PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 51, Issue 2, April 2024

http://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/petroleum-exploration-and-development

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2024, 51(2): 262–278. RESEARCH PAPER

Geological characteristics and exploration

breakthroughs of coal rock gas in Carboniferous
Benxi Formation, Ordos Basin, NW China
ZHAO Zhe1, XU Wanglin1, *, ZHAO Zhenyu1, YI Shiwei1, YANG Wei1, ZHANG Yueqiao1, SUN Yuanshi1,
ZHAO Weibo2, SHI Yunhe2, ZHANG Chunlin1, GAO Jianrong1
1. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China;
2. Research Institute of Exploration and Development, PetroChina Changqing Oilfield Company, Xi’an 710018, China

Abstract: To explore the geological characteristics and exploration potential of the Carboniferous Benxi Formation coal rock
gas in the Ordos Basin, this paper presents a systematic research on the coal rock distribution, coal rock reservoirs, coal rock
quality, and coal rock gas features, resources and enrichment. Coal rock gas is a high-quality resource distinct from coalbed
methane, and it has unique features in terms of burial depth, gas source, reservoir, gas content, and carbon isotopic composi-
tion. The Benxi Formation coal rocks cover an area of 16104 km², with thicknesses ranging from 2 m to 25 m, primarily con-
sisting of bright and semi-bright coals with primitive structures and low volatile and ash contents, indicating a good coal qual-
ity. The medium-to-high rank coal rocks have the total organic carbon (TOC) content ranging from 33.49% to 86.11%, averaging
75.16%. They have a high degree of thermal evolution (Ro of 1.2%–2.8%), and a high gas-generating capacity. They also have high
stable carbon isotopic values ( 13C1 of –37.6‰ to –16‰;  13C2 of –21.7‰ to –14.3‰). Deep coal rocks develop matrix pores such
as gas bubble pores, organic pores, and inorganic mineral pores, which, together with cleats and fractures, form good reservoir
spaces. The coal rock reservoirs exhibit the porosity of 0.54%–10.67% (averaging 5.42%) and the permeability of
(0.001–14.600)103 m2 (averaging 2.32103 m2). Vertically, there are five types of coal rock gas accumulation and dissipation
combinations, among which the coal rock-mudstone gas accumulation combination and the coal rock-limestone gas accumula-
tion combination are the most important, with good sealing conditions and high peak values of total hydrocarbon in gas log-
ging. A model of coal rock gas accumulation has been constructed, which includes widespread distribution of medium-to-high
rank coal rocks continually generating gas, matrix pores and cleats/fractures in coal rocks acting as large-scale reservoir spaces,
tight cap rocks providing sealing, source-reservoir integration, and five types of efficient enrichment patterns (lateral pinchout
complex, lenses, low-amplitude structures, nose-like structures, and lithologically self-sealing). According to the geological
characteristics of coal rock gas, the Benxi Formation is divided into 8 plays, and the estimated coal rock gas resources with a
buried depth of more than 2 000 m are more than 12.331012 m3. The above understandings guide the deployment of risk ex-
ploration. Two wells drilled accordingly obtained an industrial gas flow, driving the further deployment of exploratory and ap-
praisal wells. Substantial breakthroughs have been achieved, with the possible reserves over a trillion cubic meters and the
proved reserves over a hundred billion cubic meters, which is of great significance for the reserves increase and efficient de-
velopment of natural gas in China.

Key words: coal rock gas; coalbed methane; medium-to-high rank coal; cleat; Ordos Basin; Carboniferous Benxi Formation;
risk exploration

Introduction Zizhou and Yulin, have been successively discovered in

The Ordos Basin is the largest natural gas production the basin [1]. By the end of 2021, the geological reserves of
base in China. Guided by the sedimentary model of gentle 6.9×1012 m3 had been submitted, supporting the energy
slope delta, some large gas fields such as Sulige, Mizhi, security of China. The tight sandstone gas reservoir in the

Received date: 28 Jun. 2023; Revised date: 26 Feb. 2024.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: wLxu@petrochina.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the PetroChina Science and Technology Major Project (2023ZZ18-03); Changqing Oilfield Major Science and Technology
Project (2023DZZ01).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(24)60022-4
Copyright © 2024, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development Co., Ltd., CNPC (RIPED). Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on
behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278
Paleozoic Carboniferous–Permian is an unconventional
gas reservoir predominantly sourced from coal measures.
Thus, it is significant to directly take the coal-bearing
source rocks as the target of exploration and development.
The coal measures in the Ordos Basin exhibit a wide
distribution range and significant variations in burial
depth [2]. Earlier coalbed methane development was pri-
marily limited to the eastern margin [3], including areas
such as Baode, Fugu, Linxing, Liulin, Wubu, Shilou,
Daning–Jixian and Hancheng. This region spans appro-
ximately 500 km from north to south and 30–60 km from
east to west, predominantly consisting of medium to
shallow formations [4]. Recently, it has achieved promis-
ing results in the exploration of deep coal measures with
burial depths exceeding 2 000 m in the Daning–Jixian
area of the Ordos Basin and in the Junggar Basin. This
indicates more optimistic outlook in deep coal rocks com-
pared to the medium to shallow formations. Academia
attributes this breakthrough to the enrichment of free gas
in coal rock reservoirs, which differs from the predomi-
nant enrichment of adsorbed gas in medium to shallow
coal beds [5–6]. The coal rock reservoirs exhibit relatively
unique geological characteristics and distinct gas en-
richment modes. Thus, separate research on natural gas
within deep coal rocks is meaningful. Some scholars’ ef-
forts in this regard [7–10] have suggested that deep coal
rocks are notably different from medium to shallow ones,
in not only burial depth, but also geological characteris-
tics that were not recognized in previous studies.
In the Ordos Basin, multiple sets of coal rocks are de-
veloped in the Benxi Formation, Taiyuan Formation and
Shanxi Formation. Especially, the #8 coal rock of the
Benxi Formation is distributed stably across the basin [11].
However, the exploration operations have always focused
on the coalbed methane in medium to shallow forma-
tions, instead of natural gas in deep coal rocks, because
the former is considered more economical under similar
output. Recent practices demonstrate significantly higher
natural gas yields from deep coal rocks, spurring a boom
of research and exploration of deep coal rock gas. Based
on available drilling, core, logging and seismic data in the
Ordos Basin, this paper makes extensive research and
comprehensive analysis to address key geological issues,
such as the differences between coal rock gas and coalbed
methane, and the gas storage capacity, resource potential
and preservation conditions of deep coal rocks. New in-
sights are derived into the coal rock gas in the basin with
respect to resources, reservoir characteristics, accumula-
tion-dissipation combinations, and enrichment mecha-
nisms. Furthermore, the exploratory well deployment
strategy is proposed.
1. Overview of coal rock gas
Coal rock gas is a type of hydrocarbon gas that is gen-
 263 
erated within medium- to high-rank coal rocks or mi-
grated from other gas sources and stored within coal rock
reservoirs. It can be rapidly and commercially exploited
through reservoir stimulation. Coal rock gas typically
exhibits the characteristics of high burial depth, high coal
rank, high reservoir fracture density, high temperature,
high pressure, high in-situ gas content, high gas satura-
tion, high free gas content, high gas density, high gas
carbon isotopic values, and high total hydrocarbon values
from gas logging.
Coal rock gas is generally buried at depths exceeding
2 000 m. The change in burial depth brings changes in the
characteristics of coal rock gas reservoirs, especially the
gas source, reservoir, gas content and gas isotopic com-
positions. Coalbed methane mainly refers to the natural
gas adsorbed predominantly in shallow coals [12–13]. As
revealed in Table 1, deeper coal rocks have higher ranks
and stronger gas generation capacities. At large burial
depth, the geostress is high, promoting the development
of fractured coal rock reservoirs with high brittleness and
low compressive strength. Large burial depth also results
in high temperature and pressure in coal rock reservoirs,
high total gas content, gas saturation, free gas content
and gas density in coal rocks, and high carbon isotopic
values of natural gas extensively generated in medium- to
high-rank coal rocks.
Firstly, coal rock gas may be originated from single
source and mixed sources. In the Ordos Basin, coal rock
gas was primarily generated by deeply-buried medium- to
high-rank coal rocks. In the Junggar Basin, coal rock gas
in the Jurassic Xishanyao Formation of Baijiahai area,
was partially contributed by highly matured natural gas
from the underlying Carboniferous strata. On one hand,
the low-rank coal of the Xishanyao Formation limits its
gas generation capacity. On the other hand, the underly-
ing fault-communicated Carboniferous source rocks with
a strong hydrocarbon generation capacity provide sup-
plemental gas source for the fractured coal rock reser-
voirs in the Xishanyao Formation. Such multi-source
natural gas in coal rocks like the Xishanyao Formation is
newly defined as “coal rock gas” [5] to emphasize the
storage characteristics of coal rocks.
Secondly, fractured reservoirs are developed in deeply
buried coal rocks. Coal rock gas in the Baijiahai area of
the Junggar Basin is supplied by multiple sources, and
more importantly, is enriched in free gas state within
dense large pores and microfractures. The deep coal
rocks of the Benxi Formation in the Ordos Basin, with
high thermal maturity, are dominated by bright and
semi-bright coals, with well-developed cleats. Moreover,
the high stress in deep strata results in highly brittle coal
rocks with fractures. Thin section analysis shows that the
density of fractures with aperture greater than 5 μm is
10–19 fractures/9 cm2, while fractures with aperture less
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Table 1. Comparison of coal rock gas and coalbed methane

