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QUANDARIES
OF SCHOOL
LEADERSHIP
VOICES FROM
PRINCIPALS IN THE FIELD
Edited by
Debra J. Touchton
Mariela A. Rodríguez
Gary Ivory
Michele Acker-Hocevar
Quandaries of School Leadership
Debra J. Touchton • Mariela A. Rodríguez •
Gary Ivory • Michele Acker-Hocevar
Editors
Quandaries of School
Leadership
Voices from Principals in the Field
Editors
Debra J. Touchton Mariela A. Rodríguez
Stetson University University of Texas at San Antonio
Celebration, USA San Antonio, USA
Gary Ivory Michele Acker-Hocevar

Educational Leadership and Washington State University Tri-Cities
Administration Richland, Washington
New Mexico State University USA
Las Cruces, New Mexico
USA
ISBN 978-3-319-59119-3 ISBN 978-3-319-59120-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59120-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017946888
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher
remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.
Cover image © PhotoAlto/Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections/

Gettyimages
Printed on acid-free paper
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
CONTENTS
1 The Journey Begins 1

Debra J. Touchton
2 Understanding Role-Making in Leadership Performance 9

John Mancinelli and Michele Acker-Hocevar
3 Developing a Leadership Platform: Using and

Understanding the Professional Standards for Educational
Leaders 37
Mariela A. Rodríguez
4 The Ambiguity in Clarifying Expectations 47

William Ruff
5 Ethics: Acting Ethically to Promote Each Student’s

Academic Success and Well-Being 73
Teresa Wasonga
6 Principals Supporting English Learners in US Public Schools 93

Karina I. Vielma, Gloria Jean Martinez, and Mariela A. Rodríguez
v
vi CONTENTS
7 Quandaries of Assessment and Accountability 105

Betty Alford and Julia Ballenger
8 Emotional Intelligence as a Means to Combat Funding Cuts:

Meeting Student Academic Success and Promoting
Well-Being in Challenging Financial Times 127
Rene Guillaume
9 Elementary School Principals Supporting the Professional

Capacity of Teachers 143
Jennifer Zavala and Venus Valenta
10 Shared Voice and Vision: Fostering Professional

Communities for Student Success 157
Joyce A. Mundy
11 Leadership and Resource Allocation in Schools: Applying

Micropolitical Perspectives 181
Chad R. Lochmiller and Colleen R. Pawlicki
12 Leadership for Change 207

Donna Augustine-Shaw, Robert Hachiya, and
Teresa Northern Miller
13 Leadership Development and the Study of Expertise 225

Gary Ivory and Rhonda McClellan
Index 239
NOTE ON CONTRIBUTORS
Michele A. Acker-Hocevar is Professor and Interim Vice Chancellor of

Academic Affairs, and holds an interdisciplinary PhD in Organizational
Studies and School Leadership. She is one of the coinvestigators of the
University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA) Voices 3 study
and was the past coeditor of the Journal of Research on Leadership Educa-
tion. Her work focuses on schools that have been both high and low
performing, change leadership, and decision-making for school
improvement.
Betty Alford is a professor and co-doctoral program director of the Edu-

cational Leadership Doctoral Program at California Polytechnic State Uni-
versity in Pomona, California, and a professor emerita at Stephen F. Austin
State University. She teaches qualitative research, organizational transfor-
mation, and dissertation courses. Her research agenda focuses on educa-
tional leadership in high-need schools.
Donna Augustine-Shaw is an assistant professor in the Educational Lead-

ership Department, Kansas State University. Her responsibilities include
teaching masters leadership academies and building and district leadership.
She served as a teacher, principal, and superintendent and holds a Doctorate
in Educational Administration, Wichita State University. Her research inter-
ests include leadership, mentoring, and change.
vii
viii NOTE ON CONTRIBUTORS
Julia Ballenger is an associate professor in the Educational Leadership

Department at Texas A&M University-Commerce.
Rene O. Guillaume is an assistant professor in the Department of Educa-

tional Leadership and Administration at New Mexico State University. His
teaching interests include higher education law and qualitative research
methods, and research interests include social justice issues in education,
and faculty teaching, life, and culture.
Robert F. Hachiya is an assistant professor in the Educational Leadership

Department in the College of Education at Kansas State University.
Hachiya teaches for both building and district level licensure including
education law, ethics, and leadership for diverse populations. His research
interests include school law and education policy.
Gary Ivory is one of the coinvestigators of the UCEA Voices 3 study,

coeditor with Michele Acker-Hocevar of Successful School Board Leadership:
Lessons from Superintendents (2007), and coeditor with Michele Acker-
Hocevar, Julia N. Ballenger, and A. William Place of Snapshots of School
Leadership in the 21st Century (2012).
Chad R. Lochmiller is an assistant professor in educational leadership and

policy studies at Indiana University. His research examines leadership and
policy issues, including those related to school finance and instructional
leadership. A particular focus in his research is the acquisition, management,
and development of human capital in schools.
John Mancinelli is the chief of staff for Washington State University

Tri-Cities. With 24 years of experience in the K-12 system as both a teacher
and an administrator at all levels, Mancinelli brings a unique and compre-
hensive view to educational leadership. His research interests center on how
role-making impacts a leader’s ability to build academic capacity.
Gloria Jean Martinez is a principal in the San Antonio Independent

School District. She holds an EdD in the Department of Educational
Leadership and Policy Studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio
in 2016. Martinez’s research focuses on testimonios that give voice to
participants, primarily Latina school district leaders.
NOTE ON CONTRIBUTORS ix
Rhonda McClellan is Professor and Director of Interdisciplinary PhD in

Leadership Studies, University of Central Arkansas, and has taught and
coordinated graduate programs in educational leadership development in
New Mexico, Texas, and Arkansas. She has special research interests in
leader development and integrative community leadership and her articles
have appeared in Educational Administration Quarterly, Journal of Educa-
tional Administration, Journal of Higher Education, and Journal of School
Leadership.
Teresa Northern Miller is an associate professor emeritus at Kansas State

University, College of Education and Department of Educational Leader-
ship. She has served as a co-liaison for multiple leadership academies,
designed to develop prospective principals and teacher leaders. Her research
interests include public school/university partnerships and leadership
development.
Joyce A. Mundy is an assistant professor at Stetson University. She teaches

human resources and instructional leadership. Mundy has spent 15 years as
a school administrator. Her research focuses on inclusive, culturally respon-
sive schools and principal efficacy. Mundy also trains school administrators
in restorative practices and designing systemic culture change frameworks.
Colleen R. Pawlicki is a doctoral student in Education Policy Studies with

a concentration in Educational Leadership at Indiana University. She serves
as an associate instructor for IU’s Urban Program, an undergraduate prep-
aration program for aspiring Chicago Public Schools teachers. Pawlicki’s
research interests include issues in urban education and school governance.
Mariela A. Rodríguez is an associate dean of the Graduate School at the

University of Texas at San Antonio. She is also an associate professor in the
Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies. Her research
focuses on the supportive role of principals in leading schools with bilingual
education programs, specifically dual language education. Rodríguez’s
research has been published in the Journal of School Leadership and the
Journal of Latinos and Education.
William Ruff is a Professor of Educational Leadership at Montana State

University, and has published more than a dozen journal articles and book
chapters addressing school leadership, social justice issues, and comprehen-
sive school reform. Additionally, he has served as the primary investigator
for a series of US Department of Education grants resulting in the
x NOTE ON CONTRIBUTORS
preparation and placement of over 100 American Indian educational leaders

serving Indigenous communities at the federal, state, tribal, or local level.
Debra J. Touchton is a Professor and Program Director of Educational

Leadership Graduate Programs at Stetson University. She holds a PhD in
Interdisciplinary Studies with an emphasis on organizational development.
Her research focus is in the areas of organizational change and develop-
ment, women in leadership, and leadership in schools of poverty. She
teaches graduate courses in communication, leadership, and systems
planning.
Venus Valenta is a public school educator who has served over ten years as
an administrator in a large urban school district in San Antonio, Texas. She
holds a doctorate degree from the University of Texas at San Antonio. Her
research interests include educational administration, the superintendency,
and Latina leadership.
Karina I. Vielma, Ed.D. is a Research Fellow at the University of Texas at

San Antonio College of Engineering where she specializes in education and
community outreach initiatives. Her research interests center on leadership
and equity initiatives in science, technology, and mathematics (STEM)
fields. With experience as a first-generation college student at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, a public school mathematics teacher, and
now a researcher, her mission is to promote programs that motivate more
women and underrepresented students to persist and excel in STEM
careers.
Teresa J. Wasonga is Presidential Engagement Professor of Education

Leadership at Northern Illinois University (NIU) and a Fulbright scholar.
Besides teaching educational leadership courses at NIU, she is also the
cofounder of an innovative all girls’ secondary boarding school in Kenya
where educational leadership theories are put into practice.
Jennifer Zavala has served the south San Antonio community as a public
educator for the past eight years and has an administrative role as an academic
dean in the Harlandale Independent School District. She earned holds a
doctorate degree from the University of Texas at San Antonio in Educational
Leadership and Policy. Her research interests include social justice leadership,
the principalship, Latino-serving institutions, and public K-12 schools.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Principals’ demographics 3

