DC APPLICATION

Implementation of Maximization of D.
C over Current and

over Voltage Protection in Solar Electric
TON, Emmanuel Nyam FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/229

DANIEL, Onweremadu N. FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/825
ISAAC, A. Sunday FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/838
BAKARE, Tawo Hassan FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/852
EMIOLA, Olutunbosun John FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/230
ASHIRU, Yusuf FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/789
OLAYIWOLA, Adebowale FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/801
SAMUEL, Mebu Mathias FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/813
IWUAMADI, Martins U. FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/826
ZAKARIA, Duniya FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/839
ENE, Ededet Okon FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/853
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARAWA
P.M.B 001 NASARAWA, NASARAWA STATE
MARCH, 2022
I
Implementation of Maximization of D.C over Current and
over Voltage Protection in Solar Electric
A TECHNICAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FOR THE AWARD OF
HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND)
IN
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
By
TON, Emmanuel Nyam FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/229
DANIEL, Onweremadu N. FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/825
ISAAC, A. Sunday FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/838
BAKARE, Tawo Hassan FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/852
EMIOLA, Olutunbosun John FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/230
ASHIRU, Yusuf FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/789
OLAYIWOLA, Adebowale FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/801
SAMUEL, Mebu Mathias FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/813
IWUAMADI, Martins U. FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/826
ZAKARIA, Duniya FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/839
ENE, Ededet Okon FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/853
MARCH, 2022
II
Declaration
We hereby declared this project is all our own work and has not been copied in part or
in whole from any other sources. All previous project work, publications, books,
journals, magazines, internet sources have been adequately referenced within the main
report.
Name: Signature: Date:
Project Supervisor: Signature: Date:
External Examiner: Signature: Date:
Engr. OBANDE Jonathan O.
Head of Department
Name: Engr. Y. S. Mohammed
Signature:
Date:
III
Letter of Transmittal
School of Engineering Technology
Department of Electrical/Electronic
Engineering Technology
Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa
P.M.B 001
Nasarawa state.
The Head of Department
Electrical/Electronic Technology
Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa
Nasarawa.
Dear Sir,
HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA PROJECT SUBMISSION
In compliance with the policy of the institution, which stipulates that every student at
the end of his//her programme in the school is expected to carry out a supervised
project on design and construction/implementation, we hereby submit our project
titled “Implementation of Maximization of D.C over Current and over Voltage
Protection in Solar Electric” in partial fulfilment for the award of Higher National
Diploma in Electrical/Electronic Engineering in the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa.
Yours faithfully
TON, Emmanuel Nyam

FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/229
(For the group)
IV
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge God for his mercy and provision, which bestowed them with
intelligence and provided them with the determination to put this project together up
to end.
V
Table of Contents
Item Page
Title Page………………………………………………………………………….. i
Declaration ……………………………………………………………………….. ii
Letter of Transmittal………………………………………………………………. iii
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………….. iv
Table of Content ………………………………………………………………….. v
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………. vi
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………... vii
Definition of Terms ………………………………………………………………. viii
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………… ix
Chapter 1 - Introduction..............................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the Study.................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement...........................................................................................2
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Project.........................................................................3
1.3.1 Aim...........................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Objectives.................................................................................................3
1.4 Justification of the Study.................................................................................3

1.5 Significant of the Study...................................................................................4
1.6 Scope and Limitation of project......................................................................4
1.7 Structure of the Project....................................................................................4
Chapter 2 - Literature Review....................................................................................6
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................6
2.1 System’s theory of Operation..........................................................................7
2.2 Historical Background of the Project..............................................................9
2.3 Modern trend and Remarks...........................................................................10
Chapter 3 - Methodology and Implementation.......................................................13
3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................13
3.2 Data Collection and Material.........................................................................13
3.3 Implementation Analysis...............................................................................14
3.3.1 Description of the System’s Block Diagram..........................................14
VI
3.3.2 Description of System Circuit Diagram.................................................15
3.4 System Coding (Optional).............................................................................17

3.5 Soldering and Assembly Procedure...............................................................18
3.6 System Operational Guide.............................................................................19
3.7 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation........................................19
Chapter 4 - Test and Result Analysis.......................................................................20
4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................20
4.2 Tests...............................................................................................................20
4.2.1 System’s subunits test and measurement...............................................20
4.3 Results...........................................................................................................21
4.3.1 Analysis of Result..................................................................................24
Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Recommendations......................................................25

5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................25
5.2 Summary and Conclusion..............................................................................25
5.2.1 Summary................................................................................................25
5.2.2 Conclusion..............................................................................................26
5.3 Recommendations.........................................................................................27
References…………………………………………………………………….…..28
Appendices………………………………………………….…………………….31
VII
List of Figures
Figure Page
Figure 3.1 Block diagram of Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC
Application 14
Figure 3.2 Circuit diagram of Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for
DC Application 15
Figure 3.3 Soldering Assembly procedure 19
Figure 4.1 The variations of solar panel operating point 21
Figure 4.2 Solar Panel maximum output 22
Figure 4.3 Solar output Techniques 23
VIII
List of Tables
Figure Page
Table 3.1 List of component used 14
Table 3.2 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation 19
IX
Definitions of Terms:
GSM -- Global System for Mobile Communication