Geological characteristics

Accumulation

Preservation
Gas type

Gas source

mechanism
Distribution

Trap types
conditions

conditions
properties
Reservoir

Reservoir
Migration

tempera-
fractures

Caprock
physical
depth/m

ture/C
Cleats/
Burial

mode
fractures with aperture
Cleats/fractures de- μm: 10–19 fractures/9

94–308 fractures/9 cm2

Caprock lithology has

weak hydrodynamics
sealing; deep burial,
including mudstone,
Fractures with aper-

(diffusion flow), sec-

amplitude structures, cro-amplitude struc-

16.0%; permeability

(buoyancy, van der

limestone and tight

ture greater than 5

Trap and pressure

Stratigraphic-litho-
significant impact,
Primary migration

ondary migration
(0.001–15.000)

Free, absorption
Gentle areas or
external source

less than 5 μm:

logical trap, mi-

Porosity 0.1%–
structural belts
Self-source or
Coal rock gas

Waals force)
2 000–4 000

(Darcy flow)

tures locally
within basin

sandstone
10−3 m2

65–135
cm2;

Caprock lithology has

shallow burial, strong

Porosity 0.1%–8.0%;
permeability (0.001–

fluenced by atmos-
hydrodynamics, in-
logical trap, micro-
Stratigraphic-litho-

pheric fresh water

Coalbed methane

Primary migration
Structural belts or

Pressure sealing,
der Waals force)
0.500)10−3 m2
uplifted areas at

Absorption (van

hydrodynamics
minimal impact
(diffusion flow)
Few hundreds
basin margins

shallow coals
Self-source

veloped in

infiltration

About 40
to 1 500

Geological characteristics Development characteristics

Gas type

In-situ Predicted
Reservoir Gas Gas
gas Free gas Gas-logging Carbon Development Production ultimate
pressure/ satu- content/
density/ 3 1 content peak value isotopes technology characteristics recovery/
MPa ration (m t )
(kgm3) 104 m3
Gas-logging Well produces
Coal rock gas

Up to Up to total hydrocar- δ13C1: −37.6‰ gas immediately

High,
130– 34.0 m3/t, 45%, bon peak to −16.0‰, Vertical well, after it is opened, 4 000–
22–33 up to
210 average average greater than δ13C2: −21.7‰ horizontal well showing a bi- 6 000
98.6%
21.8 m3/t 24.48% 90%, or even to −14.3‰ or high-angle modal production
up to 100% horizontal well profile [6]
Rela- Relatively light volume frac- Long production
methane
Coalbed

Generally
tively Relatively δ13C1: turing period, showing a
4–8 About 60 8–12 Low less than
large low −70.50‰ to monomodal pro-
[14] [6] 2 500
change −36.19‰ duction profile

than 5 μm can reach 94–308 fractures/9 cm2, leading to Fourthly, coal rock gas has high carbon isotopic values.
an overall permeability of up to 14.6×10−3 μm2. It is evi- Due to the considerable burial depth, coal rock gas is
dent that in deeply-buried medium- to high-rank coal hardly affected by near-surface geological processes. This
rocks, there are extensive matrix gas pores due to large- results in relatively high carbon isotopic values for
scale hydrocarbon generation and also dense microfrac- methane and ethane. Analysis of coal rock gas samples
tures, which provide excellent storage conditions for the from five wells with depth of 2 427.27–3 227.00 m indi-
enrichment of free gas. In well-developed reservoirs, gas cates methane carbon isotopic values ranging from
migrates as diffusion flow and also Darcy flow, and it −37.6‰ to −16.0‰ and ethane carbon isotopic values
accumulates under the driving of the van der Waals force ranging from −21.7‰ to −14.3‰. In contrast, coal rock
on the coal rock surface and also the buoyancy. gas in the shallow eastern part of the Ordos Basin is in-
Thirdly, deep coal rocks exhibit high gas content. Deep fluenced by biogenic gas mixing [14–15], underground hy-
coal rocks generally possess higher coal ranks, with larger drodynamics [16], and structural uplift and desorption
coal grain Langmuir volumes. Under high temperature fractionation [17], resulting in generally lighter methane
and pressure, high-density supercritical natural gas is carbon isotopic values ranging from −55.52‰ to
stored in large pores and microfractures, resulting in −46.52‰ and even −70.50‰ to −36.19‰ [14].
high gas content and gas saturation. Particularly the Lastly, coal rock gas production curves exhibit a "bi-
proportion of free gas can reach up to 45%, primarily modal" feature. Initially after hydraulic fracturing, free
stored in large pores and extensively developed cleats and gas stored in large pores and microfractures within coal
structural fractures. Thus, local structural traps, litho- rocks is rapidly produced. High production and early gas
logical traps with reservoirs developed, and caprock breakthrough occur, forming the first peak in gas pro-
sealing conditions control the formation of high-yield duction. After a period of stable production, as pressure
sweet spots. decreases, adsorbed gas is gradually desorbed. A second

 264 
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

peak in gas production or a sustained stable production
phase appears. Overall, free gas and absorbed gas are
produced sequentially.
2. Geological setting and coal rock
characteristics
2.1. Geological setting
The Ordos Basin is a secondary tectonic unit of the
North China Platform. With an area of 25×104 km2, the
basin is divided into six primary tectonic units, namely
the Western Marginal Thrust Belt, Tianhuan Depression,
Weibei Uplift, Yishaan Slope, Yimeng Uplift and Jinxi
Flexure Belt (Fig. 1a). Coal rocks are primarily distributed
in the Yishaan Slope and the Tianhuan Depression in the
west. The Upper Paleozoic strata in the basin, from bot-
tom to top, include the Upper Carboniferous Benxi For-
mation, Lower Permian Taiyuan Formation, and the
coal-bearing strata in Shanxi Formation, showing a
gradual transition from marine-continental to continen-
tal sedimentary environments. The Shanxi Formation
mainly comprises #1 to #5 coal rocks interbedded with
sandstone and mudstone. The Taiyuan Formation pri-
marily consists of #6, #6-Lower, #7, and #8-Upper coal
rocks, occurring between the Beichagou sandstone at the
base of the Shanxi Formation and the Dongdayao lime-
stone, Xiedao limestone, Maoergou limestone, and Mi-
aogou limestone of the Taiyuan Formation. The Benxi
Formation mainly includes #8, #9, and #10 coal rocks,
where #8 and #9 coal rocks are often merged into one
unit, commonly referred to as the #8 coal rock, which is
situated above the Wujiayu limestone of the Benxi For-
mation and below the Miaogou limestone of the Taiyuan
Formation. At the bottom of the Benxi Formation are the
Pangou limestone and iron-aluminum rock, overlying the
unconformity at the top of the Majiagou Formation (Fig.
1b). The #8 coal rock at the top of the Benxi Formation is
generally 2–15 m or up to 25 m thick. It is shallowly bur-
ied (500–1 500 m) along the eastern margin of the basin
and deeply buried (2 000–4 000 m) within the basin (Fig.
2a). It exhibits the most stable distribution throughout the
basin, and represents as the most potential target for coal
rock gas exploration and also the target layer in this study.

