diets;
• (2) consumer concerns regarding adverse health effects of consuming diets high in animal
protein (e.g., increased saturated fat);
• (3) increased consumer recognition of the need to improve the environmental
sustainability of food production;
• (4) ethical issues regarding the treatment of animals; and
• (5) general consumer view of protein as a “positive” nutrient (more is better).
• While there are health and physical function benefits of diets higher in
plant-based protein, the nutritional quality of plant proteins may be inferior in
some respects relative to animal proteins.
Protein Requirement = Body
weight*0.8
4. LIPIDS IN BIODIESEL
AND DETERGENTS
PRODUCTION
 BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is a liquid biofuel obtained by chemical processes from vegetable oils or animal fats and an
alcohol that can be used in diesel engines, alone or blended with diesel oil.
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel made from natural oils and fats, such as vegetable oil, animal fats, or
recycled cooking grease. It is produced through a process called transesterification, which involves
reacting these oils or fats with an alcohol (usually methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst
(such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). This reaction converts the oils or fats into fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME), which are the chemical compounds that make up biodiesel, along with glycerin as
a byproduct.
Here are some key points about biodiesel:
• Renewable and Sustainable: Biodiesel is considered a renewable fuel because it is made from organic
materials that can be replenished relatively quickly compared to finite fossil fuels like petroleum
diesel. It is produced from feedstocks such as soybean oil, canola oil, palm oil, animal fats, and used
cooking oil, which can be grown, harvested, or collected as waste products.

• Environmental Benefits: Biodiesel is often promoted as a cleaner-burning alternative to petroleum

diesel, as it produces fewer harmful emissions when burned. It has lower levels of sulfur, particulate
matter, and carbon monoxide, and it emits less greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2).
Biodiesel also helps reduce dependence on fossil fuels and can contribute to lower carbon footprints
and improved air quality.
 BIODIESEL
• Compatibility: Biodiesel can be used as a drop-in replacement for petroleum diesel in most diesel
engines without the need for engine modifications. It can be blended with petroleum diesel in
various proportions, such as B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel) or B100 (100% biodiesel),
depending on the engine type, climate conditions, and fuel specifications.
• Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic, which means it breaks down naturally
in the environment and poses less risk of soil or water contamination in the event of spills or leaks.
This makes it safer to handle and transport compared to petroleum diesel.
• Applications: Biodiesel is used primarily as a transportation fuel for diesel vehicles, including cars,
trucks, buses, and trains. It can also be used in stationary diesel engines for power generation,
agricultural machinery, construction equipment, and marine vessels. Additionally, biodiesel can be
blended with heating oil for residential and commercial heating applications.
Overall, biodiesel offers a renewable and sustainable alternative to petroleum diesel, with
environmental benefits such as reduced emissions and lower carbon footprint and improved air
quality.
ESTERIFICATIO
N
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
• Biodiesel is produced from
TRANSESTERIFICATIO vegetable oils or animal fats and an
N alcohol, through a
transesterification reaction.
• This chemical reaction converts an
ester (vegetable oil or animal fat)
into a mixture of esters of the fatty
acids that makes up the oil (or fat).
• Biodiesel is obtained from the
purification of the mixture of fatty
acid methyl esters (FAME).
• A catalyst is used to accelerate the
reaction.
The Biodiesel Cycle
SOURCES OF
BIODIESEL FATTY ACID