Table 8.1 Goleman’s (2001) theory of emotional intelligence 129
Table 11.1 Quandaries, resources, and sources of micropolitical conflict 198
xi
CHAPTER 1
The Journey Begins
Debra J. Touchton
Leadership development is a life-long journey. It is not an event; it is a

process. Vaill (1989) asserts in his book Managing as a Performing Art:
New Ideas for a World of Chaotic Change that management/leadership is a
performing art. Have you ever thought of leadership that way? I had not
until reading his book (1989).
He states:
If management is a performing art, the consciousness of the management is

transformed, I think. One becomes much more interested in the quality of the
process and much more aware of how a given course of action does or does
not resemble other things that one has done or not done (p. 1544).
We want you to see this book as a piece of sheet music, the map to your
own leadership development; the school leader as the conductor; the school
as the orchestra. Using this metaphor, the chapter authors assist you, the
conductor, as you create your own music to lead your school. Let’s think
about the conductor: What does a conductor do? The orchestra conductor
D.J. Touchton (*)

Stetson University, DeLand, FL, USA
© The Author(s) 2018 1

D.J. Touchton et al. (eds.), Quandaries of School Leadership,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59120-9_1
2 D.J. TOUCHTON
leads the musicians with exactness, inspiration, and passion. Isn’t that how
effective, successful school leaders conduct the music of teaching and
learning? You will read more about this concept of leadership as a
performing art in the contributions by John Mancinelli and Michele
Acker-Hocevar (Chap. 2), and by Gary Ivory and Rhonda McClellan
(Chap. 13).
This book provides you with four products:
1. Descriptions of quandaries faced by real school leaders in the twenty-

first century, told to us in their own words. These leaders provide
vivid and compelling views of the world in which you work or aspire
to work. Your work as an educational leader will be largely about
facing quandaries, such as those our principals described.
2. A variety of different perspectives: (a) those of principals who partic-
ipated in focus groups across the nation; (b) theoretical frameworks
introduced to you that offer insight into patterns of behavior;
(c) those of the chapter authors; and (c) additional resources found
within each chapter.
3. Reflective questions, providing you with the opportunity to think
about how you might resolve quandaries that principals have faced
in their lives and work as they described them in focus groups. Your
solutions may be as multifaceted as the quandaries.
4. The opportunity to develop a leadership platform that reflects your
knowledge, values, and beliefs based on quandaries that principals
have faced in the field. This platform is your own perspective on
education and educational leadership. It is a reminder of what you
think is valuable, and important to know and remember—an ethical
compass of sorts—suggesting the direction you might take and not
regret later.
WHAT’S IN THIS BOOK FOR ME?

In each chapter, you will be given a glimpse into principals’ work through
excerpts from the Voices 3 focus transcripts. The principals’ contributions
portray quandaries that they faced. The chapter authors introduce theoret-
ical frameworks for you to think about while you examine a principal’s
quandary. The authors’ job is to make addressing each quandary compli-
cated, while your job is to anticipate the various viewpoints of stakeholders
so as to consider a multitude of solutions about how you might address the
THE JOURNEY BEGINS 3
quandaries, and what responses and reactions might occur. The authors
have included reflection questions. Some have chosen to embed these
within the chapter while others have added them at the end of their chapter.
Either way, the questions are a way for you to ponder the quandaries, as well
as further develop and enhance your leadership platform and cognitive
sophistication when thinking about solutions.
THE VOICES 3 RESEARCH PROJECT

The voices you encounter in these chapters are real. In a project entitled
Voices from the Field: Phase 3 (Voices 3), researchers across the USA
conducted focus groups in which the interviewer asked questions and
encouraged a conversation among the participants (Acker-Hocevar et al.
2009). Between 2003 and 2006, thirteen principal focus groups were
conducted around the country in small and medium-sized school districts.
The gender and ethnicity of the eighty-four principals in the study are
shown in Table 1.1.
The focus group questions were based on Murphy’s (2006) “anchors”
for school-leadership preparation. Principals were asked to share their per-
spectives on (1) the No Child Left Behind Act (in force at the time of the
study); (2) doing what’s best for children; and (3) how they involve “other
people wanting to have a voice in decision making” (Acker-Hocevar et al.
2012, p. 4). The focus groups’ conversation were transcribed and analyzed,
and the stories presented within the chapters come directly from these
transcripts. Each Voices 3 principal cited in this book has been given a
number to ensure confidentiality. Some chapter authors have supplemented
the Voices 3 data with interviews they have conducted with other principals.
Those principals are not numbered.
Table 1.1 Principals’ demographics
Gender African European Hispanic Other Not reported Total

American American
Female 7 18 5 7 6 43 (50.6%)
Male 3 29 4 3 2 41 (48.2%)
Total 10 (11.8%) 47 (55.3%) 9 (10.6%) 10 (11.8%) 9 (10.6%) 84 (100%)
4 D.J. TOUCHTON
PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

When conceiving of and compiling this book, the chapter authors were
asked to address one of the ten Professional Standards for Educational
Leaders (PSELs) that most related to their chapter. The National Policy
Board for Educational Administration adopted the PSELs in 2015 (NPBEA
2015). The PSELs replaced the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Con-
sortium (ISLLC) Standards. Like the ISLLC Standards, the PSELs were
designed to guide policy, to frame most licensure examinations, and to
outline the competencies needed by today’s school leaders. The ten stan-
dards are listed below and are explained further in Chap. 3:
1. Mission, Vision, and Core Values

2. Ethics and Professional Norms
3. Equity and Cultural Responsiveness
4. Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
5. Community of Care and Support for Students
6. Professional Capacity of School Personnel
7. Professional Community for Teachers and Staff
8. Meaningful Engagement of Families and Community
9. Operations and Management
10. School Improvement
Quandary: What Is It?

You may be asking yourself, “What is a quandary?” The Oxford English
Dictionary defines it as a state of uncertainty over what to do in a difficult
situation. A few synonyms to further the understanding of a quandary are
predicament, trouble, mess, and dilemma. Principals encounter many situ-
ations and challenges during their day. Leaders who think about opposing
ideas, and who compare and contrast solutions from different frameworks
and perspectives when handling quandaries, are more likely to be consider
creative and innovative solutions (Acker-Hocevar et al. 2015).
So why did we choose “quandary” to shape the chapters in this book?
Let’s go back to the idea of leadership as a performing art. Think of a group
of musicians getting together to jam. Do they follow a piece of music note
by note or do they begin with the original piece and add as they go? It
depends on the setting, the context, doesn’t it? If you have ever sat in on a
jam session as the listener or as one of the “jammers,” you know that the
music that the musicians start with isn’t what they may end up with. This is
based on who comes in and goes out during the jam, what instruments the
musicians are playing, and the feel of the room. That is what happens when
principals are faced with a certain quandary: the context is never the same
and the players have different skill sets.
You will read about many different quandaries that the chapter authors
have gleaned from the principal focus group transcripts. Acker-Hocevar
et al. (2015) posit: “School leadership is not simply putting prescribed
solutions into action, but a constant encounter with quandaries that
demand thinking and problem-solving, responding, and adjusting to the
situations at hand” (p. 5). This is what jazz improvisation is all about. As a
leader, you must develop a finely honed set of skills that allow you to use
them as a toolbox of sorts to address different problems and arrive at
workable solutions that fit with the overall direction, as well as your beliefs
and values.
Theoretical Frameworks
In addition to learning from their experiences and the opinions of others,
leaders can benefit from the guidance of theoretical frameworks. These
function like crude maps or unfinished sheets of music. They are not exact
formulas or recipes but they can inform and guide behavior for someone
who reflects on them (Argyris and Schon 1978). Bolman and Deal (2008)
wrote:
The world for most managers and administrators is a world of messes: com-
plexity, ambiguity, value dilemmas, political pressures and multiple constitu-
encies. For managers whose images blind them to important parts of the
chaotic reality, it is a world of frustration and failure. For those with better
theories and the intuitive capacity to use them with skill and grace, it is a world
of excitement and possibility (p. 41).
The authors present a variety of theoretical frameworks across this book.

Here is a brief look at Chaps. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 (principal
quandary chapters) and the perspectives on which the authors have based
their individual chapters. The Chap. 4 uses the bureaucratic and participa-
tory models as a theoretical framework to explore how principals clarify
organizational expectations to meet the demands often levied upon their
schools. Chapter 5 examines the interplay of ethics through the lens of a
6 D.J. TOUCHTON
distributive and facilitative power framework in promoting the academic

success and well-being of all students. Social justice serves as the theoretical
framework for Chap. 6 for school leaders promoting the acceptance and
inclusion of all culturally and linguistically diverse groups of students in
school today. Chapter 7 focuses on the principal as the leader of learning and
school improvement while dealing with accountability issues. In Chap. 8,
the author examines the emotional intelligence (EI) framework for
school leaders grappling with how to best support their students while
being tasked with doing more with less owing to recent and continuing
budget cuts. The authors of Chap. 9 frame their contribution within the
principal effectiveness theoretical perspective and the importance that school
leaders have in encouraging teachers in their professional capacity within the
accountability movement. School leaders’ role in creating a professional
learning community that emphasizes a culture of trust, shared vision, and
action research that impacts student success serves as the theoretical frame-
work for Chap. 10. Chapter 11 invites readers to consider the micropolitical
theoretical framework for challenges that principals often address in their
leadership when dealing with resource allocation. Chapter 12 shares theo-
retical perspectives on effective leadership through first- and second-order
change as principals lead stakeholders and navigate change in their schools.
Reading and thinking about the different theoretical frameworks
included in this book should help you develop more perspectives on quan-
daries and make you better at negotiating them. Perhaps that is why
psychologist Kurt Lewin remarked: “Nothing is as practical as a good
theory” (1951, p. 169).
SUMMARY
The everyday work of principals is complex and, at times, frustrating.
However, there are many days of satisfaction and enjoyment. As mentioned
earlier, there are no easy solutions to quandaries that school leaders face
daily. Just as there are no easy solutions, nothing replaces understanding
that leadership and learning are not separate constructs but should be
intertwined and supportive of ongoing improvement and practice. Just as
the most accomplished musicians continue to practice, so must a leader
continue to develop their knowledge so as to be responsive and adaptive like
the jazz improvisation player.
Acknowledgments I am extremely grateful for several groups of people who have