Fig. 1. Tectonic units of the Ordos Basin (a) and composite stratigraphic column of the Benxi Formation–Shanxi Formation
(b) (modified from references [18–19]).
 265 
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278
Fig. 2. Coal rock thickness map (a) and Ro contour map of the Benxi Formation (b) in the Ordos Basin (Fig. a is modified
from Reference [19]).
2.2. Coal rock distribution and coal quality of the
Benxi Formation
2.2.1. Coal rock deposition and distribution
During the deposition of the Benxi Formation, the Ordos
Basin belonged to the nearshore delta and barrier coast
tidal flat–lagoon depositional system, receiving the wide-
spread deposits of coal rocks up to 16.08×104 km2. The
basin sequentially developed delta plain, delta front and
shallow marine lagoon deposits, from north to south [20–21].
In the northern part, swamp deposits developed in the
delta plain interchannel bays, with abundant vegetation.
Lateral channel migration led to extensive peat deposits,
evolving into thick coal rocks up to 25 m thick. In the
central part, branch channels developed stably and con-
sistently in the delta front, forming shallow water near-
shore swamps in interchannel bays, which evolved into
thick superimposed coal rocks ranging from 4 m to 16 m.
Southward, in the Jingbian–Zhidan–Yan'an areas, under a
barrier coast–lagoon depositional system, the abundant
shallow-water coal-forming plants were developed and
evolved to form widespread and extensive coal rocks. Due
to frequent changes in sea level, the duration of the en-
vironment conducive to coal formation was relatively
short. Only thin coal rocks (2–12 m) were formed, with
abundant tonsteins. Overall, coal rocks are thick and
 266 
shallow in the northeastern part of the basin, and gradu-
ally thinning towards the west and south (Fig. 2a), with
increased occurrences of tonsteins and bifurcation.
2.2.2. Coal quality
Coal quality is an important parameter for character-
izing coal rocks. It mainly involves coal macerals, proxi-
mate analysis, and macrolithotypes features.
In terms of microscopic composition, the Benxi For-
mation coal rocks are composed of vitrinite (19.86%–
91.28%, avg. 68.48%), exinite (0–30.99%, avg. 2.94%),
inertinite (0–73.16%, avg. 19.50%), and minerals
(0.57%–20.20%, avg. 9.31%). Apart from the relatively
high proportion of vitrinite, other groups exhibit signifi-
cant variability, indicating strong heterogeneity of coal
rocks.
In terms of proximate analysis, the Benxi Formation
coal rocks are found with ultra-low to low volatile matter
content, low to moderate ash content, and extremely low
moisture content, indicating good coal quality. Specifi-
cally, the fixed carbon content ranges from 51.12% to
86.93%, with an average of 72.68%; the volatile matter
content ranges from 7.64% to 12.75%, with an average of
10.58%; the ash content ranges from 3.81% to 38.89%,
with an average of 16.19%; and the moisture content
ranges from 0.40% to 1.09%, with an average of 0.61%.
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278
In terms of coal macrolithotypes, the Benxi Formation
coal rocks are mainly composed of semi-bright and bright
coals, followed by sub-dull and dull coals. Overall, the #8
coal rock exhibits good coal quality with low clay content
in the upper part, but slightly higher clay content and
presence of tonsteins in the lower part.
In terms of coal structure, the Benxi Formation coal
rocks as a whole are dominated by primary coal, with
cataclastic coal and granulated coal locally. Generally,
bright and semi-bright coals with primary textures con-
tain well-developed microfractures and cleats, indicating
good storage conditions.
3. Conditions for coal rock gas accumulation
in the Benxi Formation
3.1. High gas generation capacity of high-rank coal rocks
The rank of coal rock controls its hydrocarbon genera-
tion capacity. Generally, lignite can generate less methane,
while anthracite is highly capable of methane generation
(up to 590 m3/t) [22–26]. In the late Early Cretaceous (107–
138 Ma) of the Ordos Basin, the mantle plume rose in the
asthenosphere and thinned in the lithosphere, triggering
tectothermal event in the basin to increase the geother-
mal heat flux and geothermal gradient [27–28]. This led to
enhanced coal rank and hydrocarbon generation capacity.
For thermal maturity, the Benxi Formation coal rocks
generally reach medium to high ranks (Ro of 1.2%–2.8%),
except for those in the northeastern part of the basin
where the maturity is relatively low (Ro of 0.6%–0.8%), as
shown in Fig. 2b. The distribution of gas coal and fat coal
is limited, while coking coal, lean coal, meagre coal and
anthracite are predominant, indicating a strong gas gen-
eration capacity [29–31]. In the high to over-mature coal
rocks, most of the residual soluble organic matter and
pyrolyzable organic matter have been expelled, resulting
in generally low values of chloroform bitumen "A" and
pyrolysis hydrocarbons. The total organic carbon (TOC)
values of coal rocks in the basin range from 33.49% to
86.11%, with an average of 75.16%.
In the early stage of thermal evolution, Type III organic
matter primarily experienced side-chain group detach-
ment reaction, leading to relatively poor gas-generating
capability, with the generated gaseous hydrocarbons be-
ing 12C-enriched and thus with relatively low carbon iso-
topic values. In the late stage of thermal evolution, exten-
sive aromatization, cyclization, and aromatic ring disin-
tegration of organic matter became the main drivers of
gaseous hydrocarbon generation, leading to increased
isotopic values [32] and gas yield. The stable carbon iso-
topic values of coal rock kerogen range from −24.5‰ to
−22.5‰ [33–34], inducing generally higher carbon isotopic
values of the generated gaseous hydrocarbons. The car-
bon isotopic values of methane of coal rock gas typically
exceed −37.6‰ and can reach the maximum of −16‰,
 267 
Fig. 3. Carbon isotopic composition of natural gas in
typical formations in the Ordos Basin.
while those of ethane are generally higher than −21.7‰
and can reach the maximum of −14.3‰, distinct from the
natural gas in the Shanxi Formation, He 8 Member and
Ordovician in the basin (Fig. 3). Relatively heavy carbon
isotopes of coal rock gas reflect the strong gas-generating
capability of high-rank coal rocks.
3.2. Development of coal rock reservoirs
Coal rocks, as natural gas reservoirs, have the storage
space mainly consisting of matrix pores and fractures.
Matrix pores, by genesis, mainly include gas pores, re-
sidual plant tissue pores and mineral pores, with their
developments dependent on the macerals, minerals and
ranks of coal rocks. Fractures mainly include endogenous
cleats and exogenous microfractures, with their devel-
opments under the control of coal rank, coal structure,
tectonic stress and other factors.
3.2.1. Storage space types of coal rock reservoirs
Deep coal rocks are generally dual-porosity media
constituted by matrix pores and fractures. In the #8 coal
rock of the Ordos Basin, gas pores, residual plant tissue
pores, and inorganic mineral pores such as intercrystal
pores, intergranular pores and intragranular pores are
predominant in the matrix (Fig. 4). Additionally, exten-
sive cleats and microfractures are observed.
(1) Gas pores. In the coal-forming process, as tempera-
ture and pressure increase, vitrinite becomes soft and
plastic, with organic functional groups and side chains
progressively breaking according to the activation energy
sequence. With thermal evolution, large molecular hy-
drocarbons gradually decompose to produce meth-
ane-rich gas. The gas aggregates to form gas pores, rep-
resenting the products and traces of gasification during
coalification [35]. When the pressure of the gas formed by
thermal evolution is less than the encapsulation resis-
tance of the plastic mass in the coal rock, closed gas pores
are formed. Conversely, when the gas pressure exceeds
the encapsulation resistance, open gas pores are formed.
The gas pores formed in the coal rocks of the Benxi
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Fig. 4. Microscopic characteristics of coal rock reservoirs in the Benxi Formation of Ordos Basin. (a) Well QI85, 2 629.23 m,
tensile fracture with aperture of 363 nm, gas pores with diameter of 680–788 nm, SEM; (b) Well QI85, 2 631.40 m, intra-
granular pores in kaolinite, with diameter of 270–280 nm, SEM; (c) Well QI85, 2 629.34 m, gas pores, with diameters ranging
from tens to hundreds of nanometers, SEM; (d) Well QI85, 2 629.15 m, clay-filled fusinite pores, cleats and microfractures in
desmocollinite; (e) Well MI115, 2 901.40 m, clay-filled fusinite cell cavity pores, SEM; (f) Well JIN26, 3 101.24 m, dendritic
cleats/fractures; (g) Well JIN26, 3 103.40 m, coal vitrinite in dominance, microfractures, SEM; (h) Well JIN26, 3 103.40 m,
microfractures and gas pores, SEM; (i) Well JIN26, 3 103.40 m, locally magnified, gas pores, with diameters ranging from
nanometers to hundreds of nanometers, SEM. Cl—clay; DC—desmocollinite; F—fusinite; Sf—semi-fusinite.