ESTER

• RAPESEED
• JATROPHA
• SOYBEAN
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL
Advantages
• Some of the advantages of using biodiesel as a replacement
for diesel fuel are:
• Renewable fuel, obtained from vegetable oils or animal fats.
• Low toxicity, in comparison with diesel fuel.
• Degrades more rapidly than diesel fuel, minimizing the
environmental consequences of biofuel spills.
• Lower emissions of contaminants: carbon monoxide,
particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
aldehydes.
• Lower health risk, due to reduced emissions of carcinogenic
substances.
• No sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions.
• Higher flash point (100C minimum).
• May be blended with diesel fuel at any proportion; both
fuels may be mixed during the fuel supply to vehicles.
• Excellent properties as a lubricant.
• It is the only alternative fuel that can be used in a
conventional diesel engine, without modifications.
• Used cooking oils and fat residues from meat processing
may be used as raw materials.
Disadvantages
• There are certain disadvantages of using biodiesel as a
replacement for diesel fuel that must be taken into
consideration:
• Slightly higher fuel consumption due to the lower calorific
value of biodiesel.
• Slightly higher nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions than diesel
fuel.
• Higher freezing point than diesel fuel. This may be
inconvenient in cold climates.
• It is less stable than diesel fuel, and therefore long-term
storage (more than six months) of biodiesel is not
recommended.
• May degrade plastic and natural rubber gaskets and hoses
when used in pure form, in which case replacement with
Teflon components is recommended.
• It dissolves the deposits of sediments and other
contaminants from diesel fuel in storage tanks and fuel
lines, which then are flushed away by the biofuel into the
engine, where they can cause problems in the valves and
injection systems. In consequence, the cleaning of tanks
prior to filling with biodiesel is recommended.
• It must be noted that these disadvantages are significantly
reduced when biodiesel is used in blends with diesel fuel.
CLEANING AGENTS/DETERGENTS
• Lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on the dissolving of grease and oils.
• As they are composed on hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, which allows them to surround around grease and oils, effectively
breaking them into smaller particles that can be removed easily.
• This property allows lipids to be used in cleaning agents such as soaps, shampoo, detergents.
• The amphiphilic character of these substances also make them strong surfactants.
• Lipid-based cleaning agents are applied to the surface;
• Hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround and dissolve the grease and oils , while the hydrophilic regions interact with
water , allowing the mixture to be rinsed away.
• Combination of lipid and water forms emulsion, which helps in removing the dirt and debris.
• Some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering capabilities, that can enhance the cleaning performances.
• Example: foaming agents in shampoos; lathering properties in soap.
CLEANING AGENTS/DETERGENTS
• Oil-Based Cleaners: Certain types of oils, such as vegetable oil or mineral
oil, can be used to clean surfaces that are greasy or oily. When applied to
surfaces, these oils can help dissolve and lift away dirt, grime, and other oily
residues. They are particularly effective for cleaning surfaces like wood,
metal, or leather, where water-based cleaners may not be as effective.
• Soap Making: Soap is a type of detergent that is traditionally made from
fats or oils, such as tallow (rendered animal fat) or vegetable oils (e.g., olive
oil, coconut oil). During the soap-making process, fats or oils are combined