CMOS-- Complementary Metal Oxide
DC -- Direct Current
DOF --- Degree Of Freedom
DSP-- Digital Signal Processor
Quantity Unit Symbol

Voltage Volt V
Current Ampere A
0
Temperature Degree Celsius C
X
Abstract
In applications with low-energy conversion efficiency, maximizing the output power

improves the efficiency. The maximum output power of a solar panel depends on the
environmental conditions and load profile. In this paper, a method based on
simultaneous use of two fuzzy controllers is developed in order to maximize the
generated output power of a solar panel in a photovoltaic system: fuzzy-based sun
tracking and maximum power point tracking. The sun tracking is performed by
changing the solar panel orientation in horizontal and vertical directions by two DC
motors properly designed. A DC-DC converter is employed to track the solar panel
maximum power point. In addition, the proposed system has the capability of the
extraction of solar panel curves. Experimental results present that the proposed fuzzy
techniques result in increasing of power delivery from the solar panel, causing a
reduction in size, weight, and cost of solar panels in photovoltaic systems.
XI
D.C Over current Solar Electric Introduction
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Direct Current (DC) Power refers to the unidirectional flow of electrons and is the
form of power that is most commonly produced by sources such as solar cells and
batteries. Power can be defined as the rate of energy consumed in a unit time. The unit
of measurement of power is Watt, after the famous eighteenth century scientist, James
Watt who invented the steam engine. In mechanical systems, power is known as
mechanical power and is a combination of forces and movement. In electrical
systems, electrical power is the rate of flow of electrical energy past a given point in a
closed circuit. For our applications we will only consider the electrical power [1].
Electrical power can be classified as AC Power or DC Power depending upon the
direction of the flow of energy. Here AC stands for Alternating Current and DC
stands for Direct Current. Power which is a result of current flowing in alternating
direction is termed as AC Power and one which is a result of current flowing in only
one direction is called DC Power. In DC (Direct current) circuits, the flow of
electrical charge (or in other words, electrons) is unidirectional and unlike AC
Current, it does not periodically reverse its direction. The typical waveform of
alternating current is a pure sine wave as shown in the figure below. The horizontal
axis measures time while the vertical, current or voltage. This form of power is most
commonly produced by sources such as solar cells, batteries, and thermocouples. DC
power is widely used in low voltage applications such as charging batteries,
automotive applications, aircraft applications and other low voltage, low current
applications. All solar panels nowadays produce DC power. Common applications
with DC power in the PV industry are portable solar systems and other off-grid
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appliances. Not using a solar inverter to convert DC to AC will keep the costs down
for such systems.
Nowadays for electric power distribution alternating current is mostly used, as it has
significant advantages over direct current in transmission and transforming. One of
the biggest advantages of DC power is its ability to be used in special applications.
Whenever AC power transmission is not practically feasible or possible over long
distances, DC power is used. One such application are sub-sea high voltage DC
transmission lines. Here, the electricity is produced in AC form, converted to DC at a
switching/ terminal station, transmitted by a subsea network of cables, re-converted to
AC by another terminal station and finally delivered to customers.
1.2 Problem Statement

Dedication of land for the installation of solar arrays must compete with other needs.
The amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants is about 1 km2 (250
acres) for every 40–60 MW generated. One alternative is to use the water-surface area
on canals, lakes, reservoirs, farm ponds and the sea for large solar-power plants. Due
to better cooling of the solar panels and the sun tracking system, the output of solar
panels is enhanced substantially. These water bodies can also provide water to clean
the solar panels. Floating solar plants installation cost has reduced steeply by 2018. In
January 2019, Indian Railways announced the plan to install 4 GW capacities along
its tracks. Highways and railways may also avoid the cost of land nearer to load
centres, minimising transmission-line costs by having solar plants about 10 meters
above the roads or rail tracks.[6] Solar power generated by road areas may also be
used for in-motion charging of electric vehicles, reducing fuel costs. Highways would
avoid damage from rain and summer heat, increasing comfort for commuters.
March 2022 229, 230, 789, 801, 813, 825, 826, 838, 839, 852, 853 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Project
1.3.1 Aim
This project work is aimed at Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC
Application
1.3.2 Objectives
- To research about the Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC Applica-
tion.
- To research about design method of renewable electrical energy generation
and come out with a workable, implementable, and cost effective circuit based
- To develop an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for the intending
Microcontroller Unit and develop firmware based on the Microcontroller unit
selected
- Interface Charge controller, Battery and Inverter together.
- To implement hardware (solder the components together) for the project.
1.4 Justification of the Study