made contributions to this book. First and foremost, I thank the principals across the
nation who took time from their busy schedules to participate in the Voices 3 focus
groups, the heart of this book. Secondly, to the researchers who scheduled and
facilitated the focus groups, your work is greatly appreciated. A special thank-you
to the chapter authors’ for their commitment and flexibility. Lastly, I must
acknowledge my co-editors for their perseverance and teamwork on this project.
REFERENCES
Acker-Hocevar, M., Miller, T. N., & Ivory, G. (2009). The UCEA project on
education leadership: Voices from the field, Phase 3. Educational Considerations,
36(2), 1–5.
Acker-Hocevar, M., Ballenger, J., Place, W., & Ivory, G. (Eds.). (2012). Snapshots of
school leadership in the 21st century: The UCEA voices for the field project. Char-
lotte: Information Age Publishing.
Acker-Hocevar, M., Hyle, A., Ivory, G., & McClellan, R. (2015). In G. Ivory,
A. Hyle, R. McClellan, & M. Acker-Hocevar (Eds.), Quandaries of the small-
district superintendency (pp. 1–14). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action
perspective. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Bolman, C. L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing the organization: Artistry,
choice, and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lewin, K. (1951). Problems of research in social psychology. In D. Cartwright
(Ed.), Field theory in social science: Selected papers (pp. 155–169). New York:
Harper & Row.
Murphy, J. (2006). Preparing school leaders: Defining a research and action agenda.
Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
National Policy Board for Educational Administration. (2015). Professional stan-
dards for educational leaders 2015. Reston: Author.
Vaill, P. (1989). Managing as a performing art: New ideas for a world of chaotic
change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
CHAPTER 2
Understanding Role-Making in Leadership

Performance
John Mancinelli and Michele Acker-Hocevar
This book is a cooperative effort between academics and practitioners to

provide aspiring principals with an understanding of how their future role
can be shaped by rehearsing leadership quandaries. Within these quandaries,
we examine leadership complexity from two related concepts referred to as
role-taking and role-making. We discuss how various leadership theories
and personal and contextual factors will influence your choices in role-
making. We compare role-taking and role-making to the journey of a
musician who gains fluency over time to that of a leader gaining expertise
over time.
Role-taking is simply imitating what you think you should do as a
principal without much thought as to why or how this supports intentional
leadership action to promote student success. Although role-taking can be
highly efficient in recreating templates for people to mimic a prescribed set
of role behaviors, it may be quite deficient in helping the same new leader
adapt to new and unique challenges s/he will be facing to improve learning
outcomes and solve other serious organizational problems. Therefore, lead-
ership adaptation requires role-making where the leader adjusts his/her role
J. Mancinelli (*) • M. Acker-Hocevar

Washington State University, Tri-Cities, Richland, WA, USA
© The Author(s) 2018 9

D.J. Touchton et al. (eds.), Quandaries of School Leadership,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59120-9_2
10 J. MANCINELLI AND M. ACKER-HOCEVAR
within a specific context and time in history to address problems with

intentional action. This action should include how you understand and
use leadership frameworks to see problems in practice in distinctive ways.
Your leadership platform differs from your use of leadership frameworks.
Your leadership platform is the compass that guides how and what frame-
works might be a better match for you with your values and beliefs. But
role-making adds another layer of understanding because role-making
involves how you bring extant knowledge together with your beliefs and
values to conceive your role. Fundamentally, the conception of this role is
related to the more knowledge a leader has of himself/herself, of different
leadership theoretical frameworks, of the historical evolution of the princi-
pal’s role over time, and the interplay between personal and contextual
factors to solve problems and innovate, the better leader they will become.
In fact with this knowledge, the leader becomes more sophisticated in
his/her responses to problems-of-practice. And the more willing the leader
is to learn and ask questions about why s/he is doing what they are doing
and how s/he might incorporate various aspects of his/her learning into
practice to shape the role, the more agile the leader will become as a role-
maker, an innovator versus a conformer.
We review several leadership theories in this chapter so you can see why
leaders must be adaptive. Subsequently, and within the quandaries
presented in this book, we ask you to explore questions that distinguish
role-taking from role-making. In regard to role-taking, consider “What
defines my role?” “Who defines my role?” In contrast to role-taking, role-
making is about your intentional adaptation to the school context and your
deliberate choices for a course of action that will influence purposeful
change. Questions such as, “What impact does my interpretation of the
role here on how I go about solving this problem” and “How should I use
my role to select an appropriate leadership theoretical framework to create
excellence in this context?” These questions should punctuate your thinking
as you become a more expert leader. Notably, and as you read the following
book chapters, ask yourself what arguments chapter authors might wish you
to consider on your journey to becoming a role-maker. Reflect on our
analogy between the development of a musician and your development as
a performance-based leader. In other words, imitation in role-taking may be
a natural progression to role-making in the process of what we call
performance-based leadership. Recognizing rehearsal time, such as imita-
tion, is needed for any performance to become part of your own repertoire.
UNDERSTANDING ROLE-MAKING IN LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE 11
We explore now how our music analogy might elucidate a clearer under-
standing of what we mean.
EXPLORING PERFORMANCE-BASED LEADERSHIP THROUGH

A MUSICAL ANALOGY
To assist the reader in understanding role-taking and role-making, we use

an analogy of performance-based leadership through the eyes of a musician
throughout this chapter. Both the leader and the musician must be skillfully
prepared, self-aware, and continuously attuned to the environment s/he is
situated within to achieve a successful performance. Both must practice
his/her leadership or musical performance as s/he gains knowledge or
automaticity over time to enhance his/her repertoire of conceptual flexibil-
ity, intentional choice, and reflection on how to improve student learning or
impact a musical recitation positively. Carefully enacting the role or skillfully
playing the piece challenges the emerging leader and the novice musician to
enlarge conceptual fluency and to address problems-of-practice as new
musical pieces challenge a musician. By thinking like a musician who must
be both a proficient player and an adaptive interpreter of the audience, s/he
is trying to influence (not to mention the other musicians with whom s/he
is performing)—the leader too must possess a knowledge of many genres of
music as a leader must understand different leadership theories. Musicians
appreciate the legacy from Brahms to the Beatles. Ultimately, however, the
leader will need to understand how to use elements from leadership legacy
that will explicitly shape his/her role. This role will be informed by his/her
leadership platform and as a response to many messy problems s/he will
surely encounter—problems that will require conceptual flexibility and
nuanced responses. Hence, we encourage the emergent leader to recognize
how personal values and dispositions will influence choices and idiosyncratic
responses and personal interactions with others that will either positively or
negatively impact his/her ability to lead changes within his/her school. The
skillset you develop as a leader that is yours affects and is tied to role-making.
THE COMPLEXITY OF THE PRINCIPALSHIP

Once you enter the official role of principal, it won’t take long for you to
realize that there are many expectations placed upon you. The job posting
usually outlines some expectations for you; however, it leaves out the
expectations of peer administrators, supervisors, teachers, parents, and stu-

dents. Not all of these expectations will align with your own perception of
the role nor even be complimentary with each other. The reason for
inherent contradictions can be traced to an amalgamation of perceived
responsibilities from past roles. Many of these expectations were shaped
from global legacies passed from one generation of administrators to
another. They were sculpted into current educational policy, role expecta-
tions from mentors, and create a gateway of passage for the new principal to
be seen as legitimate players as s/he enters the new role. For the new
principal, the challenge, therefore, is to construct his/her role carefully
and incorporate legacy while simultaneously being aware that strict adher-
ence to any predefined role or role-taking (Hart 1993) ignores adaptability.
Role-taking is static and disregards a reciprocal leadership process that is
grounded in the dynamic interaction between the leader and the various
audiences s/he must interact—performance leadership.
Performance-based leadership, therefore, is reflective, relational, contex-
tual, and collaborative. It engages constituents with the leader to define and
agree upon how a model performance will appear. Simply put, traditional
role-taking processes inadequately prepare principals for the complexities of
the role today. These processes do not provide the forward strategy to assess
what leadership frameworks can assist a leader with different skillsets from
role-taking (Crow 2010). Rather, role-taking provides more of a backward
gaze. A shift from role-taking to role-making, a relatively recent phenom-
enon, represents leadership as synonymous with learning. Role-making
allows a leader to construct their role to respond to existing conditions
that can influence reciprocal leadership performance between leaders and
followers. We provide a present-day example.
ROLE-MAKING: A CONTRASTING PERSPECTIVE TO TRADITIONAL