with a strong alkaline solution (such as lye) to undergo a chemical reaction
called saponification. This reaction produces soap molecules, which have
both hydrophilic (water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) parts.
The hydrophobic parts of the soap molecules can trap and remove dirt and
oils from surfaces, while the hydrophilic parts allow them to be rinsed away
with water.
• Natural Cleaning Products: Some environmentally friendly cleaning
products use plant-derived oils, such as citrus oils or essential oils, as active
cleaning agents. These oils can have antimicrobial properties and can help
remove dirt and odors from surfaces without the use of harsh chemicals.
• Natural Cleaning Products: Some environmentally friendly cleaning
products use plant-derived oils, such as citrus oils or essential oils, as active
cleaning agents. These oils can have antimicrobial properties and can help
remove dirt and odors from surfaces without the use of harsh chemicals.
• Degreasing Agents: Lipids, such as fatty acids or esters, can be used as
degreasers to remove oily residues from surfaces or equipment. They can
be applied directly to the surface or used as ingredients in cleaning
formulations to break down and dissolve grease.
• While lipids can be effective for certain cleaning tasks, they may not be
suitable for all cleaning applications.
5. ENZYMES IN BIOSENSORS
FABRICATION, FOOD
PROCESSING, DETERGENT
FORMULATION AND TEXTILE
PROCESSING
ENZYMES IN BIOSENSORS FABRICATION
A biosensor is a device that measures biological or chemical reactions by generating signals proportional to the
concentration of an analyte in the reaction. Biosensors are employed in applications such as disease monitoring,
drug discovery, and detection of pollutants, disease-causing micro-organisms and markers that are indicators of
a disease in bodily fluids (blood, urine, saliva, sweat). Various types of biosensors being used are enzyme-based,
tissue-based, immunosensors, DNA biosensors, and thermal and piezoelectric biosensors. There are wide variety
of enzymes used in biosensors. One such enzyme is glucose oxidase, mainly in amperometric glucose biosensor.
Amperometric sensors monitor currents generated when electrons are exchanged either directly or indirectly
between a biological system and an electrode.
Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological sensing element with a physicochemical transducer to
detect and quantify specific biological analytes. They're used across various fields, including healthcare,
environmental monitoring, food safety, and more. Here's how they typically work:
• Biological Sensing Element: This component recognizes and interacts selectively with the target analyte. It can
be an enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, whole cell, or biomimetic molecule. In the case of glucose monitoring, as
mentioned earlier, glucose oxidase serves as the biological sensing element.
• Transducer: The transducer converts the biological response into a measurable signal. Depending on the
application, this can be optical, electrochemical, piezoelectric, or thermal. For example, in glucose biosensors,
the transducer often measures changes in electrical current or potential resulting from the enzymatic reaction.
• Signal Processing and Output: The signal generated by the transducer is processed and often displayed or
recorded for analysis. This could involve simple readouts like a digital display or more complex analysis using
computers or other devices.
GLUCOSE OXIDASE IN BIOSENSORS
Glucose oxidase (GOx) is a vital component in biosensors designed for measuring glucose levels. Here's
how it typically works:
• Glucose Oxidation: GOx catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid while reducing molecular
oxygen to hydrogen peroxide (𝐻2𝑂2):

• Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide: Hydrogen peroxide is easily detectable through various means.
Commonly, it can be detected electrochemically or optically.
• Signal Transduction: The signal generated by the reaction is then transduced into a measurable
output, typically an electrical signal in the case of electrochemical biosensors or an optical signal in
optical biosensors.
• In biosensors, this reaction serves as the basis for quantifying glucose levels in various samples such
as blood, serum, or other biological fluids. The amount of glucose present in the sample is directly
proportional to the amount of hydrogen peroxide generated, which in turn is measured to determine
the glucose concentration.
• The integration of GOx into biosensors has greatly facilitated the development of glucose monitoring
devices, which are essential in managing conditions like diabetes. These devices offer rapid, accurate,
and minimally invasive methods for monitoring glucose levels, crucial for maintaining health and
managing glucose-related disorders.
ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
• For centuries, human beings have
exploited the impressive catalytic
efficiency of these ubiquitous
biomolecules for food processing,
especially in the preparation of beer,
wine, cheese and bread. Enzymes are
generally extracted from edible plants
and the tissues of animals. Certain
enzymes also are produced by
microorganisms like bacteria, yeasts, and
fungi.
• Additionally, enzymes also find
applications in detergents, leather, textile
pulp, and paper industries.
• Enzymes have been traditionally
produced by
• extraction and fermentation processes from
plant and animal sources,
• from a few cultivatable microorganisms.
SOME OF THE ENZYMES GENERALLY EMPLOYED IN
FOOD INDUSTRY ARE LISTED BELOW:
• Alpha-amylase: It is used to solubilize the carbohydrates found in barley and other cereals used in
brewing.
• Beta-glucanase: Breakdown of glucans in malt and and other materials
• Lipase: Used to shorten the time for cheese ripening. It is employed in the production of
enzyme-modified cheese/butter from cheese curd or butterfat.
• Papain: It is widely used as a meat tenderizer.
• Chymosin: Helps in the curdling of milk by breaking down kappa-caseins in cheese making.
• Microbial proteases: Used in the production of fish meals, meat extracts, texturized proteins, etc.
• Pectinase: Treatment of fruit pulp to facilitate juice extraction. It also helps in the clarification and
filtration of fruit juice.
• Lactase: Additive for dairy products for individuals lacking lactase.
• Glucose oxidase: Conversion of glucose to gluconic acid to prevent Maillard reaction (reaction that
gives browned food a particular flavor) in products caused by high heat used in dehydration.
• Cellulase: Conversion of cellulose waste to fermentable feedstock for ethanol or single-cell protein
production.
ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
• Proteases in Food Industry:
• Proteases are protein-hydrolysing enzymes which belong to the class “hydrolases”. They are involved in breaking long
protein chains into shorter fragments by splitting the peptide bonds that link amino acid residues.
• These enzymes are involved in a multitude of physiological reactions from simple digestion of food proteins to highly
regulated biological processes like the blood-clotting cascade.
• Certain proteases have been used in food processing for centuries. Rennet (mainly chymosin), has been used traditionally in
the production of cheese. Similarly, papain from the leaves and unripe fruit of Carica papaya has been used to tenderize
meat.
• Dairy processing
• The main enzymes used in dairy processing are catalase and lactase.
• Catalase has high enzyme activity in bovine colostrum, mainly used for the removal of excess hydrogen peroxide in dairy
products thereby to kill pathogens by using H2O2.
• Lactase can reduce the content of lactose to produce low lactose milk, low lactose hydrolyzed milk can improve the milk
flavor, sweetness and nutritional value.
• In fermented milk, the use of lactase can accelerate the reaction and improve the fermentation efficiency to make
fermented milk unique flavor and relatively extend shelf life of the product.
• Lactase used in condensed milk not only allows lactose to avoid lactose crystallization during concentration, but also make
the product tasty, increase the sweetness, reduce the amount of sucrose, thereby inhibiting bacteria.
• The application of lactase in ice cream can not only increase the sweetness to reduce the amount of sucrose, but also solve
the sediment due to the crystallization of deep frozen lactose, reduce the freezing point and improve the anti-thawing
property.
• The use of lactase in milk powder can improve the flavor of milk powder, its rich caramel and caramel color after hydrolysis
can produce chocolate milk.
ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
• Meat products processing
• Enzyme used in the meat industry is mainly used to improve product quality (color, smell, taste, etc.) and
increase the added value of by-products.
• Beef products, treated with Papain Ca ++ intensifier, have reddish brown color, crispy taste and good
flavor, which completely overcomes traditional shortcomings including the tough taste, tenderness, gray
color and low yield. The use of a certain amount of bromelain combined with phosphates, calcium
chloride, etc. to tender mutton can improve the taste greatly.
• Transglutaminase can catalyze the formation of lysine covalent bonds between molecules of proteins or
within molecules to form effective protein gels that impart specific hardness and elasticity to meat
products.
• Fruit and vegetable processing and beverage industry
• Enzymes used in this area are mainly pectin, cellulase and amylase, and mostly are used alone or in
combination. These enzymes are mainly used for peeling fruit, clarifying fruit juice, reducing the viscosity
of fruit juice, increasing the rate of fruit juices, enhance stability. They are also applied in making
vegetable juice, extending the shelf life of fruits and vegetables, reducing nutrient loss and so on.
• Additionally, enzymes are also widely used in deep processing of tea. Tannase can improve the tea,
prevent tea from being cloudy, and can improve the strength of the tea. And now it is used in black tea,
green tea and oolong tea.
• Cellulase and pectinase can break down the cell wall of tea, making the active ingredients of tea more easy
to dissolve, improving the rate of instant tea products and, product clarity and the aroma of tea.
• Protease can improve tea extract rate and clarity, enhance the taste and improve the separation
performance of tea.
SOURCES OF FOOD ENZYMES (PLANT,
ANIMAL, MICROBIAL)
• Industrial enzymes have traditionally been derived from:

• Plants: α-amylase, β-amylase, bromelain, β-glucanase, ficin, papain,

chymopapain, and lipoxygenase

• Animals: trypsins, pepsins, chymotrypsins, catalase, pancreatic amylase,

pancreatic lipase, and rennin (chymosin)

• Microorganisms: α-amylase, β-amylase, glucose isomerase, pullulanase,

cellulase, catalase, lactase, pectinases, pectin lyase, invertase, raffinose,
microbial lipases, and proteases.
DETERGENT FORMULATION
• The function of enzymes in cleaning:
• Enzymes are catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions occurring in a variety of biological processes including
digestion and growth.
• In the detergent industry, commercial enzymes are used to provide a higher degree of stain removal, whiteness, fabric and
colour care and overall cleaning performance.
• These ingredients are selected based on performance and the use that is required. Enzymes act like small selective scissors
to break down stains into pieces.
• Typically, enzymes are carefully optimised molecules for their respective processes – such as the removal of a specific
protein, starch or fat stain.
• Thus, each enzyme has specificity for one type of reaction, which results in specific enzymes being targeted to specific types
of stains. By being broken down into smaller pieces, stains on laundry are more easily removed.
• Enzymes are used in various cleaning applications - these highly targeted bio-catalysts help effectively eliminate stains by
making them more easily removed by surfactants.
SPECIFIC ENZYMES TARGET SPECIFIC STAINS:
• Protease: Proteases degrade stains comprised mainly of protein, such as grass,
blood, egg, and others, giving clothes a clean appearance.
• Amylase: Amylases break down starch-based stains commonly caused by pasta,
potatoes and baby food, which are commonly found on dishes.
• Lipase: Lipases target fat-based stains such as butter, oil, and human sebum.
These types of stains can cause unsightly marks after washing. Fat based stains
can also contribute to increased appearance of staining after repeated washes.
• Cellulase: For cotton fabrics, cellulases improve overall cleanness by reducing
redeposition of particulate soils such as soot, clay, and rust during the wash. In
addition, cellulases also provide fabric and colour care.
• Mannanase: Mannanases degrade stains containing mannans. These stains are
commonly caused by things like barbecue sauce, chocolate, ice cream and
toothpaste.
• Pectate lyase: Pectate lyases act on pectin-based stains from fruits and
vegetables, jams and other food containing thickeners.
TEXTILE PROCESSING
• Enzymes are biocatalysts and used increasingly in the textile processing industry.
These enzymes are non-toxic and environmentally sustainable and help reduce
pollution which happens due to textile production.
• The specific textile enzymes used are amylases, catalase, and laccase for removing
the starch, degrading excess hydrogen peroxide, textile bleaching, and
lignin-degrading.
• Enzymes like cellulases are used for denim finishing and lactases are used for the
decolorization of textile effluents and their bleaching.
• Using enzymes is efficient and they are used for a specific compound or substrate.
Enzymes can be used at room temperature and milder conditions and help reduce
wastage of water, energy, and time. Furthermore, the resultant finished products
are of higher quality.
• Enzymes are applied in two phases of textile processing. The amylases are used in
the preparatory finishing phase for de-sizing and in the finishing phase cellulases are
used for softening of textiles, decreasing the piling of cotton textiles, and for
bio-stoning.
• Enzymes like proteases, pectinases, lipases, xylanases, and catalases among others
are used for denim fading, bio-polishing, and scouring and removing of peroxides.
ENZYMES USED IN TEXTILE PROCESSING
• Some of the important enzymes for textile industry are amylases and cellulases which belong to the hydrolases class of
enzymes. Other enzymes used in textile processing are laccases and peroxidases which belong to the oxidoreductase
group of enzymes. Let us look into ways enzymes help in the textile industry.
• 1. For Textile De-sizing
• Bio enzymes like amylases are used for textile de-sizing. When producing cotton textiles starch and other sticky materials
are used (collectively called ‘Size’) for weaving cotton fabrics. This starch is removed by textile processing with
enzymes like amylases. Before enzymes were introduced, corrosive substances like salt were used at very high
temperatures for the de-sizing process. This resulted in fading and weakening of the cotton fabric. Amylases are used at
mild temperatures without any of these drawbacks. Now the cotton textile is ready for dyeing and wrapping up.
• 2. For Canvas and Denim Finishing
• Denim products like jeans, shirts, and jackets are ‘finished’ or faded to various degrees for achieving the ‘denim look’.
Here, cellulases are introduced. They quicken the fading of the fabric from the outside and leave the inside part intact.
• 3. For Bio Finishing and Polishing
• Bio-finishing and polishing mean the washing of different textiles like cotton, rayon, linen, etc. before they are ready for
packaging. Bio-washing and polishing prevent the ‘pilling’ or loads of fluff accumulating on the textiles which bring about
an undesirable appearance of cloths. Textile enzymes like cellulases hydrolyze the microfibers and remove them from
the outer surface of the fabrics leading to a polished and smoother surface.
• 4. For Enzymatic Bio-Scouring
• Bio-Scouring means cleaning the non-cellulosic material from cotton textiles. For this purpose, cellulase and pectinase
are mixed and used. Pectinase separates the material from the cotton fibers and cellulase deconstructs it.
• 5. For Enzymatic Bleaching of Textiles
• Cotton and other textiles are bleached to remove the color and making the textiles white. Usually, hydrogen peroxide is
used as a bleaching agent which leads to fabric damage and high use of water during the process. Using textile
enzymes like pectinases, amyloglucosidases, and glucose oxidases for bleaching leads to less fiber damage and less water
usage. These are compatible with the bleaching process due to their operating temperature range and active pH.
BENEFITS OF USING ENZYMES IN TEXTILE
PROCESSING INDUSTRY
• Given below are some of the benefits of enzymes for
textile industry.
• 1. Enzymes quicken the process by accelerating the rate of
reaction.
• 2. Enzymes can be recycled as catalysts as they accelerate
the reaction without any change in their chemical
structure.
• 3. Enzymes can be used at room temperature and milder
conditions and are easy to use and control.
• 4. Enzymes are an eco-friendly option to toxic chemicals,
these are bio-degradable, non-polluting, and safe to use.
• 5. Enzymes work on specific substrates or compounds
only. So, there is no issue of one enzyme interfering with
the other’s process and messing up the textiles.