During the daytime, the additional auxiliary power consumption of a solar thermal
storage power plant is nearly 10% of its rated capacity for the process of extracting
solar energy in the form of thermal energy. [4] This auxiliary power requirement can
be made available from cheaper solar PV plant by envisaging hybrid solar plant with a
mix of solar thermal and solar PV plants at a site. Also to optimise the cost of power,
generation can be from the cheaper solar PV plant (33% generation) during the day-
light whereas the rest of the time in a day is from the solar thermal storage plant (67%
generation from Solar power tower and parabolic trough types) for meeting 24 hours
base load power. When solar thermal storage plant is forced to idle due to lack of sun-
light locally during cloudy days in monsoon season, it is also possible to consume
March 2022 229, 230, 789, 801, 813, 825, 826, 838, 839, 852, 853 3
(similar to a lesser efficient, huge capacity and low cost battery storage system) the
cheap excess grid power when the grid frequency is above 50 hz for heating the hot
molten salt to higher temperature for converting stored thermal energy in to electricity
during the peak demand hours when the electricity sale price is profitable.
1.5 Significant of the Study

The lack of an electricity infrastructure is a hurdle to rural India's development. India's
power grid is under-developed, with large groups of people still living off the grid. In
2004, about 80,000 of the nation's villages still did not have electricity, 18,000 out of
them could not be electrified by extending the conventional grid due to inconvenience.
A target of electrifying 5,000 such villages was set for the 2002–2007 Five-Year Plan.
By 2004 more than 2,700 villages and hamlets were electrified, primarily with solar
photovoltaic systems. [14] The development of inexpensive solar technology is
considered a potential alternative, providing an electricity infrastructure consisting of
a network of local-grid clusters with distributed electricity generation. It could bypass
(or relieve) expensive, long-distance, centralized power-delivery systems, bringing
inexpensive electricity to large groups of people. [5] In Rajasthan during Financial
Year 2016–17, 91 villages have been electrified with a solar standalone system and
over 6,200 households have received a 100W solar home-lighting system. be exported
to the grid depending upon solar power generation and local consumption.
1.6 Scope and Limitation of project

This project is aimed at Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC Application
that is, home appliances. The limitation to this project work is that it can only power it
only deals with DC applications.
1.7 Structure of the Project

- This section will discuss the layout of the report; the chapters are;
March 2022 229, 230, 789, 801, 813, 825, 826, 838, 839, 852, 853 4
- Chapter 2 will look at literature on Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for
DC Application
- Chapter 3 this involve adopting engineering methodology, then implement
the methodology
- Chapter 4 this section will discuss test result, all measurement and analysis to
be carried out.
- Chapter 5 will state the conclusion, project appraisal, and recommendation.
March 2022 229, 230, 789, 801, 813, 825, 826, 838, 839, 852, 853 5
D.C Over current Solar Electric Literature Review
Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
Solar PV rooftop system is basically a small power plant at your rooftop. The Grid
Interactive Roof Top Solar Photo Voltaic (PV) mainly consists of three major
components. These are the solar PV modules, mounting structure for the modules and
the inverter or power conditioning units. Solar PV modules form an array and it
requires a mounting structure to hold PV modules at the required angle for maximized
generation. The solar panels convert solar energy in the form of light into electricity in
DC form (Direct Current). The DC electrical energy is converted to AC (Alternate
Current) power by the inverter/power conditioning unit which is connected to the
power grid through AC distribution board. The AC power output can be measured
through metering panel connected to it. The 415 V AC output of the system can be
synchronized with the grid and the electricity can be exported to the grid depending
upon solar power generation and local consumption.
Electrical inverters convert direct current generated from solar PV modules to
alternating current. Therefore, solar modules need to be connected to inverters.
Nowadays we have smart Grid-interactive inverters. These inverters can produce AC
power that matches voltage and frequency of the grid and the power line it connects
to. There is another requirement of adding an isolation transformer. For safety
purposes, isolation transformer is used to transfer electrical power from inverter to the
connected load while isolating the load from the power source. In addition, the
injection of DC power into the grid can be avoided by using an isolation transformer
at the output of the inverter. Power generated from the rooftop solar system during the
daytime can be utilized fully by powering the building loads and feeding excess power
to the grid as long as grid is available. Whenever, solar power is not available due to
March 2022 Group F 6

shadow or a cloudy day, the building loads can be served by drawing power from the
grid or DG sets. Smart inverters automatically understand the power situation and
always give preference to power generated from solar modules.
Metering
If the project location has feed-in-tariff applicable, the separate feed-in-meter (export
meter) is suitable. Feeding-tariff meter records gross generation from the rooftop solar
system. However, conventional energy meter (Import meter) record electricity
consumption of the building. Currently, the state of Gujarat have feeding-tariff
scheme and hence feed-in-tariff meters are applicable in Gujarat. However, where
feed-in-tariff provision is not applicable, project developer can have net metering
system (bi-directional meter).
2.1 System’s theory of Operation