ROLE-TAKING
So we must now look forward to role-making as a contrasting perspective to
more traditional characteristics of role-taking. This is complicated because
we cannot totally ignore the historical evolution of the principal’s role over
time. Yet role-making is about the principal’s ongoing adaptation to
existing conditions that influence his/her role and include legacy (e.g.,
what has occurred in the school prior to your leadership and what has
occurred overall in the role writ large), personal context (e.g., leadership
platform, dispositions, and values), and school context (e.g., type of school,
location) (Crow 2010).
For example, today’s Principals are rated on performance within
assumptions that they—as performers—must possess high levels of skills
that apply deep and broad knowledge, adapt to various challenges, and
continuously respond to changing student needs, teacher requirements,
technological advancements, and shift educational standards to improve
learning within a community (Knapp et al. 2010; Mancinelli 2014; Portin
et al. 2009). Previous generations of principals were rated on building
management and operations with limited responsibility toward student
performance or instructional leadership. Such a shift toward enhanced
performance means that the principal must prioritize leadership behaviors
over managerial behaviors that do not impact learning performance but may
be necessary to ensure things like clean building are completed. Bluntly put,
the ends justify the means. Or said another way, leaders today must be
creative and ethical; they must be adaptive solution-centered thinkers. This
requires the principal to imagine the performance and what s/he needs to
be successful. Conformity must be replaced by adaptability.
PERFORMANCE-BASED LEADERSHIP
Thus as a new aspiring principal, it will be essential for you to have a strong
understanding of your role in order to be effective. You will need to
understand the scope of your responsibilities; what resources are available
to you; how to contextualize problems-of-practice for student learning
improvement to occur; how to make decisions about setting expectations
with a depth of content knowledge, instructional pedagogy, and data use;
how to manage resources; how to develop human capital; how to create
structures to support effective practices. Even more significantly as a new
principal, you will need to understand how to accomplish all of these things
in varying school contexts by adapting your leadership strategies to define
and enact your role in situ. Therefore, it does not take long for anyone
considering becoming a principal to realize that leading schools in today’s
educational environment is a very complex task and one in which the
demands of the principal’s role can be overwhelming.
Because the principal’s role has evolved from a traditional managerial role
to a performance-based distributed leadership role that focuses much more
today on student learning, your ability to apply multiple concepts and skills
to be a successful leader means you must enact the role differently and build
collective expertise and efficacy within your school (Acker-Hocevar et al.

2012; Hallinger and Heck 2010; Leithwood and Strauss 2008; Portin et al.
2006; Thompson and Vecchio 2009). Contributing to this shift toward
performance-based leadership is educational policies that increase the
accountability of teachers and school leaders to respond dynamically to
student needs. This requires new and vigorous leadership approaches (Cop-
land et al. 2003; Knapp et al. 2010; Lai 2015; Mancinelli 2014; Portin et al.
2006, 2009).
As a leader then, you will be measured by your abilities to address contin-
ually changing contexts that affect your students’ achievement. Many educa-
tional leaders draw upon their teaching experiences for decision-making as a
principal. This may be appropriate if you are leading a school with similar
contexts; however, it is erroneous to think that you know all the various
teaching and learning contexts you will encounter as a leader. For instance, as
a teacher you may have worked in an affluent school where your challenges
were significantly different from the myriad of problems and demands in a
neighboring school of poverty. Drawing upon your experience is essential in
order to relate to teachers and anticipate problems affecting implementation;
however, a shift of a school context requires adaptability. Adapting to a new
context will require you to interpret and reinterpret your role as you take cues
from others as to what is needed to enact your role in this new situation—
again that reciprocal relationship to be both understood and understand what
the issues are will enable you to focus.
Your current experiential knowledge may not be enough to lead schools
in today’s dynamic environment. For this reason, it is incumbent upon you
to prepare, as a musician would, for any type of performance that might
come your way. Your preparation, critical to your success, requires thought-
ful attention to your leadership platform, understanding of leadership the-
oretical frameworks, knowledge of legacy, and the ability to adapt to various
contexts. But, all of these must also be paired with your willingness to
learn—it is an ongoing process of reflection and personal insights.
PREPARING FOR THE PERFORMANCE JOURNEY AS AN ASPIRING

MUSICIAN
We relate to the journey that you are about to embark upon as similar to the
journey one of the authors, we’ll refer to as “Paul,” took during his
undergraduate years as an aspiring musician and music educator. As a
musician, Paul had to prepare himself with skills and knowledge that
allowed him to walk onto any stage and perform inspiring and stylistically
appropriate music in his role as a lead trumpeter. This meant he had to
develop technical skills and knowledge through consistent and regular
practice until his playing became a subconscious response to his context.
Additionally, Paul had to learn to use these skills within various theoretical
frameworks or, to use a musical term, genres.
As a principal, you will be faced with similar challenges. You will need to
develop your understanding of theory and technical skills to the point that
you can apply them naturally while performing daily functions. This does
not mean that you are unaware of what you are doing nor does this refute
reflection on your actions at a later time. It means that you will need to
achieve a level of automaticity or fluency with various skillsets in order to
focus on the big picture of the performance.
To the point, as a musician, Paul needed to understand his role and how
to adjust it within various performing groups in order to achieve an inspiring
performance. Role anticipation allowed him to better prepare, make deci-
sions, and take actions within the context of any venue. Specifically, it was
important to know if and when it was his turn to lead or follow. Paul’s role
became malleable and flexible enough to achieve an excellent performance
while working with others. Again, this required him to continuously learn
and reflect on his choices. This is also true as you think about more
contemporary approaches and corresponding theories to educational lead-
ership discussed in this chapter.
As a soloist, Paul learned to be out front directly engaging his audience
and leading the rest of the musicians with poise and confidence. Paul had to
learn to interpret the reaction from the audience in order to select appro-
priate music and adjust his performance to engage them fully. Understand-
ing stylistic interpretation was essential because all other musicians would
take cues from him based upon their collective understanding of the char-
acteristics of that style. This affected the performance expressively by placing
intricate inflections on certain notes or phrasing of the melody. Paul’s
personal interpretation formed and informed his role and the role of others
in the performance group.
Paul also learned to play background parts that required him to be
extremely sensitive to the lead performer and careful so as not to over-
shadow but to follow someone else’s interpretation of the music. In short,
as a musician, it was essential to maintain a command of technical skills and
theoretical perspectives in order to understand and adjust his role within
each performance context to be successful. A principal must also know when

it is appropriate to take the lead, follow a lead, and when to solicit leadership
from others.
Finally, Paul had to learn how to identify appropriate feedback from the
audience and fellow musicians and adjust his performance when needed to
ensure that the audience connected meaningfully with the music. Using this
analogy of a musician illustrates the complexity of educational leadership in
today’s schools (Crow 2010). The elements of becoming a strong musician
parallel with the skills needed to be developed by principals to adapt their
roles to the continuously changing landscape and contexts required by
leaders in today’s schools.
Of course a principal needs a strong command of technical skills so as to
not be distracted from thinking forward—meaning a fluent contextually
appropriate response to what is occurring in the context that will contribute
to a good performance. Just as a musician caught up in reading and playing
notes cannot focus on the larger context of performance, a principal con-
sumed in the mechanics of daily operations cannot address the larger
context of what is occurring in the school. Fluency of skills directly affects
the capacity of the performer’s abilities to be effective in addressing more
complex and nuanced issues and to focus on what is required.
Fluency relies partially on the fact that higher-order thinking and rea-
soning can only occur after rudimentary skills can be performed with a level
of automaticity allowing for the strategic application of knowledge and skills
to solve routine problems. Grashow et al. (2009) describe the fluency
phenomenon as the ability to “sit in the balcony” where the leader is able
to keep perspective about the larger context in order to make sound
judgments and not go off on tangents. Although the development of
these skills and knowledge are important and must be part of ongoing
learning for principals, these areas are not the focus of this chapter. In this
chapter, we ask you to move beyond technical skills toward the more
sophisticated application skills of leadership. This is where you think about
your role in terms of what it means to enact that role within a particular
context; how you identify with your role and define it. Of course, technical
skills form the foundation for your leadership development and should not
be forgotten. Remember, however, that just as a musician practices his/her
scales on a daily basis in order to achieve automaticity and stamina, you too
may need regular practice with basic skills in terms of increasing your
technical knowledge. That is where the toolbox comes in for you to use.
UNDERSTANDING THE COMPOSER’S INTENT: THE ANALOGY

CONTINUES
Performance leadership requires a person to develop a toolbox from which
to draw upon during the “heat of the battle.” Understanding various
leadership theories provides frameworks for operation by principals
to apply into practice. Just as a musician will study the music theory to
determine the composer’s intent, principals can use leadership theory to
anticipate next steps in problem-solving. For example, a practical response
to the question “Why do I need to learn theory” is “theory gives you a
framework from which to interpret intent and address issues that you
encounter in practice.” This saves you time and effort (fluency), the two
most valuable commodities in educational leadership (Mancinelli 2014,
p. 96). To further illustrate, music theory allows the musician to anticipate
what will happen when performing because of structure, form, and specific
characteristics of the composer. The ability to use theory allows the musi-
cian to strategically act on making the performance meaningful to the
audience. This incorporates both role-taking and role-making. Role-taking
would explain why understanding theory and the historical context of the
piece is important to having a rudimentary knowledge, while role-making
would allow the musician to interpret the context of the written piece and
apply a personalized and learned interpretation to the present performance.
Role-taking demonstrates the theory but role-making translates intentional
aspects of a theory into meaningful practice. Music is built upon common
principles that create predictability for the performer which allows for
improvisation and embellishment. As a result, the musician has a framework
from which to build on any genre of music giving him/her flexibility in
addressing the dynamic opportunities within the performance. Leaders too
have frameworks to draw upon that provide flexibility in conceptualizing
and addressing problems within an organization.
As an example, all songs possess form, chord structure, melody, har-
mony, and rhythmic patterns. Another layer of frameworks, called genre,
allows the musician to use these rudimentary blocks within the appropriate
style. The musician, in turn, is able to quickly and efficiently break down any
piece of music, process it, and act upon these inputs to shape the perfor-
mance. To an untrained musician, the execution looks effortless but, in
reality, it is a result of disciplined preparation contributing to an artful
performance. This translates into the need for principals to understand the-
oretical frameworks that allow for the efficient understanding of problems,
potential solutions, and their strategic implementation based upon their