Formation when thermal evolution is densely clustered,
appearing elliptical or tubular, with pore diameters
ranging from several nanometers to several hundred na-
nometers. They are most developed in the vitrinite com-
ponent (Fig. 4a, 4c, 4h, 4i). Shallow coal rocks generally
have lower coal ranks and lower gas production. They
developed less gas pores than deep coal rocks.
(2) Residual plant tissue pores, which are inherited
from the preserved structure of plant tissues in coal rocks.
During coalification, some plant tissue cells are preserved,
forming cell cavity pores, which are more common in
fusinite and semi-fusinite. The pore diameters range from
tens of nanometers to several micrometers, and these
pores may be filled with clay minerals (Fig. 4d, 4e).
(3) Mineral pores refer to the pores formed in coal
rocks by mineral particles such as carbonate and clay
during the coalification and the geological processes after
coalification. They include intragranular dissolution
 268 
pores, intercrystalline pores and intergranular pores in
minerals. These pores are more developed in coal rocks
with thin tonsteins and low-rank coal rocks (Fig. 4b).
(4) Cleats are formed from the gelatinization during
coalification, as plastic to semi-plastic coal materials ex-
pel fluids such as natural gas and water, under the
shrinkage-induced internal tension within the coal ma-
trix. Cleats are classified into face cleats and butt cleats.
Face cleats generally extend long, several meters or even
tens of meters in vitrain or clarain. Butt cleats are typi-
cally orthogonal to face cleats, with their length con-
trolled by the spacing of parallelly developed face cleats.
The development of cleats is closely related to coal
thickness, type, and composition. At the microscopic
scale, cleat lengths range from tens of micrometers to
several millimeters, while cleat widths range from hun-
dreds of nanometers to several micrometers (Fig. 4d, 4f,
4g and Fig. 5).
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Fig. 5. Core photographs of the Benxi Formation in the Ordos Basin. (a) Well MI115, 2 089.20 m, bright coal in dominance,
with face cleats and butt cleats; (b) Well QI32, 3 260.20 m, bright coal in dominance, arrows indicating deformed clay min-
erals between bright coal blocks, with unfilled microfractures; (c) Well SD1H, 2 358.84 m, bright coal, with face cleats and
butt cleats, as well as some fractures filled with calcite; (d) Well QI32, 3 265.36 m, bright coal in dominance, with dendritic
and reticular fractures, filled with minerals; (e) Well LIAN133, 3 864.20 m, bright coal in dominance, with cleats, microfrac-
tures dominated by shear fractures due to tectonic stress, as well as vertical fractures.

(5) Fractures are tensional, shear, and tensile-shear
fractures formed in coal rocks under geological stress (Fig.
5), generally not restricted by coal type. As the result of
tectonic stress, features such as striations and steps are
visible on fracture surfaces. Fractures are often filled with
minerals such as calcite and clay (Fig. 5d). Although
cleats and fractures have different origins, local cleats
and microfractures are not easily distinguishable. They
both possess good storage and transport capabilities.
Fractures of different scales require different study
methods. Fractures with nanometer to micrometer
widths are observed and analyzed using electron mi-
croscopy. Fractures with micrometer to millimeter widths
can be studied through core observations. Larger frac-
tures causing coal core fracturing require imaging log-
ging data. Coal intervals with well-developed fractures
exhibit clear fracture characteristics from imaging log-
ging data, with fractures primarily characterized by high
angle and enriched free gas, with total hydrocarbons of
around 80% (Fig. 6).
3.2.2. Physical properties of coal rock reservoirs
The coal rock reservoirs in the Ordos Basin exhibit fa-
vorable physical properties with variations at different
scales. Pore structure characterization through combined
analysis of CO2 and low-temperature liquid nitrogen ad-
sorption and high-pressure mercury intrusion reveals
 269 
that micropores (pore diameter less than 2 nm) consti-
tute 42% to 57% of the total volume, macropores (pore
diameter greater than 50 nm) constitute 28% to 45%, and
mesopores (pore diameter of 2–50 nm) constitute 13% to
15%, indicating a predominant presence of micropores
and macropores in the coal rocks. Physical properties
differ between centimeter-scale block samples and plug
samples. Analysis of centimeter-scale coal blocks shows
that porosity ranging from 1.937% to 9.116%, with an
average of 5.329%, and permeability is (0.005–1.192)×10−3
μm2, with an average of 0.350×10−3 μm2. Analysis of plug
samples shows that porosity ranging from 0.540% to
10.670%, with an average of 5.466%, and permeability is
(0.001–14.600)×10−3 μm2, with an average of 3.438×10−3
μm2 (Table 2). Clearly, the porosity values are generally
equivalent or slightly lower in block samples than those
in plug samples, while the permeability values are sig-
nificantly lower. When laboratory physical property
analysis is conducted on centimeter-scale coal blocks, it
reflects only the properties of local microscale blocks.
Then it is difficult to assess the storage and transport
capabilities of fractures. Analysis of 3 cm-scale plug sam-
ples may reflect the storage and transport capabilities of
small- to medium-sized fractures with better physical
properties. Microscale, core-scale, and imaging logging
results of fracture characteristics also exhibit differences.
Statistical data from microscopic fracture analysis (Table
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Table 2. Physical properties of coal rock reservoirs in

Benxi Formation
Permeability/ Sample
SN. Well Depth/m Porosity/%
10−3 m2 type
1 MI115 2 087.78 0.540 0.001 Plug
2 MI115 2 090.32 1.610 0.001 Plug
3 MI115 2 105.32 3.570 0.155 Plug
4 MI172 2 425.20 10.670 3.470 Plug
5 MI172 2 425.45 4.770 0.802 Plug
6 MI172 2 427.64 8.480 0.673 Plug
7 MI172 2 427.89 7.700 1.537 Plug
8 MI172 2 428.39 5.630 0.743 Plug
9 MI172 2 428.65 6.610 1.162 Plug
10 MI172 2 428.99 1.200 0.001 Plug
11 MI172 2 429.29 8.470 2.096 Plug
12 JIN26 3 101.33 5.333 14.600 Plug
13 JIN26 3 102.46 6.551 12.000 Plug
14 JIN26 3 103.48 4.992 10.900 Plug
15 MI109 2 373.93 5.947 0.048 Block
16 MI109 2 374.80 3.708 0.005 Block
17 MI109 2 375.80 1.937 0.020 Block
18 MI109 2 376.30 2.491 0.158 Block
19 QI36 2 805.34 6.370 0.942 Block
20 QI36 2 806.78 9.116 0.096 Block
21 QI36 2 807.62 7.929 0.338 Block
22 QI36 2 808.57 5.136 1.192 Block
Average 5.398 2.315

Table 3. Statics of microscopic cleats in the coal rocks

Microscopic cleat density/[cleatsꞏ(9 cm2)−1]
Sample
A-Type B-Type C-Type D-Type Total
JIN26-2 3 10 62 160 235
JIN26-5 2 10 20 74 106
JIN26-8 7 12 52 92 163
QI85-1 3 12 48 260 323
QI85-5 2 14 32 220 268
QI85-8 2 8 30 214 254

to the high brittleness, low compressive strength and

high geostress conditions.