Solar power, generated mainly during the daytime in the non-monsoon period,
complements wind which generate power during the monsoon months in Nigeria. [2]
Solar panels can be located in the space between the towers of wind-power plants. [3]
It also complements hydroelectricity, generated primarily during India's monsoon
months. Solar-power plants can be installed near existing hydropower and pumped-
storage hydroelectricity, utilizing the existing power transmission infrastructure and
storing the surplus secondary power generated by the solar PV plants. Floating solar
plants on the reservoirs of pumped-storage hydroelectric plants are complementary to
each other. [4] Solar PV plants clubbed with pumped-storage hydroelectric plants are
also under construction to supply peaking power
It is more economical to have multipurpose floating solar PV power plants compared
to single purpose floating solar plants. Three tier boat houses are constructed on
pontoons with top tier (inclined roof up to 35 degrees) fully covered by solar panels (1
MW/acre area), bottom area (below the pontoon) for cage fish culture and middle two

tiers one each for poultry and mushroom/orchid cultivation. Pontoon can have tilting
arrangement (another 35 degrees) to have inclined floating by varying water content
in the ballast tanks to track the sun direction for optimum solar power generation.
Water is oxygenated in a evaporative cooler and used in the cage cultivation with the
power generated by the solar panels. The cold air at wet-bulb temperature from the
evaporative cooler is used for cooling the poultry and mushroom areas. These boat
houses can move to safer water depth with the variation in water level of the water
body. The excess power generated during the daytime is stored in a battery system
mounted on a separate pontoon which can be moved to shore for feeding power to the
grid during night time. Multipurpose solar plants can be installed at deeper (10 meters
and more) water area unlike single purpose floating solar PV plants. With
multipurpose PV solar plants, the floating solar power potential of India enhances
many times by utilising much of the inland water bodies area. Water is sprinkled over
the solar panels to keep them cool and clean to optimize the power output. Rainwater
harvesting can also be achieved by storing the water in collapsible bladders which can
float on water for generating bottled drinking water.
Greenpeace recommends that India adopt a policy of developing solar power as a
dominant component of its renewable-energy mix since, being a densely-populated
countryin the tropical belt, the subcontinent has an ideal combination of high
insolation and a large potential consumer base. In one scenario India could make
renewable resources the backbone of its economy by 2030, curtailing carbon
emissions without compromising its economic-growth potential. A study suggested
that 100 GW of solar power could be generated through a mix of utility-scale and
rooftop solar, with the realizable potential for rooftop solar between 57 and 76 GW by
2024.

It is considered prudent to encourage solar-plant installations up to a threshold (such
as 7,000 MW) by offering incentives. Otherwise, substandard equipment with
overrated nameplate capacity may tarnish the industry. The purchaser, transmission
agency and financial institution should require capacity utilisation and long-term
performance guarantees for the equipment backed by insurance coverage in the event
that the original equipment manufacturer ceases to exist. Alarmed by the low quality
of equipment, India issued draft quality guide lines in May 2017 to be followed by the
solar plant equipment suppliers conforming to Indian standards..
2.2 Historical Background of the Project

Thin-film solar cell panels offer better performance than crystalline silica solar panels
in tropical hot and dusty places like India; there is less deterioration in conversion
efficiency with increased ambient temperature, and no partial shading effect. These
factors enhance the performance and reliability (fire safety) of thin-film panels.. Solar
string inverter and other BOS components in Vermont, U.S .Solar array on rooftop in
Solar rooftop system in Boston, United States West mill solar park in the United
Kingdom. Dual axis tracker with CPV modules in Golmud, China Topaz Solar Farm,
one of the world's largest PV power station, as seen from space
Large commercial flattop system Solar farm at Mt. Komekura, Japan PV system on
Top: solar string inverter and other BOS components · Solar array on rooftop in Hong
Kong, Middle: rooftop system in Boston, United States · West mill solar park in the
United Kingdom · Dual axis tracker with CPV modules · Topaz, one of the world's
largest solar power station, as seen from space
Bottom: commercial rooftop PV system of about 400 kWp · Power plant on Mt.
Komekura, Japan · Solar PV system on Zugspitze, Germany's highest mountain-top.
PV systems convert light directly into electricity; they are not to be confused with
other solar technologies, such as concentrated solar power or solar thermal, used for
heating and cooling. A solar array only encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the
visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often
summarized as balance of system (BOS). PV systems range from small, rooftop-
mounted or building-integrated systems with capacities from a few to several tens of
kilowatts, to large utility-scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays,
most PV systems are grid-connected, while off-grid or stand-alone systems account
for a small portion of the market. Operating silently and without any moving parts or
environmental emissions, PV systems have developed from being niche market
applications into a mature technology used for mainstream electricity generation. A
rooftop system recoups the invested energy for its manufacturing and installation
within 0.7 to 2 years and produces about 95 percent of net clean renewable energy
over a 30-year service lifetime. [1]: 30 [2][3] Due to the growth of photovoltaic, prices
for PV systems have rapidly declined since their introduction. However, they vary by
market and the size of the system. In 2014, prices for residential 5-kilowatt systems in
the United States were around $3.29 per watt,[4] while in the highly penetrated
German market, prices for rooftop systems of up to 100 kW declined to €1.24 per
watt.[5] Nowadays, solar PV modules account for less than half of the system's
overall cost,[6] leaving the rest to the remaining BOS-components and to soft costs,
which include customer acquisition, permitting, inspection and interconnection,
installation labour and financing costs.[7]: 14
2.3 Modern trend and Remarks