school’s needs—again the artful performance of leadership.
Having the ability to keep contextual perspectives in mind (“sitting in the
balcony”) while performing rudimentary tasks will be an essential part of
your role-making as you effectively interpret the larger context to make
strategic decisions to address local problems (Grashow et al. 2009). Lead-
ership theories, therefore, provide you with ways to interpret your context
from varying perspectives in order to clearly understand problems. Having
clarity about problems will prevent you from spending large amounts of
resources on addressing secondary symptoms that detract from focusing on
the core problems. In order to consider multiple solutions to a problem, you
must use various lenses to view the problem so you can arrive at a solution
that matches your leadership platform with a productive solution that is
aligned with your values and beliefs (Bryk et al. 2011; Copland 2003; Portin
2004).
To reiterate, principals, like musicians, have leadership theories
(or frameworks) at their disposal to apply in varied and purposeful ways as
appropriate to the audience, venue, and genre. It is important to understand
why multiple theoretical approaches are critical. Applying a single theoret-
ical approach to all leadership situations is similar to a musician walking onto
stage for a rock concert and playing a Bavarian folk song because it was the
only thing s/he knew. This would be absurd to most audiences and likely
result in the audience leaving or booing him/her off the stage! Albeit a
humorous example, this directly relates to the need for a principal to have
multiple leadership frameworks from which to draw upon in order to meet
the needs of the school and demonstrate competency.
And so you can see that we argue that a principal must transcend a single
set of leadership framework that impacts his/her leadership platform in
order to effectively adapt to the dynamic needs of a school. In essence, the
static concept of the principal conforming to traditional role-taking activi-
ties is too narrow because of the constant and ongoing changes of school
contexts. In this educational environment, role-making is ongoing and
depends on the principals’ abilities to align their leadership to their constit-
uents’ readiness for following and a host of other internal and external
variables. As an educational leader, you need to understand various leader-
ship frameworks (or theories) to best engage your constituents and view
problems and solutions from a number of perspectives.
KNOWING YOUR GENRES CAN INFLUENCE ROLE-TAKING

AND ROLE-MAKING
Theoretical frameworks are as important to a leader as knowing genres such

as jazz, classical, rock, and country are to a musician in his/her performance
repertoire. Understanding genres allows a musician to develop performance
strategies appropriate to the present performance. We now show how
McGregor (1957) identified different theories about leadership that influ-
ence role enactment—theories that can enhance your repertoire. While
traditional role-taking would require new principals to adopt a single frame-
work (perhaps from their mentor), role-making broadens the idea of lead-
ership to a dynamic framework based upon the context (Emison 2004;
Heifetz and Laurie 1997; Honig and Ikemoto 2008; Portin et al. 2006).
This is not to suggest that leadership is applied in a haphazard fashion.
Rather, as a musician incorporates a nuanced stylistic interpretation to
enhance the impact of the music on the audience, a leader too must skillfully
select the approach that best reflects thoughtful choices and a contextual
awareness of what is needed.
Let’s consider the fact that leadership frameworks are generally based
upon two psychological principles of human motivation: (a) extrinsic and
(b) intrinsic motivation. Various leadership styles strive to describe the
relational aspects between the leader and the follower as it pertains to
these two concepts. McGregor (1957) defines extrinsically motivational
leadership as Theory X and intrinsically motivational leadership as Theory
Y. He simply states, “Theory X places exclusive reliance upon external
control of human behavior, whereas Theory Y relies heavily on self-control
and self-direction” (McGregor 1957). McGregor (1957) delineates some
differences between these two motivational concepts and generally shows
that Theory X leaders work under assumptions critical of workers that
require the leader to closely monitor their work, while Theory Y leaders
work under assumptions of optimism about workers that require the leader
to develop people as assets. Historically, it’s important to understand that
these theories were influenced by American industry and specifically steeped
in Henry Ford’s assembly line innovation for manufacturing. Several lead-
ership styles emerged from McGregor’s Theory XY dichotomy. It will be
important that you understand how these various leadership frameworks
shape your personal leadership enactment.
Within Theory X, you will find a range of leader-centric styles. The
bureaucratic leader is typically seen in government, universities, and other
large organizations. There is little room for a leader to be innovative and

decision-making requires disciplined, methodical, and hierarchical problem-
solving. The autocratic leader (Lewin et al. 1939) possesses total authority
to make independent decisions with no input from subordinates or supe-
riors. Fiedler (1967) identified task-oriented leadership as goal-oriented
micro-management of workers similar to the autocratic leader. The trans-
actional leader (Burns 1978) uses rewards and punishments in return for
worker compliance and performance. Theory X concepts of leadership
are based upon a clear chain of command with the dissemination of
decisions from the top-down. These concepts require the leader to be
intensely engaged in monitoring, rewarding, and providing consequences
to employees.
Within Theory Y, you will find a range of humanistic-centric styles. The
charismatic leader or transformational leader (Bass 1985) seeks to motivate
workers through positive attitude and employee supports, vision-setting,
employee development, relationship-building, and appealing to the greater
organizational cause (Yukl 2013). The democratic leader (Lewin et al. 1939)
encourages participation by the workers through representative input to
decision-making. Shared leadership not only distributes decision-making
overarching goals but also distributes daily operations and management
across all members of the organization regardless of authority or position.
Laissez-faire leadership (Lewin et al. 1939) operates under the assumptions
that the workers are highly skilled, intelligent, and trained and can self-
manage. Some argue that laissez-faire leadership is the absence of leadership
because of the absence of intervention the “leader” enacts on the “followers.”
Fiedler (1967) identified people-oriented leadership as focused on effective-
ness and efficiency through supports, professional development, and fostering
the genuine interest of others to do a good job. Theory Y places a high level of
trust in workers by leadership to make decisions and take actions that benefit
the organization. This theory places the responsibility on the leader to
facilitate good worker decisions and actions through professional develop-
ment, removal of barriers, and the distribution of leadership functions.
There are costs and benefits to both the leader and the follower for any
theoretical approach. Leaders charged with responsibilities to create change
within a bureaucratic system can experience high frustration. Equally,
teachers trying to be innovative within a bureaucratic leadership style that
rewards compliance rather than experimentation will also be highly frus-
trated. Conversely, teachers and leaders that view themselves as being highly
effective and efficient may like the bureaucratic environment because it
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temple of Æsymnetes, which is near the sea on the right as you go
from the market-place. And as you go lower down from the temple of
Æsymnetes there is a temple and stone statue to Recovery,
originally they say erected by Eurypylus when he recovered from his
madness. And near the harbour is a temple of Poseidon, and his
statue erect in white stone. Poseidon, besides the names given to
him by poets to deck out their poetry, has several local names
privately given to him, but his universal titles are Pelagæus and
Asphalius and Hippius. One might urge several reasons why he was
called Hippius, but I conjecture he got the name because he was the
inventor of riding. Homer at any rate in that part of his Iliad about the
horse-races has introduced Menelaus invoking this god in an oath.
“Touch the horses, and swear by the Earth-Shaker Poseidon that
you did not purposely with guile retard my chariot.”[11]
And Pamphus, the most ancient Hymn-writer among the Athenians,
says that Poseidon was “the giver of horses and ships with sails.” So
he got the name Hippius probably from riding and for no other
reason.
Also at Patræ not very far from that of Poseidon are temples of
Aphrodite. One of the statues a generation before my time was
fished up by some fishermen in their net. There are also some
statues very near the harbour, as Ares in bronze, and Apollo, and
Aphrodite. She has a sacred enclosure near the harbour, and her
statue is of wood except the fingers and toes and head which are of
stone. At Patræ there is also a grove near the sea, which is a most
convenient race-course, and a most salubrious place of resort in
summer time. In this grove there are temples of Apollo and
Aphrodite, their statues also in stone. There is also a temple of
Demeter, she and Proserpine are standing, but Earth is seated. And
in front of the temple of Demeter is a well, which has a stone wall on
the side near the temple, but there is a descent to it outside. And
there is here an unerring oracle, not indeed for every matter, but in
the case of diseases. They fasten a mirror to a light cord and let it
down into this well, poising it so as not to be covered by the water,
but that the rim of the mirror only should touch the water. And then
they look into the mirror after prayer to the goddess and burning of
incense. And it shews them whether the sick person will die or
recover. Such truth is there in this water. Similarly very near Cyaneæ
in Lycia is the oracle of Apollo Thyrxis, and the water there shows
anyone looking into the well whatever he wants to see. And near the
grove at Patræ are two temples of Serapis, and in one of them the
statue of the Egyptian Belus. The people of Patræ say that he fled to
Aroe from grief at the death of his sons, and that he shuddered at
the name of Argos, and was still more afraid of Danaus. There is
also a temple of Æsculapius at Patræ above the citadel and near the
gates which lead to Mesatis.
And the women at Patræ are twice as numerous as the men, and
devoted to Aphrodite if any women are. And most of them get their
living by the flax that grows in Elis, which they make into nets for the
hair and other parts of dress.
[11] Iliad, xxiii. 584, 5.
CHAPTER XXII.
A nd Pharæ, a town in Achaia, is reckoned with Patræ since the