3.3. Coal rock gas accumulation and dissipation

Fig. 6. Electrical imaging log of #8 coal rock in Well
SHG128 (arrows indicate effective open fractures).
3) show fewer A-type (length greater than 10 mm) and
B-type (length less than 10 mm) cleats with the apertures
of both larger than 5 μm, while there are more C-type
(length greater than 300 μm) and D-type (length less
than 300 μm) cleats with apertures smaller than 5 μm.
This indicates a low density of larger-scale cleats and a
high density of smaller-scale cleats. Thin sections (Fig. 4f )
provide better insights into the development of micro-
scopic fractures. Observation of core samples (Fig. 5e) or
imaging logging analysis allows for the direct observation
of larger fracture features. Fig. 6 depicts the development
of effective open fractures of coal rocks in Well SHG128.
These fractures are difficult to obtain through analysis of
centimeter-scale coal blocks and small plug samples. The
characterization is best achieved through imaging or
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging. The forma-
tion of large fractures in deep coal rocks is closely related
 270 
combinations
Coal rock reservoirs are rich in both adsorbed and free
gases, and the gas accumulation characteristics vary un-
der different geological conditions. As depicted by the
nearly N-S sections in Fig. 7, the total hydrocarbon values
at different locations are different, controlled by the coal
rock gas accumulation and dissipation conditions.
In the delta front of the Taiyuan Formation, which
represents a transitional zone between marine and con-
tinental deposits with relatively thick mudstones, coal
rock-mudstone gas accumulation combination is pre-
dominantly formed. The overlying mudstone layers have
thicknesses ranging from 2 m to 5 m, providing good
sealing conditions. In Fig. 7, the peak total hydrocarbon
values of wells SH79 and SH114 reach 64.66% and 76.87%,
respectively, indicating high levels of free gas content and
favorable gas accumulation conditions. In the Heng-
shan–Zizhou–Mizhi areas, the Taiyuan Formation shows
a shallow marine depositional environment, with the Mi-
aogou limestone at the bottom. Coal rock-limestone gas
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278
Fig. 7. Sections of the Benxi Formation coal rocks and the overlying and underlying strata of in the Ordos Basin (section
location in Fig. 1a).
accumulation combination is formed in areas with high
limestone density, where overlying limestone layers with
thicknesses ranging from 2 m to 22 m effectively act as
seals. Typical examples are wells LT1 and MI138 shown in
Fig. 7, with peak value of total hydrocarbon exceeding
85%. This indicates high free gas content within such
combination. If the geological factors such as pores and
fractures that make Miaogou limestone less dense, coal
rock-limestone dissipation combination may appear, with
low total hydrocarbon values, indicating reduced free gas
content in the coal rocks.
In the northern part of the basin, including the Shenmu
area and northward, the Taiyuan Formation is primarily
characterized by delta plain with well-developed sand-
stones. This environment leads to coal rock-sandstone
dissipation combination, where sandstone layers have
thicknesses ranging from 3 m to 12 m. Generally, sand-
stones exhibit good permeability, allowing for the poten-
tial migration and dispersion of free gas from coal rocks
to sandstones where the gas accumulates to form sand-
stone gas reservoirs or directly dissipates. The peak value
of total hydrocarbon of the coal section in Well SH36, as
shown in Fig. 7, is only 31.17%, indicating a low free gas
content. However, it is also possible to be the case that
overlying sandstones are cemented and dense, forming
coal rock-tight sandstone gas accumulation combination.
In the eastern part of the basin, there are regular varia-
tions in the coal rock gas accumulation and dissipation
combinations, mainly controlled by the lithology and phy-
 271 
sical properties of the overlying Taiyuan Formation. Over-
all, coal rock-limestone combination in the southern re-
gion and coal rock-mudstone combination in the central
region exhibit better sealing conditions. They generally
show higher peak values of total hydrocarbon, primarily
indicating gas accumulation combinations. Conversely,
coal rock-sandstone combination in the northern region
exhibits poorer sealing conditions, with lower peak total
hydrocarbon values, primarily indicating gas dissipation
combination. However, fractured or porous zones are
possibly present within the limestone cap layer of the
Taiyuan Formation due to geological changes, and leading
to coal rock gas dissipation. Similarly, in areas where
sandstones are prevalent, extremely dense cemented sand-
stones may form sealing layers. In summary, the combina-
tions of coal rock gas accumulation and dispersion can be
classified into the aforementioned five types (Fig. 8). Gas-
logging total hydrocarbon of wells serves as a direct in-
dicator for assessing coal rock gas accumulation and dis-
sipation combinations. Generally, higher total hydrocarbon
values in coal sections indicate favorable conditions for
coal rock gas accumulation, while lower values suggest
increased gas dissipation and poorer sealing conditions.
3.4. Coal rock gas accumulation and enrichment
models
3.4.1. Coal rock gas accumulation
The formation of coal rock is controlled by the burial
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Fig. 8. Coal rock gas accumulation and dissipation combinations of the Benxi Formation in the Ordos Basin. (a) Coal
rock-limestone gas accumulation combination; (b) Coal rock-mudstone gas accumulation combination; (c) Coal
rock-sandstone gas dissipation combination; (d) Coal rock-limestone gas dissipation combination; (e) Coal rock-tight
sandstone gas accumulation combination.

history and thermal evolution history (Fig. 9). After the
deposition, the Benxi Formation in the Ordos Basin un-
derwent a burial and coalification process for approxi-
mately 150 Ma. In this process, the paleo-geothermal
temperature rose gradually to over 160 °C, and the coal
rank progressed to coking coal, lean coal, meager coal
and even anthracite. During the late Early Cretaceous,
tectothermal events led to an increase in the geothermal
gradient to around 4.5 °C/100 m. After the Late Creta-
ceous, the strata gradually uplifted, resulting in a gradual
decrease in geothermal temperature, with the geothermal
gradient evolving to approximately 2.8 °C/100 m. Pres-
ently, the geothermal temperature increases gradually
from east to west, ranging from 65 °C in the eastern part
to approximately 135 °C in the Tianhuan Depression.
The gas generation capacity of coal rock is controlled
by coal rank. Generally, hydrocarbon generation is minimal
in lignite and long-flame coal ranks. Mainly light oil, con-
densate, and wet gas are generated in gas coal, fat coal,
and coking coal ranks. Methane gas production begins on
a large scale in the coking coal rank (equivalent to Ro of
1.2%–1.3%). In the lean coal, meager coal, and anthracite
ranks, the generation of liquid hydrocarbons and heavy
hydrocarbon gases gradually decreases, while methane
gas production continues on a large scale with the gas
generation capacity continuously strengthened [22–25].
During the period from coking coal to anthracite (Ro of
1.2%–2.4%), large-scale methane gas generation is cou-
pled with tectothermal events, and also matches the
formation of fractured reservoirs under the action of
tectonic stress during the Yanshanian and Himalayan
(Fig. 9). During the continuous generation, methane gas
first accumulates in the gas pores formed in the plastic
and soft vitrinite, and then accumulates in the cleats
 272 
formed during coal-rock contraction and the microfrac-
tures formed under tectonic stress. After the Cretaceous,
with slight uplift of the strata, slight reductions in tem-
perature and pressure occurred. However, the medium-
to high-rank coal rocks continued to generate methane
gas under high temperature, which provided abundant
gas sources for the tight reservoirs in the Upper Paleozoic
but also maintained the continuous charging and accu-
mulation of natural gas.
3.4.2. Coal rock gas enrichment models
The natural gas enrichment zones within coal rocks are
not only related to the sealing capacity of the surround-
ing rocks, but also to the distribution and reservoir
property of the coal rocks. The coal rock gas in the Ordos
Basin belongs to self-generation and self-storage natural
gas, primarily charging into the micropores and cleats in
coal rock matrix under specific temperature and pressure.
Within the coal rock intervals, five coal rock gas enrich-
ment models are recognized according to the coal rock
morphology and its relationship with surrounding rocks
(Fig. 10): (1) Lateral pinchout complex enrichment: The
coal rock thins and pinches out in the up-dip direction,
and transforms into tight mudstone to serve as good seal.
The internal pores and fractures are relatively developed,
resulting in localized enrichment of coal rock gas. (2)
Lens enrichment: Coal rock bodies formed in local
swamps gradually thin outwards, and are sealed by
mudstones. The natural gas generated by the coal rock
accumulates in the coal rock reservoir. (3) Low-amplitude
structures and (4) nose-like structures enrichment: These
important coal rock gas enrichment models are formed
locally within the basin under the influence of tectonic
stress in multiple periods. First, during the Indosinian
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Fig. 9. Coal rock gas accumulation process in the Ordos Basin.