About 99 percent of all European and 90 percent of all U.S. solar power systems are
connected to the electrical grid, while off-grid systems are somewhat more common
in Australia and South Korea. [8]: 14 PV systems rarely use battery storage. This may
change, as government incentives for distributed energy storage are implemented and
investments in storage solutions gradually become economically viable for small

systems.[9][10] A typical residential solar array is rack-mounted on the roof, rather
than integrated into the roof or facade of the building, which is significantly more
expensive. Utility-scale solar power stations are ground-mounted, with fixed tilted
solar panels rather than using expensive tracking devices. Crystalline silicon is the
predominant material used in 90 percent of worldwide produced solar modules, while
its rival thin-film has lost market-share.[1]: 17–20 About 70 percent of all solar cells
and modules are produced in China and Taiwan, only 5 percent by European and US-
manufacturers.[1]: 11–12 The installed capacity for both small rooftop systems and
large solar power stations is growing rapidly and in equal parts, although there is a
notable trend towards utility-scale systems, as the focus on new installations is
shifting away from Europe to sunnier regions, such as the Sunbelt in the U.S., which
are less opposed to ground-mounted solar farms and cost-effectiveness is more
emphasized by investors.[8]: 43
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and
sophistication, the cost of photovoltaic is declining continuously.[3] There are several
million PV systems distributed all over the world, mostly in Europe, with 1.4 million
systems in Germany alone[1]: 5 – as well as North America with 440,000 systems in
the United States.[11] The energy conversion efficiency of a conventional solar
module increased from 15 to 20 percent since 2004[1]: 17 and a PV system recoups
the energy needed for its manufacture in about 2 years. In exceptionally irradiated
locations, or when thin-film technology is used, the so-called energy payback time
decreases to one year or less.[1]: 30–33 Net metering and financial incentives, such as
preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have also greatly supported
installations of PV systems in many countries.[12] The levelised cost of electricity
from large-scale PV systems has become competitive with conventional electricity

sources in an expanding list of geographic regions, and grid parity has been achieved
in about 30 countries.[13][14][15].
A photovoltaic system converts the Sun's radiation, in the form of light, into usable
electricity. It comprises the solar array and the balance of system components. PV
systems can be categorized by various aspects, such as, grid-connected vs. stand alone
systems, building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs. utility systems,
distributed vs. centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted systems, tracking vs.
fixed-tilt systems, and new constructed vs. retrofitted systems. Other distinctions may
include systems with micro inverters vs. central inverter, systems using crystalline
silicon vs. thin-film technology, and systems with modules.

D.C Over current Solar Electric Methodology and Implementation
Chapter 3 - Methodology and Implementation

3.1 Introduction
Nowadays, photovoltaic systems are rapidly expanding and have an increasing role in
power-generation technology. Despite the fact that solar panels have high fabrication
cost and low efficiency of energy conversion, they are power sources in photovoltaic
systems. The reason is that they provide more secure power sources and pollution-free
electric supplies. They generally have nonlinear curves with solar irradiance and
temperature dependency. Their maximum power point changes nonlinearly with
environmental conditions (solar irradiance, temperature, and degradation level) and
load profile. Since the photovoltaic electricity is expensive compared to the electricity
from conventional sources, use of all reachable solar panels output power is of
interest. Therefore, photovoltaic systems should be designed to operate at their
maximum output power in any environmental conditions.
3.2 Data Collection and Material

At the cause of this project work research were made by looking into some industries
and observing the challenges the face with three phase equipment due to incompetent
supply from the power supply authority. The data are collected via primary and
secondary source.
Primary data: Materials (Text books, Journal, Internet etc.), skills learned in class.
Secondary data: Programming skills from expert, project consultation from library,
YouTube, Google search.

3.3 Implementation Analysis
3.3.1 Description of the System’s Block Diagram
Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC Application
A block diagram of the proposed system is shown in Figure 2. The system is com-
posed of a microcontroller board (connected to PC), a flyback DC-DC converter, mo-
tors driver board, and other supplementary circuits. Tracking the sun is performed by
changing the solar panel orientation in horizontal and vertical directions through the
control of two DC motors. A portable pyraometer and thermometer are used for on-
line measurement of the environmental conditions: solar irradiance and temperature.
The flyback DC-DC converter is used to track the solar panel maximum power point.
The converter duty cycle is adjusted in a manner that the maximum solar panel output
power is extracted based on load profile in each environmental condition.The system
is able to measure, control, and monitor all parameters, which are needed to imple-
ment the mentioned fuzzy-based algorithms.

3.3.2 Description of System Circuit Diagram
Table 3.1 List of components used
S/N COMPONENTS QUANTITY
1 DC Rechargeable 12V Battery 4
2 Solar Panel 3
3 Charge controller 1
4 DC to DC Converter 1
Figure 3.2 Circuit Diagram of Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC Application
Flyback Topology
A switching converter is required to maintain a solar cell’s operating point in its maxi-
mum power point. In this research, a flyback converter is utilized to fulfill the task.
The advantage of using this kind of converter is the isolation of its input and output.
In addition, fundamental criteria of choosing suitable topology for the required DC-
DC converter in the mentioned application are(i)the range of input and output voltage