days of Augustus, and the road to Pharæ from Patræ is about
150 stades, and from the sea to the mainland about 70 stades. And
the river Pierus flows near Pharæ, the same river I think which flows
by the ruins of Olenus, and is called Pirus by the men who live near
the sea. Near the river is a grove of plane-trees, most of them hollow
from old age, and of such a size that whoever chooses can eat and
sleep inside them.[12] The circuit of the market-place is large at
Pharæ according to ancient custom, and in the middle of the market-
place is a stone statue of bearded Hermes; it is on the ground, no
great size, and of square shape. And the inscription on it says that it
was an offering of the Messenian Simylus. It is called Hermes of the
Market-place, and near it is an oracle. And before the statue is a
hearth made of stone, and some brazen lamps are fastened with
lead to the hearth. He that wants to consult the oracle of the god
comes at eventide and burns some frankincense on the hearth, and
when he has filled the lamps with oil and lit them, he lays on the altar
on the right of the statue the ordinary piece of money, a brass coin,
and whispers his question whatever it is in the ear of the statue of
the god. Then he departs from the market-place and stops up his
ears. And when he has gone a little distance off he takes his hands
from his ears, and whatever he next hears is he thinks the oracular
response. The Egyptians have a similar kind of oracle in the temple
of Apis. And at Pharæ the water is sacred, Hermes’ well is the name
they give to it, and the fish in it they do not catch, because they think
them sacred to the god. And very near the statue are 30 square
stones, which the people of Pharæ venerate highly, calling each by
the name of one of the gods. And in early times all the Greeks paid
to unhewn stones, and not statues, the honours due unto the gods.
And about 15 stades from Pharæ is a grove of Castor and Pollux.
Bay trees chiefly grow in it, and there is neither temple in it nor any
statues. The people of the place say the statues were removed to
Rome. And in the grove at Pharæ is an altar of unhewn stones. But I
could not learn whether Phares, the son of Phylodamia, the daughter
of Danaus, or some one of the same name was the founder of the
town.
And Tritea, also a town of Achaia, is built in the interior of the
country, and reckoned with Patræ by Imperial order. The distance
from Pharæ to Tritea is about 120 stades. And before you get to it
there is a tomb in white stone, well worth seeing in other respects
and not least for the paintings on it, which are by Nicias. There is a
throne of ivory and a young and good-looking woman seated on it,
and a maid is standing by with a sun-shade. And a young man
without a beard is standing up clad in a tunic, with a scarlet cloak
over the tunic. And near him is a servant with some javelins, driving
some hunting dogs. I could not ascertain their names; but everybody
infers that they are husband and wife buried together. The founder of
Tritea was some say Celbidas, who came from Cumæ in the Opic
land, others say that Ares had an intrigue with Tritea the daughter of
Triton, who was a priestess of Athene, and Melanippus their son
when he was grown up built the town, and called it after the name of
his mother. At Tritea there is a temple to what are called the Greatest
Gods, their statues are made of clay: a festival is held to them
annually, like the festival the Greeks hold to Dionysus. There is also
a temple of Athene, and a stone statue still to be seen: the old statue
was taken to Rome according to the tradition of the people of Tritea.
The people of the place are accustomed to sacrifice both to Ares and
Tritea.
These towns are at some distance from the sea and well inland: but
as you sail from Patræ to Ægium you come to the promontory of
Rhium, about 50 stades from Patræ, and 15 stades further you come
to the harbour of Panormus. And about as many stades from
Panormus is what is called the wall of Athene, from which to the
harbour of Erineus is 90 stades’ sail along the coast, and 60 to
Ægium from Erineus, but by land it is about 40 stades less. And not
far from Patræ is the river Milichus, and the temple of Triclaria (with
no statue) on the right. And as you go on from Milichus there is
another river called Charadrus, and in summer time the herds that
drink of it mostly breed male cattle, for that reason the herdsmen
keep all cattle but cows away from it. These they leave by the river,
because both for sacrifices and work bulls are more convenient than
cows, but in all other kinds of cattle the female is thought most
valuable.
[12] See the wonderful account of Pliny. Nat. Hist. xii. 1.
CHAPTER XXIII.
A nd next to the river Charadrus are some ruins not very easy to
trace of the town of Argyra, and the well Argyra on the right of
the high road, and the river Selemnus that flows into the sea. The
local account is that Selemnus was a handsome youth who fed his
flocks here, and they say the sea-nymph Argyra was enamoured of
him, and used to come up from the sea and sleep with him. But in a
short time Selemnus lost all his good looks, and the Nymph no
longer came to visit him, and Aphrodite turned the poor lad
Selemnus, who was deprived of Argyra and dying for love, into a
river. I tell the tale as the people of Patræ told it me. And when he
became a river he was still enamoured of Argyra, (as the story goes
about Alpheus that he still loved Arethusa,) but Aphrodite at last
granted him forgetfulness of Argyra. I have also heard another
tradition, viz. that the water of the Selemnus is a good love-cure both
for men and women, for if they bathe in this water they forget their
love. If there is any truth in this tradition, the water of Selemnus
would be more valuable to mankind than much wealth.
And at a little distance from Argyra is the river called Bolinæus, and
a town once stood there called Bolina. Apollo they say was
enamoured of a maiden called Bolina, and she fled from him and
threw herself into the sea, and became immortal through his favour.
And there is a promontory here jutting out into the sea, about which
there is a tradition that it was here that Cronos threw the sickle into
the sea, with which he had mutilated his father Uranus, so they call
the promontory Drepanum (sickle). And a little above the high road
are the ruins of Rhypæ, which is about 30 stades from Ægium. And
the district round Ægium is watered by the river Phœnix and another
river Miganitas, both of which flow into the sea. And a portico near
the town was built for the athlete Strato, (who conquered at Olympia
on the same day in the pancratium and in the wrestling), to practise
in. And at Ægium they have an ancient temple of Ilithyia, her statue
is veiled from her head to her toes with a finely-woven veil, and is of
wood except the face and fingers and toes, which are of Pentelican
marble. One of the hands is stretched out straight, and in the other
she holds a torch. One may symbolize Ilithyia’s torches thus, that the
throes of travail are to women as it were a fire. Or the torches may
be supposed to symbolize that Ilithyia brings children to the light.
The statue is by the Messenian Damophon.
And at no great distance from the temple of Ilithyia is the sacred
enclosure of Æsculapius, and statues in it of Hygiea and
Æsculapius. The iambic line on the basement says that they were by
the Messenian Damophon. In this temple of Æsculapius I had a
controversy with a Sidonian, who said that the Phœnicians had more
accurate knowledge generally about divine things than the Greeks,
and their tradition was that Apollo was the father of Æsculapius, but
that he had no mortal woman for his mother, and that Æsculapius
was nothing but the air which is beneficial for the health of mankind
and all beasts, and that Apollo was the Sun, and was most properly
called the father of Æsculapius, because the Sun in its course
regulates the Seasons and gives health to the air. All this I assented
to, but was obliged to point out that this view was as much Greek as
Phœnician, since at Titane in Sicyonia the statue of Æsculapius was
called Health, and that it was plain even to a child that the course of
the sun on the earth produces health among mankind.
At Ægium there is also a temple to Athene and another to Hera, and
Athene has two statues in white stone, but the statue of Hera may be
looked upon by none but women, and those only the priestesses.
And near the theatre is a temple and statue of beardless Dionysus.
There are also in the market-place sacred precincts of Zeus Soter,
and two statues on the left as you enter both of brass, the one
without a beard seemed to me the older of the two. And in a building
right opposite the road are brazen statues of Poseidon, Hercules,
Zeus, and Athene, and they call them the Argive gods, because the
Argive tradition says they were made at Argos, but the people of
Ægium say it was because the statues were deposited with them by
the Argives. And they say further that they were ordered to sacrifice
to these statues every day: and they found out a trick by which they
could sacrifice as required, but without any expense by feasting on
the victims: and eventually these statues were asked back by the
Argives, and the people of Ægium asked for the money they had
spent on the sacrifices first, so the Argives (as they could not pay
this) left the statues with them.
CHAPTER XXIV.
A t Ægium there is also near the market-place a temple in