Fig. 10. Types and models of coal rock gas enrichment in the Ordos Basin.

period, due to the north-south compression caused by the Asian continental plate, there was a principal stress
Siberian and Yangtze plates, the Qinling Ocean was scis- compression from northwest to southeast in the cen-
sor-closed, resulting in a nearly S-N compressional stress tral-eastern basin. Third, during the Himalayan period,
which deformed the strata. Second, during the Yansha- under the combined effects of the Neo-tethys tectonic
nian period, due to the remote tectonic effect induced by dynamic system and the present-day Pacific tectonic dy-
the collision between the ancient Pacific plate and the namic system, the collision between the Indian plate and
 273 
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

the Eurasian plate formed a stress compression from
northeast to southwest [36]. These three periods of tectonic
stress promoted the development of joint fractures in
coal rocks with low compressive strength. (5) Self-sealing
enrichment: In localized reservoir zones formed by lat-
eral variations in coal rock properties in gentle parts of
the strata, self-sealing enrichment zones of coal rock gas
are formed, with surrounding tight coal rocks as seals.
The coal rock gas in the Benxi Formation exhibits
characteristics of source-reservoir integration, wide-
spread distribution of medium-to-high rank coal rocks
continually generating gas, matrix pores and cleats/frac-
tures in coal rocks acting as large-scale reservoir space,
tight cap rocks providing sealing, and five efficient en-
richment patterns.
of coal rock in the Ordos Basin is determined as 1.42 t/m3.
The gas content of an air-dry basis of coal rock is esti-
mated using the information such as coal rank, Ro value,
and burial depth of each unit. Among the above parame-
ters, the area and thickness of each unit are determined
according to the coal rock thickness map, with relatively
high accuracy. The parameters of coal rock density and
gas content are preliminary estimated and need to be
modified in future work.
Based on the above calculations, it is preliminarily es-
timated that the coal rock gas resources in the Carbonif-
erous Benxi Formation #8 coal rock of the CNPC explora-
tion area (excluding the coalbed methane mining area) are

4. Comprehensive evaluation and target

selection
4.1. Resource assessment and exploration potential
Previous studies have conducted multiple evaluations
of coalbed methane resources [37–38], mainly in medium
and shallow layers. There have been no reports on the
assessment of coal rock gas resources with depth ex-
ceeding 2 000 m in the central part of the Ordos Basin. In
this study, a preliminary estimation of the #8 coal rock
gas resources in the exploration area of China National
Petroleum Corporation was carried out to delineate the
overall potential and distribution of coal rock gas re-
sources in the basin, aiming to support the coal rock gas
exploration and development. Due to the lack of relevant
standards for resources/reserves estimation, this study
divided the evaluation of coal rock gas resources in the
basin into eight plays, based on data such as coal rock
thickness, thermal evolution degree, and the relationship
between coal rock and overlying rocks (Fig. 11 and Table
4). The volumetric method was used for estimating the
resources as per the formula:
G=0.01AHDC (1)
The calculation unit area is measured according to the
coal rock thickness map. The effective thickness of coal
rock is calculated based on the weighted average thick-
ness of each unit on the coal rock thickness map. Refer- Fig. 11. Comprehensive evaluation of coal rock gas in
ring to the available drilling and logging data, the density Benxi Formation of the Ordos Basin.

Table 4. Division and geological resources of coal rock gas evaluation plays in the Benxi Formation of the Ordos Basin
Play Weighted coal rock Geological
Play Ro/% Coal rank Depth/m Area/km2
code thickness/m resources/108 m3
Yulin I-A 1.2–1.6 Medium 2 000–3 000 7 322.4 8.02 15 010.4
Wushen Banner I-B 1.6–2.4 Medium to high 3 000–3 800 9 386.0 4.85 13 574.7
Mizhi–Suide II-A 1.6–2.4 Medium to high 2 000–3 000 6 841.1 6.87 14 014.8
Hengshan II-B 1.8–2.4 Medium to high 3 000–3 500 3 522.1 5.19 5 451.0
Ordos III-A 0.8–1.2 Medium to high 1 000–2 500 9 811.9 8.57 11 940.5
Wushen Ju III-B 1.0–2.0 Low 2 500–3 700 8 361.7 6.83 16 219.3
Dingbian–Huachi–Zhidan IV-A 1.4–2.8 Medium to high 3 500–4 000 27 800.0 4.00 28 422.7
Ansai–Qingjian–Huanglong IV-B 1.8–3.0 Medium to high 1 500–4 000 18 300.0 4.00 18 709.9
Total/Average 91 345.0 6.04 123 343.3

 274 
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

Table 5. Comprehensive evaluation of coal rock gas in the Benxi Formation of the Ordos Basin
Play Depositional Caprock Thickness of Peak value of total Well
Play Combination type
code environment thickness/m coal seam/m hydrocarbon/% deployed
I-A Yulin 4–14 Coal rock-mudstone gas 91 JN1H
Delta front 2–13
I-B Wushen Banner 2–19 accumulation combination 80 NL1H
II-A Mizhi–Suide Barrier– 4–16 100 SD1H
Coal rock-limestone gas
lagoon in 30–50
II-B Hengshan 2–10 accumulation combination 80
delta front
III-A Ordos 4–20 Coal rock-sandstone gas accumula- 30
Delta plain 8–26
III-B Wushen Ju 2–12 tion and dissipation combination 48
Dingiban–Huachi– Shallow Coal rock-mudstone gas accumula-
IV-A 2–6 40
Zhidan marine– tion combination
8–15
Ansai–Qingjian– lagoon in Coal rock-limestone gas accumula-
IV-B 2–6 58
Huanglong delta front tion combination