which requires a boost converter (why buck topology is not chosen),(ii)ability of con-
trolling output power (why boost topology cannot be chosen is the existence of a di-
rect path between its input and output),(iii)simplicity and no complexity (why push-
pull topology is not chosen).
A flyback converter can modify the input current of the solar panel by changing the
pulse width (duty cycle), while in boost converter, input current cannot be less than a
specific value. Even when the switch is completely open, a current path exists from its
input to output. Furthermore, commands and PWM pulses needed to control the DC
motors are provided by the microcontroller to track the sun.
Fuzzy-Based Sun Tracking
As it was mentioned, several sun-tracking systems have been proposed and imple-
mented [14–16]. Some of them are based on using the data of whole one-year sun tra-
jectory. Some others generally use a sun-sensor to track the sun. Tracking the sun can
be fulfilled by evaluation of open circuit voltage, short circuit current, solar irradi-
ance, instant output power, or maximum output power of a solar panel. In this re-
search, two similar fuzzy controllers are separately used to track the sun in horizontal
and vertical directions. Two DC motors control the orientation of the solar panel
through the designed motors driver board.
If the solar radiation level on the solar cells is similar, then the value of and will be
zero. It means that the sun radiates on the solar panel vertically as is desired. Figure
11 shows membership functions of fuzzy-based sun tracker subsets. Table 3 shows
seven fuzzy rules used in the two controllers [14].
The Curve Extractor
Solar panel curves have an important role in design of photovoltaic systems. To verify
the fuzzy-based maximum power point tracking, solar panel curves are needed. In or-

der to attain a solar panel curve, it is sufficient to change the panel current between
zero (open-circuit) and its maximum value (short-circuit) continuously or step by step.
Then the characteristic curves can be obtained by measuring the corresponding volt-
ages and currents. Hence, a variable load is required across the panel output ports.
Since the solar panel curves are nonlinear, the load variation profile has a significant
impact on the precision of the extracted curves, that is, if the load resistance varies lin-
early, the measured points will have higher density near the ends (Isc or Voc) than the
other parts of the curves. This no uniformity of the extracted curves points decreases
the accuracy of the maximum power point tracking algorithm so an electronic load
with nonlinear profile must be selected.
Electronic Load with Nonlinear Profile
The drain-source resistance of a MOSFET is used as a variable load, controlled by its
gate-source voltage [17]. The drain-source resistance of a MOSFET has an inverse re-
lation with the gate-source voltage of the MOSFET. This electronic resistance is very
suitable to scan the characteristic of a solar panel uniformly. A typical extracted and
curves obtained by the mentioned electronic load in the following conditions: solar ir-
radiance = 500 W/m2 and temperature = 34.5°C. As it can be observed, the measured
points have a uniform distribution through the entire curve.
3.4 System Coding (Optional)

The circuit validation and functionality of the circuit implementation was done via the
following setup.
- Software simulation
- Hardware simulation (bread boarding).
- Software/Hardware simulation
- Hardware implementation
- System Evaluation
The software used for the simulation of this project work is Proteus, the software was
setup using Arduino Uno IDE.
3.5 Soldering and Assembly Procedure

The first thing that was considered during the planning of the layout design of the
project was to ensure that the project is as portable as possible. Before the beginning
of the layout design of all the required components to be used were purchased in order
to make adequate assessment of space to be used. Other considerations were made
including case to case of mounted component or assess part before the design layout
of the project. It is necessary for some of the component to be arranged in different
angular position so as to ensure effectiveness. All common earth and common
live/positive terminal where lay to a closely locate position in order to enable easy
access to the board. This is very important especially when conducting testing
operating on the board.
The various components were arranged on the board based on the design layout.
Having carried out the layout and determined the way in which the various
components are placed on the board. Then the components were carefully place on the
board according to the design. The assembly and placement of component was
achieved by gradually placing the component according to the circuit diagram.
Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections, the
assembling into the casing followed. The sections were properly laid out and
assembled.

Figure 3.3 Soldering and Assembly Procedures
3.6 System Operational Guide

For effective operation of the device the following precautions must be considered.
1. Make sure the battery distilled water is ok and in good condition.
2. Make sure all connections are properly done
3. Turn ON the system for use.
3.7 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

Table 3.2 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation
S/N Description Quantity Rate Amount
N/Unit (N)
1 Solar Panel 26V (4) 7000 28000
2 Charge controller 1 15000 15000
3 DC-DC Converter 60W 27000 30000
4 Battery 12V(4) 6000 18,000
Grand Total 88,000

D.C Over current Solar Electric Test/Measurement/Analysis
Chapter 4 - Test and Result Analysis

4.1 Introduction
This chapter analyses the construction of the project based on tests carried out to
ensure proper operation of the design, the results from the tests and discussions of
liable problems that occurred during the construction were discussed.
4.2 Tests
The project was tested in various phases and these tests were carried out to ensure
proper operation of the constructed work. The Testing conducted for this project
includes:
 Power supply test
 Software simulation test
4.2.1 System’s subunits test and measurement