common to Apollo and Artemis, and in the market-place is a
temple to Artemis alone dressed like a huntress, and the tomb of
Talthybius the herald. Talthybius has also a monument erected to
him at Sparta, and both cities perform funeral rites in his honour. And
near the sea at Ægium Aphrodite has a temple, and next Poseidon,
and next Proserpine the daughter of Demeter, and fourthly Zeus
Homagyrius (the Gatherer). There are statues too of Zeus and
Aphrodite and Athene. And Zeus was surnamed Homagyrius,
because Agamemnon gathered together at this place the most
famous men in Greece, to deliberate together in common how to
attack the realm of Priam. Agamemnon has much renown generally,
but especially because with the army that accompanied him first,
without any reinforcements, he sacked Ilium and all the surrounding
cities. And next to Zeus Homagyrius is the temple of Pan-Achæan
Demeter. And the sea-shore at Ægium, where these temples just
described are, furnishes abundantly water good to drink from a well.
There is also a temple to Safety, the statue of the goddess may be
seen by none but the priests, but the rites are as follows. They take
from the altar of the goddess cakes made after the fashion of the
country and throw them into the sea, and say that they send them to
Arethusa in Syracuse. The people at Ægium have also several
brazen statues as Zeus as a boy, and Hercules without a beard, by
Ageladas the Argive. Priests are chosen annually for these gods,
and each of the statues remains in the house of the priest. And in
older times the most beautiful boy was chosen as priest to Zeus, and
when their beards grew then the priest’s office passed to some other
beautiful boy. And Ægium is the place where the general meeting of
the Achæans is still held, just as the Amphictyonic Council is held at
Thermopylæ and Delphi.
As you go on you come to the river Selinus, and about 40 stades
from Ægium is a place called Helice near the sea. It was once an
important city, and the Ionians had there the most holy temple of
Poseidon of Helice. The worship of Poseidon of Helice still remained
with them, both when they were driven by the Achæans to Athens,
and when they afterwards went from Athens to the maritime parts of
Asia Minor. And the Milesians as you go to the well Biblis have an
altar of Poseidon of Helice before their city, and similarly at Teos the
same god has precincts and an altar. Even Homer has written of
Helice, and of Poseidon of Helice.[13] And later on the Achæans
here, who drove some suppliants from the temple and slew them,
met with quick vengeance from Poseidon, for an earthquake coming
over the place rapidly overthrew all the buildings, and made the very
site of the city difficult for posterity to find. Previously in earthquakes,
remarkable for their violence or extent, the god has generally given
previous intimation by signs. For either continuous rain or drought
are mostly wont to precede their approach: and in winter the air is
hotter, and in summer the disk of the sun is misty and has a different
colour to its usual colour, being either redder or slightly inclining to
black. And the springs are generally deficient in water, and gusts of
wind sweeping over the district uproot the trees, and in the sky are
meteors with flames of fire, and the appearance of the stars is
unusual and excites consternation in the beholders, and moreover
vapours and exhalations rise up out of the ground. And many other
indications does the god give in the case of violent earthquakes. And
earthquakes are not all similar, but those who have paid attention to
such things from the first or been instructed by others have been
able to recognize the following phenomena. The mildest of them, if
indeed the word mildness is applicable to any of them, is when
simultaneously with the first motion of the earth and with the rocking
of buildings to their foundation a counter motion restores them to
their former position. And in such an earthquake you may see pillars
nearly rooted up falling into their places again, and walls that gaped
asunder joining again: and beams that slipped out of their fittings
slipping back again: so too in the pipes of conduits, if any pipe bursts
from the pressure of water, the broken parts weld together again
better than any workmen could adjust them. Another kind of
earthquake destroys everything within its range, and, on whatever it
spends its force, forthwith batters it down, like the military engines
employed in sieges. But the most deadly kind of earthquake may be
recognized by the following concomitants. The breath of a man in a
long-continued fever comes thicker and with much effort, and this is
marked in other parts of the body, but especially by feeling the pulse.
Similarly this kind of earthquake they say undermines the
foundations of buildings, and makes them rock to and fro, like the
effect produced by the burrowing of moles in the earth. And this is
the only kind of earthquake that leaves no trace in the earth of
previous habitation. This was the kind of earthquake that rased
Helice to the ground. And they say another misfortune happened to
the place in the winter at the same time. The sea encroached over
much of the district and quite flooded Helice with water: and the
grove of Poseidon was so submerged that the tops of the trees alone
were visible. And so the god suddenly sending the earthquake, and
the sea encroaching simultaneously, the inundation swept away
Helice and its population. A similar catastrophe happened to the
town of Sipylus which was swallowed up by a landslip. And when
this landslip occurred in the rock water came forth, and became a
lake called Saloe, and the ruins of Sipylus were visible in the lake, till
the water pouring down hid them from view. Visible too are the ruins
of Helice, but not quite as clearly as formerly, because they have
been effaced by the action of the sea.
[13] Hom. Iliad, ii. 575; viii. 203; xx. 404.
CHAPTER XXV.
O ne may learn not only from this ruin of Helice but also from
other cases that the vengeance of heaven for outrages upon
suppliants is sure. Thus the god at Dodona plainly exhorted men to
respect suppliants. For to the Athenians in the days of Aphidas came
the following message from Zeus at Dodona.
“Think of the Areopagus and the smoking altars of the Eumenides,
for you must treat as suppliants the Lacedæmonians conquered in
battle. Slay them not with the sword, harm not suppliants. Suppliants
are inviolable.”
This the Greeks remembered when the Peloponnesians came to
Athens, in the reign of Codrus the son of Melanthus. All the rest of
the Peloponnesian army retired from Attica, when they heard of the
death of Codrus and the circumstances attending it. For they did not
any longer expect victory, as Codrus had devoted himself in
accordance with the oracle at Delphi. But some of the
Lacedæmonians got stealthily into the city by night, and at daybreak
perceived that their friends had retired, and, as the Athenians began
to muster against them, fled for safety to the Areopagus and to the
altars of the goddesses called the August.[14] And the Athenians
allowed the suppliants to depart scot-free on this occasion, but some
years later the authorities destroyed the suppliants of Athene, those
of Cylo’s party who had occupied the Acropolis, and both the
murderers and their children were considered accursed by the
goddess. Upon the Lacedæmonians too who had killed some
suppliants in the temple of Poseidon at Tænarum came an
earthquake so long-continued and violent, that no house in
Lacedæmon could stand against it. And the destruction of Helice
happened when Asteus was Archon at Athens, in the 4th year of the
101st Olympiad, in which Damon of Thuria was victor. And as there
were none left remaining at Helice the people of Ægium occupied
their territory.
And next to Helice, as you turn from the sea to the right, you will
come to the town of Cerynea, built on a hill above the high-road. It
got its name either from some local ruler or from the river Cerynites,
which rises in Arcadia in the Mountain Cerynea, and flows through
the district of those Achæans, who came from Argolis and dwelt
there through the following mischance. The fort of Mycenæ could not
be captured by the Argives owing to its strength, (for it had been built
by the Cyclopes as the wall at Tiryns also), but the people of
Mycenæ were obliged to evacuate their city because their supplies
failed, and some of them went to Cleonæ, but more than half took
refuge with Alexander in Macedonia, who had sent Mardonius the
son of Gobryas on a mission to the Athenians, and the rest went to
Cerynea, and Cerynea became more powerful through this influx of
population, and more notable in after times through this coming into
the town of the people of Mycenæ. And at Cerynea is a temple of the
Eumenides, built they say by Orestes. Whatever wretch, stained with
blood or any other defilement, comes into this temple to look round,
he is forthwith driven frantic by his fears. And for this reason people
are not admitted into this temple indiscriminately. The statues of the
goddesses in the temple are of wood and not very large: but the
statues of some women in the vestibule are of stone and artistically
carved: the natives say that they are some priestesses of the
Eumenides.
And as you return from Cerynea to the high road, and proceed along
it no great distance, the second turn to the right from the sea takes
you by a winding road to Bura, which lies on a hill. The town got its
name they say from Bura the daughter of Ion, the Son of Xuthus by
Helice. And when Helice was totally destroyed by the god, Bura also
was afflicted by a mighty earthquake, so that none of the old statues
were left in the temples. And those that happened to be at that time
away on military service or some other errand were the only people
of Bura preserved. There are temples here to Demeter, and
Aphrodite, and Dionysus, and Ilithyia. Their statues are of Pentelican
marble by the Athenian Euclides. Demeter is robed. There is also a
temple to Isis.
And as you descend from Bura to the sea is the river called
Buraicus, and a not very big Hercules in a cave, surnamed Buraicus,
whose oracular responses are ascertained by dice on a board. He
that consults the god prays before his statue, and after prayer takes
dice, plenty of which are near Hercules, and throws four on the
board. And on every dice is a certain figure inscribed, which has its
interpretation in a corresponding figure on the board. It is about 30
stades from this temple of Hercules to Helice by the direct road. And
as you go on your way from the temple of Hercules you come to a
perennial river, that has its outlet into the sea, and rises in an
Arcadian mountain, its name is Crathis as also the name of the
mountain, and from this Crathis the river near Croton in Italy got its
name. And near the Crathis in Achaia was formerly the town Ægæ,
which they say was eventually deserted from its weakness. Homer
has mentioned this Ægæ in a speech of Hera,
“They bring you gifts to Helice and Ægæ,”[15]
plainly therefore Poseidon had gifts equally at Helice and Ægæ. And
at no great distance from Crathis is a tomb on the right of the road,
and on it you will find a rather indistinct painting of a man standing by
a horse. And the road from this tomb to what is called Gaius is 30
stades: Gaius is a temple of Earth called the Broad-breasted. The
statue is very ancient. And the woman who becomes priestess
remains henceforth in a state of chastity, and before she must only
have been married once. And they are tested by drinking bull’s
blood, whoever of them is not telling the truth is detected at once and
punished. And if there are several competitors, the woman who
obtains most lots is appointed priestess.
[14] A euphemism for the Eumenides.
[15] Iliad, viii. 203.
CHAPTER XXVI.
A nd the seaport at Ægira (both town and seaport have the same
name) is 72 stades from the temple of Hercules Buraicus. Near
the sea there is nothing notable at Ægira, from the port to the upper
part of the town is 12 stades. In Homer[16] the town is called
Hyperesia, the present name was given to it by the Ionian settlers for
the following reason. A hostile band of Sicyonians was going to
invade their land. And they, not thinking themselves a match for the
Sicyonians, collected together all the goats in the country, and
fastened torches to their horns, and directly night came on lit these
torches. And the Sicyonians, who thought that the allies of the
Hyperesians were coming up, and that this light was the campfires of
the allied force, went home again: and the Hyperesians changed the
name of their city because of these goats, and at the place where
the goat that was most handsome and the leader of the rest had
crouched down there they built a temple to Artemis the Huntress,
thinking that this stratagem against the Sicyonians would not have
occurred to them but for Artemis. Not that the name Ægira prevailed
at once over Hyperesia. Even in my time there are still some who
call Oreus in Eubœa by its old name of Hestiæa. At Ægira there is a
handsome temple of Zeus, and his statue in a sitting posture in
Pentelican marble by the Athenian Euclides. The head and fingers
and toes are of ivory, and the rest is wood gilt and richly variegated.
There is also a temple of Artemis, and a statue of the goddess which
is of modern art. A maiden is priestess, till she grows to a
marriageable age. And the old statue that stands there is, according
to the tradition of the people at Ægira, Iphigenia the daughter of
Agamemnon: and if they state what is correct, the temple must
originally have been built to Iphigenia. There is also a very ancient
temple of Apollo, ancient is the temple, ancient are the gables,
ancient is the statue of the god, which is naked and of great size.
Who made it none of the natives could tell: but whoever has seen
the Hercules at Sicyon, would conjecture that the Apollo at Ægira
was by the same hand as that, namely by Laphaes of Phlius. And
there are some statues of Æsculapius in the temple in a standing
position, and of Serapis and Isis apart in Pentelican marble. And
they worship most of all Celestial Aphrodite: but men must not enter
her temple. But into the temple of the Syrian goddess they may enter
on stated days, but only after the accustomed rites and fasting. I
have also seen another building in Ægira, in which there is a statue
of Fortune with the horn of Amalthea, and next it a Cupid with wings:
to symbolize to men that success in love is due to chance rather
than beauty. I am much of the opinion of Pindar in his Ode that
Fortune is one of the Fates, and more powerful than her sisters. And
in this building at Ægira is a statue of a man rather old and evidently
in grief, and 3 women are taking off their bracelets, and there are 3
young men standing by, and one has a breastplate on. The tradition
about him is that he died after fighting most bravely of all the people
of Ægira against the Achæans, and his brothers brought home the
news of his death, and his sisters are stripping off their bracelets out
of grief at his loss, and the people of the place call the old man his
father Sympathetic, because he is clearly grieving in the statue.
And there is a direct road from Ægira starting from the temple of
Zeus over the mountains. It is a hilly road, and about 40 stades bring
you to Phelloe, not a very important place, nor inhabited at all when
the Ionians still occupied the land. The neighbourhood of Phelloe is
very good for vine-growing, and in the rocky parts are trees and wild
animals, as wild deer and wild boars. And if any places in Greece
are well situated in respect of abundance of water, Phelloe is one of
them. And there are temples to Dionysus and Artemis, the goddess
is in bronze in the act of taking a dart out of her quiver, and
Dionysus’ statue is decorated with vermilion. As you go down
towards the seaport from Ægira and forward a little there is, on the
right of the road, a temple of Artemis the Huntress, where they say
the goat crouched down.
And next to Ægira is Pellene: the people of Pellene are the last of
the Achæans near Sicyon and Argolis. Their town was called
according to their own tradition from Pallas who they say was one of
the Titans, but according to the tradition of the Argives from the
Argive Pellen, who was they say the son of Phorbas and grandson of
Triopas. And between Ægira and Pellene there is a town subject to
Sicyon called Donussa, which was destroyed by the Sicyonians, and
which they say is mentioned by Homer in his Catalogue of
Agamemnon’s forces in the line,
“And those who inhabited Hyperesia and steep Donoessa.”