approximately 12.33×1012 m3, which is conservative rela-
tive to the estimated resource abundance (approximately
1.35×108 m3/km2). Nonetheless, the abundant resources
lay a solid foundation for the exploration of coal rock
gas.
4.2. Play evaluation and risk target determination
Division and evaluation of coal rock gas plays in the
basin were conducted based on the geological conditions
of coal rocks, such as depositional environment of cap
rock, thickness, coal rock-cap rock combination, thermal
maturity and burial depth. The coal rocks of Benxi For-
mation in the Ordos Basin were divided into eight plays,
belonging to classes I, II, III, and IV. Each class was sub-
divided into plays A and B based on the internal geo-
logical conditions (Fig. 11 and Table 5). Classes I and II
plays are dominated by mudstone and tight limestone
cap rocks developed in the delta front and pro-delta
sedimentary environments. They have thick coal rocks,
which are predominantly medium to high ranks and
deeply buried, with peak values of total hydrocarbons
exceeding 80%. They represent the most favorable coal
rock gas accumulation plays in the basin. Class III plays
are mainly distributed in delta plains in the northern
part, with thick coal rocks, and predominant sandstone
cap rocks, suggesting moderate preservation conditions.
Moreover, the coal rocks exhibit relatively low peak val-
ues of total hydrocarbon, and increasing burial depth and
gas content from east to west. Class IV plays are mainly
deposited in delta front intertidal and subtidal shallow
marine environments, characterized by relatively thin
coal rocks, good sealing conditions with mudstone and
tight limestone cap rocks, high thermal evolution degree,
deep burial depths, and large area coverage.
Based on various factors such as coal rock thickness,
coal rank, total hydrocarbons of wells, accumulation and
dissipation combinations, and burial depth, three risk
exploration wells, JN1H, NL1H, and SD1H, were deployed
in plays I-A, I-B, and II-A, respectively, in 2022 (Fig. 11).
Among these, Well JN1H focused on exploring accumula-
tion characteristics of the coal rock-mudstone gas accu-
mulation combination at a depth of approximately 2 300
m in the Jidong mining area of southern Jiaxian County.
Well NL1H targeted the coal rock gas characteristics of
the coal rock-mudstone gas accumulation combination at
a depth exceeding 3 300 m in southern Wushen Banner.
Well SD1H aimed to explore the gas reservoir character-
istics of the coal rock-limestone gas accumulation com-
bination with significant coal-rock thickness at a depth of
2 200 m within the Suide County.
4.3. Exploration breakthroughs and implications
4.3.1. Exploration breakthroughs in risk exploration and
evaluation
Both wells NL1H and JN1H were drilled, fractured and
tested by the end of 2022. Well NL1H, with a horizontal
section length of 1 500 m, encountered coal rocks of 760
m with a drilling penetration rate of 50.7% and the peak
value of total hydrocarbon of 78.5%. After sand-fracturing,
it witnessed gas breakthrough immediately after flow-
back, and revealed a production rate of 5.4×104 m3/d
through a 12 mm nozzle. As of November 21, 2023, the
well achieved a stable production rate of 2.7×104 m3/d,
and a cumulative production exceeding 1 120×104 m3.
Well JN1H, with a horizontal section length of 2 211 m,
encountered coal rocks of 1 556 m with a drilling pene-
tration rate of 70.38% and the peak value of total hydro-
carbon of 99.9%. After sand-fracturing, it showed gas
flow immediately after flowback, and revealed a produc-
tion rate of 8.162×104 m3/d through a 12 mm nozzle. As of
November 6, 2023, the well achieved a stable production
rate of 4.4×104 m3/d and a cumulative production ex-
ceeding 1 200×104 m3.
From 2022 to 2023, Changqing Oilfield had successfully
drilled 32 horizontal wells in classes I and II plays, re-
vealing high-yield gas flow in testing. Five wells had
production rate exceeding 10×104 m3/d. Typically, Well
HT8 demonstrated a test production rate of 18.2×104 m3/d,
and an appraisal well with horizontal section length ex-
ceeding 2 000 m contributed a test production rate of
28.9×104 m3/d. In November 2023, Changqing Oilfield
submitted predicted reserves exceeding a trillion cubic
meters and proven reserves exceeding 1 200×108 m3.