POWER SUPPLY TEST
The purpose of the power supply test was to ensure that the various voltage levels
required at various points in the circuit were readily available. The supply voltages
required for the project include the 5V which is supplied to the microcontroller. The
other supply voltages include the 12VDC source that serve as input and the 220VAC
output used to power the connected load. The power supply test was conducted by
placing the multi-meter test leads at various testing points and the range switch
positioned at the correct voltmeter range. The power supply was also analysed with an
oscilloscope.
SOFTWARE SIMULATION TEST
The software simulation test involves designing the circuit of the project on a
computer Sand conducting simulations of the designed circuit. The simulation was
carried out to observe how the circuit operation will look like in reality using a given

software program. The software used for the simulation test of the project is the
Proteus 7.4 which allows both the simulation of the software code on the
microcontroller chip.
4.3 Results
Based on the established setup, different tests were executed. First, only the fuzzy-
based MPPT was applied to the system for 100 minutes. Solar panel curves were re-
quired to perform this test shows the movement of the solar panel operating point in a
curve towards its maximum level using the fuzzy maximum power point tracking.
Figure 4.1: The Variations of solar panel operating point.
The test was performed in the following conditions: temperature = 36.8°C and solar
Irradiance = 830 W/m2. It is observed that the fuzzy-based maximum power point
tracking algorithm reached its maximum level after 0.57 seconds, which is a reason-
able rate. Curves were obtained in different environmental conditions. Solar irradi-
ance, temperature, and maximum output power are extracted for each curve. Figure
4.1 shows both extracted maximum power points from the curves (continues graph)
and measured data (single points).

Figure 4.2: Solar panel maximum output power.
It is observed that the fuzzy-based controller has tracked the maximum power point
during the test period. The decreasing trend of the figure at the end of the test period
is because of the sun movement. To overcome the defect, the adjustment of the solar
panel orientation should be added to the system. The second test was applying only
the fuzzy-based sun tracking to the system for 100 minutes. Figure 4.2 shows the
panel output power. Figures 4.3 also show variations of solar irradiance and tempera-
ture during this test. The algorithm was tested in the condition that the angle between
solar panel and sun radiation was 80°. A pyranometer and a digital thermometer with
20 seconds intervals measured solar irradiance and panel temperature online. As it can
be observed from Figure 4.2, the output power remained almost constant in spite of
the sun movement during the test. The cause of the small fluctuation in output power
was the variations of temperature and solar irradiance as shown in Figures 4.3 Since
in this test maximum power point tracking was not applied, the maximum extractable
output power has not yet achieved. Based on the results of the two mentioned tests, it

is expected that the combination of the two methods causes more power delivery as is
explained in below.
Figure 4.3 Solar output techniques
Figures 4.3 show the results of the mixture of the two mentioned techniques. The so-
lar panel output power. Red points show the solar panel maximum power points ex-
tracted from the curves whereas the black points show the measured solar panel out-
put power. It is observed that the mixture of the two mentioned algorithms leads to the
maximum power delivery to the load in any environmental conditions. It should be
mentioned that to have a reasonable comparison between utilized techniques, mea-
surements should be performed in equal environmental conditions. Therefore, the
menstruations were carried out several times in different days to obtain the mentioned
purpose.
4.3.1 Analysis of Result
A similar experiment was performed to show the speed of sun-tracking. In the experi-
ment, sun tracking algorithm for 5 min and maximum power point tracking algorithm

for 10 min was successively executed the results of the experiment. In this experiment
in min, the panel was turned 45° around its vertical axis by hand. As it is seen in the
figure in mind when the sun tracking algorithm was again activated, the panel re-
turned to its best position that is perpendicular to the sun direction. It can be also seen
that by using maximum power point tracking algorithm, delivered power became 32
W from its initial value.

D.C Over current Solar Electric Conclusion and Recommendation
Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Introduction
A small PV system is capable of providing enough AC electricity to power a single
home, or an isolated device in the form of AC or DC electric. Military and civilian
Earth observation satellites, street lights, construction and traffic signs, electric cars,
solar-powered tents, [22] and electric aircraft may contain integrated photovoltaic
systems to provide a primary or auxiliary power source in the form of AC or DC
power, depending on the design and power demands. In 2013, rooftop systems
accounted for 60 percent of worldwide installations. However, there is a trend away
from rooftop and towards utility-scale PV systems, as the focus of new PV
installations is also shifting from Europe to countries in the sunbelt region of the
planet where opposition to ground-mounted solar farms is less accentuated. [8]: 43
Portable and mobile PV systems provide electrical power independent of utility
connections, for "off the grid" operation. Such systems are so commonly used on
recreational vehicles and boats that there are retailers specializing in these
applications [23] and products specifically targeted to them. [24][25] Since
recreational vehicles (RV) normally carry batteries and operate lighting and other
systems on nominally 12-volt DC power, RV systems normally operate in a voltage
range that can charge 12-volt batteries directly, so addition of a PV system requires
only panels, a charge controller, and wiring. Solar systems on recreation vehicles are
usually constrained in wattage by the physical size of the RV's roof space. [26].
5.2 Summary and Conclusion
5.2.1 Summary
In view of the aims and objective of this project work which is under-listed below I
was able to denote that the aimed of this work is achieved, without any shortcoming.