Il. ii. 573.
But when Pisistratus collected the verses of Homer, that had been
scattered about and had to be got together from various quarters,
either he or some of his companions in the task changed the name
inadvertently.[17] The people of Pellene call their seaport
Aristonautæ. To it from Ægira on the sea is a distance of 120 stades,
and it is half this distance to Pellene from the seaport. The name
Aristonautæ was given they say to their seaport because the
Argonauts put in at the harbour.
[16] Iliad, ii. 573.
[17] To Gonoessa, the reading to be found in modern texts of
Homer.
CHAPTER XXVII.
A nd the town of Pellene is on a hill which is very steep in its

topmost peak, (indeed precipitous and therefore uninhabited),
and is built upon its more level parts not continuously, but is cut as it
were into two parts by the peak which lies between. And as you
approach Pellene you see a statue of Hermes on the road called
Dolios (wily), he is very ready to accomplish the prayers of people: it
is a square statue, the god is bearded and has a hat on his head. On
the way to the town there is also a temple of Athene made of the
stone of the country, her statue is of ivory and gold by they say
Phidias, who earlier still made statues of Athene at Athens and
Platæa. And the people of Pellene say that there is a shrine of
Athene deep underground under the base of her statue, and that the
air from it is damp and therefore good for the ivory. And above the
temple of Athene is a grove with a wall built round it to Artemis called
the Saviour, their greatest oath is by her. No one may enter this
grove but the priests, who are chiefly chosen out of the best local
families. And opposite this grove is the temple of Dionysus called the
Lighter, for when they celebrate his festival they carry torches into
his temple by night, and place bowls of wine all over the city. At
Pellene there is also a temple of Apollo Theoxenius, the statue is of
bronze, and they hold games to Apollo called Theoxenia, and give
silver as a prize for victory, and the men of the district contend. And
near the temple of Apollo is one of Artemis, she is dressed as an
archer. And there is a conduit built in the market-place, their baths
have to be of rain-water for there are not many wells with water to
drink below the city, except at a place called Glyceæ. And there is an
old gymnasium chiefly given up to the youths to practise in, nor can
any be enrolled as citizens till they have arrived at man’s estate.
Here is the statue of Promachus of Pellene, the son of Dryon, who
won victories in the pancratium, one at Olympia, three at the
Isthmus, and two at Nemea, and the people of Pellene erected two
statues to him, one at Olympia, and one in the gymnasium, the latter
in stone and not in brass. And it is said that in the war between
Corinth and Pellene Promachus slew most of the enemy opposed to
him. It is said also that he beat at Olympia Polydamas of Scotussa,
who contended a second time at Olympia, after coming home safe
from the King of the Persians. But the Thessalians do not admit that
Polydamas was beaten, and they bring forward to maintain their view
the line about Polydamas,
“O Scotoessa, nurse of the invincible Polydamas.”
However the people of Pellene hold Promachus in the highest

honour. But Chæron, though he won two victories in wrestling, and 4
at Olympia, they do not even care to mention, I think because he
destroyed the constitution of Pellene, receiving a very large bribe
from Alexander the son of Philip to become the tyrant of his country.
At Pellene there is also a temple of Ilithyia, built in the smaller half of
the town. What is called Poseidon’s chapel was originally a parish
room, but is not used in our day, but it still continues to be held
sacred to Poseidon, and is under the gymnasium.
And about 60 stades from Pellene is Mysæum, the temple of Mysian
Demeter. It was built they say by Mysius an Argive, who also
received Demeter into his house according to the tradition of the
Argives. There is a grove at Mysæum of all kinds of trees, and plenty
of water springs up from some fountains. And they keep the feast
here to Demeter 7 days, and on the third day of the feast the men
withdraw from the temple, and the women perform there alone
during the night their wonted rites, and not only are the men
banished but even male dogs. And on the following day, when the
men return to the temple, the women and men mutually jest and
banter one another. And at no great distance from Mysæum is the
temple of Æsculapius called Cyros, where men are healed by the
god. Water too flows freely there, and by the largest of the fountains
is a statue of Æsculapius. And some rivers have their rise in the hills
above Pellene: one of them, called Crius from the Titan Crius, flows
in the direction of Ægira.... There is another river Crius which rises at
the mountain Sipylus and is a tributary of the Hermus. And on the
borders between Pellene and Sicyonia is the river Sythas, the last
river in Achaia, which has its outlet in the Sicyonian sea.
BOOK VIII.—ARCADIA.

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People Ops: Lessons in Culture and Leadership From

Inside Vanguard 1st Edition Charles D. Ellis

Public vs. private: the early history of school choice

Gary Ivory Michele Acker-Hocevar

ISBN 978-3-319-59119-3 ISBN 978-3-319-59120-9 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017946888

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover image © PhotoAlto/Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections/

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

1 The Journey Begins 1

2 Understanding Role-Making in Leadership Performance 9

3 Developing a Leadership Platform: Using and

4 The Ambiguity in Clarifying Expectations 47

5 Ethics: Acting Ethically to Promote Each Student’s

6 Principals Supporting English Learners in US Public Schools 93

7 Quandaries of Assessment and Accountability 105

8 Emotional Intelligence as a Means to Combat Funding Cuts:

9 Elementary School Principals Supporting the Professional

10 Shared Voice and Vision: Fostering Professional

11 Leadership and Resource Allocation in Schools: Applying

12 Leadership for Change 207

13 Leadership Development and the Study of Expertise 225

Michele A. Acker-Hocevar is Professor and Interim Vice Chancellor of

Betty Alford is a professor and co-doctoral program director of the Edu-

Donna Augustine-Shaw is an assistant professor in the Educational Lead-

Julia Ballenger is an associate professor in the Educational Leadership

Rene O. Guillaume is an assistant professor in the Department of Educa-

Robert F. Hachiya is an assistant professor in the Educational Leadership

Gary Ivory is one of the coinvestigators of the UCEA Voices 3 study,

Chad R. Lochmiller is an assistant professor in educational leadership and

John Mancinelli is the chief of staff for Washington State University

Gloria Jean Martinez is a principal in the San Antonio Independent

Rhonda McClellan is Professor and Director of Interdisciplinary PhD in

Teresa Northern Miller is an associate professor emeritus at Kansas State

Joyce A. Mundy is an assistant professor at Stetson University. She teaches

Colleen R. Pawlicki is a doctoral student in Education Policy Studies with

Mariela A. Rodríguez is an associate dean of the Graduate School at the

William Ruff is a Professor of Educational Leadership at Montana State

preparation and placement of over 100 American Indian educational leaders

Debra J. Touchton is a Professor and Program Director of Educational

Karina I. Vielma, Ed.D. is a Research Fellow at the University of Texas at

Teresa J. Wasonga is Presidential Engagement Professor of Education

Table 1.1 Principals’ demographics 3

The Journey Begins

Leadership development is a life-long journey. It is not an event; it is a

If management is a performing art, the consciousness of the management is

D.J. Touchton (*)

© The Author(s) 2018 1

1. Descriptions of quandaries faced by real school leaders in the twenty-

WHAT’S IN THIS BOOK FOR ME?

THE VOICES 3 RESEARCH PROJECT