 275 
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278
These recorded strategic breakthroughs in coal rock gas
exploration.
4.3.2. Insights and significance of exploration
breakthroughs
Through systematic evaluation on the Benxi Formation
coal rocks in the Ordos Basin, risk exploration wells were
successfully deployed depending on accumulation and
dissipation combinations and burial depths. These
achievements have far-reaching implications. (1) Coal
rock gas in the Ordos Basin possesses immense explora-
tion potential. Breakthroughs in exploration indicate
favorable geological conditions for coal rock gas accu-
mulation, laying the foundation for new areas of natural
gas exploration in the Ordos Basin. (2) Geological under-
standing of coal rock gas is correct. The quantitative
change in coal rock burial depth leads to a qualitative
change in coal rock gas reservoir characteristics. Coal
rock gas reservoirs with burial depth exceeding 2 000 m
exhibit unique characteristics of "one-deep, ten-high" in
terms of coal quality, storage capacity, accumulation and
dissipation combination, gas content, gas occurrence
mode, and geochemical characteristics. The enrichment
mechanism of coal rock gas was discussed from a com-
pletely new perspective, preparing for the exploration of
various types of coal rock gas reservoirs. (3) Engineering
technologies were developed for coal rock gas exploration
and development. In exploration practices, technologies
for coal rock gas reservoirs were developed, including
coal rock geological modeling and seismic prediction,
steering drilling of coal-rock horizontal wells, large-scale
volume fracturing and pressure-controlled coal rock gas
production. These technologies will support the subse-
quent evaluation and development. (4) The break-
throughs can promote coal rock gas exploration in other
coal-bearing basins in China. The success of coal rock gas
exploration in the Ordos Basin has triggered the deploy-
ment of risk exploration wells in coal-bearing basins such
as Sichuan, Bohai Bay, Songliao and Hailar. These results
will drive the rapid development of coal rock gas industry
in China and produce significant economic and social
benefits.
5. Conclusions
Coal rock gas is a type of efficient natural gas following
the mechanism of self-generation and self-storage in me-
dium- to high-rank coal rocks, and it exhibits the char-
acteristics of "one-deep, ten-high". The Benxi Formation
coal rocks in the Ordos Basin are promising to explore for
their widespread distribution, stable thickness, good coal
quality, high evolution degree, strong gas generation ca-
pacity and large quantity of resources.
The coal rocks of the Benxi Formation developed nu-
 276 
merous microfractures under the tectonic stress during
the Yanshanian and Himalayan, which together with the
gas pores, organic matter pores and inorganic mineral
pores in the coal rock matrix, form a favorable three-di-
mensional pore-fracture storage space. Five types of coal
rock gas accumulation and dissipation combinations are
recognized. Typically, the coal rock-mudstone and coal
rock-limestone gas accumulation combinations are the
most important with good sealing conditions and high
peak values of total hydrocarbon. The Benxi Formation
coal rocks are characterized by source-reservoir integra-
tion, widespread distribution of medium-to-high rank
coal rocks continually generating gas, matrix pores and
cleats/fractures in coal rocks acting as large-scale reser-
voir space, tight cap rocks providing sealing, and five
types of highly efficient enrichment models (lateral pin-
chout complex, lenses, low-amplitude structures,
nose-like structures and lithologically self-sealing).
Eight coal rock gas plays were identified for evaluation,
with estimated coal rock gas resources of over 12.33×1012
m3 at depth exceeding 2 000 m. Successful risk explora-
tion has led to the submission of predicted reserves ex-
ceeding a trillion cubic meters and proven reserves ex-
ceeding one hundred billion cubic meters. These results
hold significant implications for the increase in natural
gas reserves and efficient development in China.
The coal rocks of the Benxi Formation of the Ordos
Basin, with extensive distribution, rich coal rock gas re-
sources and favorable enrichment conditions, represent a
new strategic target for natural gas development. Al-
though a certain understanding of the enrichment
mechanism of coal rock gas has been obtained at present,
there are still many issues that need to be explored from
both theoretical and practical perspectives. Such issues
include hydrocarbon generation processes in deep coal
rocks, reservoir formation mechanism, mechanisms of
high-content free gas under high-temperature and
high-pressure, coal rock gas accumulation processes and
differentiated enrichment laws.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere grati-
tude to experts such as Du Jinhu, Zhang Yijie, Guo Xujie,
and Yang Fan for their careful guidance and assistance in
this study.
Nomenclature
A—area of calculation unit, km2;
C—gas content of an air-dry basis of coal-rock, m3/t;
D—density of coal rock, t/m3;
G—coal rock gas resources of calculation unit, 108 m3;
H—effective thickness of coal rock, m.
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278
References
[1] FU Jinhua, DONG Guodong, ZHOU Xinping, et al. Re-
search progress of petroleum geology and exploration
technology in Ordos Basin. China Petroleum Exploration,
2021, 26(3): 19–40.
[2] NIU Xiaobing, ZHAO Weibo, SHI Yunhe, et al. Natural gas
accumulation conditions and exploration potential of
Benxi Formation in Ordos Basin. Acta Petrolei Sinica,
2023, 44(8): 1240–1257.
[3] TIAN Wenguang. CBM enrichment rules of eastern Ordos
Basin and controlling mechanism. Beijing: China Univer-
sity of Geosciences (Beijing), 2012.
[4] TIAN Wenguang, TANG Dazhen, SUN Bin, et al. Hydro-
dynamic conditions and their controls of gas in
coal-bearing strata in eastern edge of the Ordos Basin.
Geological Journal of China Universities, 2012, 18(3):
433–437.
[5] GUO Xujie, ZHI Dongming, MAO Xinjun, et al. Discovery
and significance of coal measure gas in Junggar Basin.
China Petroleum Exploration, 2021, 26(6): 38–49.
[6] YAN Xia, XU Fengyin, NIE Zhihong, et al. Microstructure
characteristics of Daji area in east Ordos Basin and its
control over the high yield dessert of CBM. Journal of
China Coal Society, 2021, 46(8): 2426–2439.
[7] XU Fengyin, HOU Wei, XIONG Xianyue, et al. The status
and development strategy of coalbed methane industry in
China. Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023,
50(4): 669–682.
[8] LIU Gaofeng, LIU Huan, XIAN Baoan, et al. Fuzzy pattern
recognition model of geological sweetspot for coalbed
methane development. Petroleum Exploration and Devel-
opment, 2023, 50(4): 808–815.
[9] GUO Chen, QIN Yong, YI Tongsheng, et al. A method for
identifying coalbed methane co-production interference
based on production characteristic curves: A case study of
the Zhijin Block, western Guizhou, China. Petroleum Ex-
ploration and Development, 2022, 49(5): 977–986.
[10] LI Wenbiao, LU Shuangfang, LI Junqian, et al. Research
progress on isotopic fractionation in the process of shale
gas/coalbed methane migration. Petroleum Exploration
and Development, 2022, 49(5): 929–942.
[11] ZHANG Rui, WANG Linlin, LIU Lei, et al. Source-to-sink
filling process and paleogeographic pattern of the Late
Carboniferous Benxi Formation in the eastern Ordos Ba-
sin. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica: 1-22(2023-10-19)[2024-
01-10]. https://doi.org/10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.099.
DOI: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.099.
[12] FLORES R M. Coal and coalbed gas: Fueling the future.
Burlington: Elsevier Science, 2013.
[13] ZOU C N. Unconventional petroleum geology. 2nd ed.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2017.
[14] LI Guihong, ZHANG Hong. The origin mechanism of
coalbed methane in the eastern edge of Ordos Basin.
 277 
SCIENCE CHINA Earth Sciences, 2013, 56(10): 1701–1706.
[15] SONG Yan, LIU Shaobo, ZHAO Mengjun, et al. Difference
of gas pooling mechanism between coalbed methane gas
and conventional natural gas. Natural Gas Industry, 2011,
31(12): 47–53.
[16] QIN Shengfei, TANG Xiuyi, SONG Yan, et al. Distribution
and fractionation mechanism of stable carbon isotope of
coalbed methane. SCIENCE CHINA Earth Sciences, 2006,
49(12): 1252–1258.
[17] LI Yong, TANG Dazhen, FANG Yi, et al. Distribution of
stable carbon isotope in coalbed methane from the east
margin of Ordos Basin. SCIENCE CHINA Earth Sciences,
2014, 57(8): 1741–1748.
[18] GUO Xiaojun. Coal accumulation and target optimization
for exploration of CBM in Permo-Carboniferous, Ordos
Basin. Qingdao: China University of Petroleum, 2010.
[19] NIU Haiqing. The enriching and reservoiring laws of the
coal bed methane in Ordos Basin. Qingdao: China Univer-
sity of Petroleum, 2010.
[20] PAN Dong. Sedimentary systems’ feature and tectonic
evolution of the Upper Palaeozoic of the Ordos Basin. Bei-
jing: China University of Geosciences (Beijing), 2013.
[21] LIU Xinxin. Study on the sedimentary environment of
Upper Carboniferous Benxi formation of eastern Ordos
Basin, China. Chengdu: Chendu University of Technology,
2019.
[22] DAI Jinxing, QI Houfa. Calculation of natural gas quantity
in coal measures strata. Natural Gas Industry, 1981, 1(3):
49–54.
[23] LIU Xiaoyan, WANG Ziwen, PANG Xiongqi. Numerical
simulation of coal-formed gas generating rate for lignite
and its geological significance. Petroleum Exploration and
Development, 1996, 23(2): 5–7.
[24] ZHOU Yongbing, PANG Xiongqi, LI Maolin, et al. Mathe-
matical optimization method for computing apparent coal
gas generation rate of coal and macerals. Natural Gas In-
dustry, 1993, 13(3): 10–16.
[25] PANG Xiongqi, CHEN Zhangming, FANG Zukang.
Mathematical simulation calculation of coal gas genera-
tion rate. Journal of Daqing Petroleum Institute, 1985, 9(1):
52–67.
[26] SEIDLE J. Fundamentals of coalbed methane reservoir
engineering. Tulsa: PennWell Corporation, 2011.
[27] REN Zhanli, QI Kai, LI Jinbu, et al. Thermodynamic evo-
lution and hydrocarbon accumulation in the Ordos Basin.
Oil & Gas Geology, 2021, 42(5): 1030–1042.
[28] REN Zhanli, YU Qiang, CUI Junping, et al. Thermal his-
tory and its controls on oil and gas of the Ordos Basin.
Earth Science Frontiers, 2017, 24(3): 137–148.
[29] LI Hao. Research of source rocks in Upper Paleozoic, cen-
tral Ordos Basin. Xi’an: Northwest University, 2015.
[30] ZHAI Guanghui. Study of Upper Paleozoic hydrocarbon
source rocks in western Ordos Basin. Xi’an: Northwest
University, 2021.
 ZHAO Zhe et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2024, 51(2): 262–278

[31] ZHANG Jie. Source rock evaluation of the Upper Palaeo-
zoic in Eastern Ordos Basin. Xi'an: Xi’an Shiyou University,
2012.
[32] LIU Dayong. Vitrinites in typical coal-bearing basins of
China: The molecular characterization and their kinetic
studies on the hydrocarbon generation and carbon iso-
tope fractionation. Guangzhou: Guangzhou Institute of
Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2004.
[33] HUANG Difan, XIONG Chuanwu. Generation, migration
and evaluation of hydrocarbon generation potential of oil
formed in coal-bearing strata. Explorationist, 1996, 1(2):
6–11.
[34] HUANG Difan, LI Jinchao, ZHANG Dajiang. Kerogen types
and study on effectiveness, limitation and interrelation of
their identification parameters. Acta Sedimentologica
Sinica, 1984, 2(3): 18–33.
[35] DAI Jinxing, QI Houfa. Pores in coal and the significance
in natural gas exploration in China. Chinese Science Bul-
letin, 1982, 27(5): 298–301.
[36] XU Liming, ZHOU Lifa, ZHANG Yikai, et al. Characteris-
tics and tectonic setting of tectono-stress field of Ordos
Basin. Geotectonica et Metallogenia, 2006, 30(4): 455–462.
[37] ZHENG Min, LI Jianzhong, WU Xiaozhi, et al. China’s
conventional and unconventional natural gas resource
potential, key exploration fields and direction. Natural Gas
Geoscience, 2018, 29(10): 1383–1397.
[38] ZHANG Daoyong, ZHU Jie, ZHAO Xianliang, et al. Dy-
namic assessment of coalbed methane resources and
availability in China. Journal of China Coal Society, 2018,
43(6): 1598–1604.

 278 