- To research about the Maximization of Solar Electric Energy for DC Applica-
tion.
- To research about design method of renewable electrical energy generation
and come out with a workable, implementable, and cost effective circuit based
- To develop an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for the intending
Microcontroller Unit and develop firmware based on the Microcontroller unit
selected
- Interface Charge controller, Battery and Inverter together.
- To implement hardware (solder the components together) for the project.
Problems encountered
The problems encounter at the cost of this project work are listed below
i. Mechanical problem: we found it difficult to install all the external components. But
after the effort was made, our aim was later achieved.
ii. There was a challenge working with the software used for the design which is proteus
and also with the programming software used because of our limited knowledge
working with this software nevertheless with the help of a senior friend in the field
our design was achieved.
Accessing the components for the construction was also a challenge due to the
unavailability around the market therefore we had to travel out of town to obtain these
components.
Areas of Application
This device is implemented to be used for domestic purpose, that is domestic
appliances.
5.2.2 Conclusion
Three methods to maximize the output power of a solar panel were employed in this
research. Fuzzy-based maximum power point tracking was the first technique. It is

observed that by use of the technique, 23 W was approximately obtained during the
measurement time, which is about 51 percents of the nominal output power. In the
second method, fuzzy-based sun tracking was applied and it is observed that 11 W
was approximately attained during the measurement period, which is about 24.5
percent of the nominal output power. The result is expected because sun tracking was
only employed without maximum power point tracking and so a small amount of the
nominal power was obtained from the solar panel. Finally, the combination of fuzzy-
based maximum power point tracking and fuzzy-based sun tracking was used to
maximize the output power. It can be seen that by stimulus use of those techniques,
the output power can reached the amount of 35 W, which is about 78 percents of the
nominal output power. The panel was not in its nominal conditions, it is the reason
why it could not reach its nominal output power. It was shown that the mixture of the
two techniques yields the maximum output power delivery. This achievement can also
lead to a reduction of the size, weight, and cost of solar panels in photovoltaic
systems.
5.3 Recommendations
For anyone who might want to improve on this project work I hereby recommend that
more panel and batteries should be incorporated to the device for effective supply and
long lasting energy capacity.

References
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APENDIX A
Attach pictures of source code of your project here

APPENDIX B
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DC APPLICATION

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Implementation of Maximization of D.

C over Current and

TON, Emmanuel Nyam FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/229

A TECHNICAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO

Name: Signature: Date:

Project Supervisor: Signature: Date:

External Examiner: Signature: Date:

Engr. OBANDE Jonathan O.

Name: Engr. Y. S. Mohammed

School of Engineering Technology

Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa

The Head of Department

Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa

HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA PROJECT SUBMISSION

project on design and construction/implementation, we hereby submit our project

titled “Implementation of Maximization of D.C over Current and over Voltage

Diploma in Electrical/Electronic Engineering in the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa.

TON, Emmanuel Nyam

1.4 Justification of the Study.................................................................................3

3.4 System Coding (Optional).............................................................................17

Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Recommendations......................................................25

GSM -- Global System for Mobile Communication

Quantity Unit Symbol

In applications with low-energy conversion efficiency, maximizing the output power

mechanical power and is a combination of forces and movement. In electrical

Electrical power can be classified as AC Power or DC Power depending upon the

one direction is called DC Power. In DC (Direct current) circuits, the flow of

electrical charge (or in other words, electrons) is unidirectional and unlike AC

commonly produced by sources such as solar cells, batteries, and thermocouples. DC

power is widely used in low voltage applications such as charging batteries,

applications. All solar panels nowadays produce DC power. Common applications

for such systems.

significant advantages over direct current in transmission and transforming. One of

the biggest advantages of DC power is its ability to be used in special applications.

Whenever AC power transmission is not practically feasible or possible over long

transmission lines. Here, the electricity is produced in AC form, converted to DC at a

switching/ terminal station, transmitted by a subsea network of cables, re-converted to

AC by another terminal station and finally delivered to customers.

1.2 Problem Statement

centres, minimising transmission-line costs by having solar plants about 10 meters

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Project

- To research about design method of renewable electrical energy generation

- To develop an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for the intending

Microcontroller Unit and develop firmware based on the Microcontroller unit

- Interface Charge controller, Battery and Inverter together.

- To implement hardware (solder the components together) for the project.

1.4 Justification of the Study

1.5 Significant of the Study

photovoltaic systems. [14] The development of inexpensive solar technology is

considered a potential alternative, providing an electricity infrastructure consisting of

a network of local-grid clusters with distributed electricity generation. It could bypass

(or relieve) expensive, long-distance, centralized power-delivery systems, bringing

inexpensive electricity to large groups of people. [5] In Rajasthan during Financial

1.6 Scope and Limitation of project

only deals with DC applications.

1.7 Structure of the Project

- Chapter 3 this involve adopting engineering methodology, then implement

- Chapter 5 will state the conclusion, project appraisal, and recommendation.

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

DC form (Direct Current). The DC electrical energy is converted to AC (Alternate

Current) power by the inverter/power conditioning unit which is connected to the

upon solar power generation and local consumption.

Electrical inverters convert direct current generated from solar PV modules to

alternating current. Therefore, solar modules need to be connected to inverters.