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ROADS
to
GEOMETRY
Third Edition
Edward C. Wallace
Stephen F. West
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
1 Rules of the Road: Axiomatic Systems 1

1.1 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . 1
Thales of Miletus (ca. 640-ca. 546 B.C.) 2
Pythagoras (ca. 560-ca. 480 B.C.) . . . . 2
Hippocrates of Chios (ca. 46O-ca. 380 B.C.) 3
Plato (ca. 427-<:a. 348 B.C.) . . . 3
Eudoxus (ca. 400-<:a. 347 B.C.) 4
Euclid (ca. 330-ca. 270 B.C.) . . 4
Exercises 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Axiomatic Systems and Their Properties. 8
The Axiomatic Method. . . . . . 8
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Properties of Axiomatic Systems. 15
Exercises 1.2 . . . . . 17
1.3 Finite Geometries. . . . . . . . . 19
Four-Point Geometry . . . . . . . 19
The Geometries of Fano and Young 2]
Exercises 1.3 . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4 Axioms for Incidence Geometry 28
Exercises 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . 3]
2 Many Ways to Go: Axiom Sets for Geometry 35

2.1 Introduction................ 35
2.2 Euclid's Geometry and Euclid's Elements 36
Exercises 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3 Modern Euclidean Geometries . . . . . . 48
Exercises 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Hilbert's Axioms for Euclidean Geometry . 51
Exercises 2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.5 Birkhoff's Axioms for Euclidean Geometry 61

Exercises 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 The SMSG Postulates for Euclidean Geometry 65
Exercises 2.6 . . . . . . 71
2.7 Non-Euclidean Geometries. 72
Exercises 2.7 . . . . . . . . 80
3 Traveling Together: Neutral Geometry 82

3.1 Introduction . . . . . 82
3.2 Preliminary Notions .. 83
Exercises 3.2 . . . . . . 88
3.3 Congruence Conditions. 89
Exercises 3.3 . . . . . 94
3.4 The Place of Parallels .. 94
Exercises 3.4 . . . . . . 10]
3.5 The Saccheri-Legendre Theorem 102
Exercises 3.5 . . . . . . . . 106
3.6 The Search for a Rectangle. 106
Exercises 3.6 . . . . 115
3.7 Chapter 3 Summary . . . . 119
4 One Way to Go: Euclidean Geometry of the Plane. 124

4.1 Introduction... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.2 The Parallel Postulate and Some Implications 125
Exercises 4.2 . . . . . 135
4.3 Congruence and Area. 137
Exercises 4.3 140
4.4 Similarity....... 143
Exercises 4.4 . . . . . 152
4.5 Some Euclidean Results Concerning Circles. 156
Exercises 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.6 Some Euclidean Results Concerning Triangles 180
Exercises 4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.7 More Euclidean Results Concerning Triangles 190
Exercises 4.7 . . . . . 197
4.8 The Nine-Point Circle 200
Exercises 4.8 . . . . . . 204
4.9 Euclidean Constructions .206
Exercises 4.9 . . . . . . . 218
4.10 Laboratory Activities Using Dynamic Geometry Software . 223
4.11 Chapter 4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
CONTENTS ix
5 Side Trips: Analytical and Transformational Geometry 241

5.1 Introduction...... . 241
5.2 Analytical Geometry . . . . . . 242
Historical Perspectives . . . . . 242
Coordinatization of the Plane . 243
Distance in the Plane . . . . . . 244
Analytical Equations of Straight Lines and Circles . 247
Applications of Analytical Geometry . 251
Exercises 5.2 . . . . . . . . . 256
5.3 Transformational Geometry . . . 259
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Mappings and Transformations . 259
Isometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Applications of Isometries to Theorem Proving . 270
Similarities and Their Applications to Theorem Proving . 275
Exercises 5.3 . . . . . . . . . 282
5.4 Analytical Transformations. . . . . . 292
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Analytical Equations for Isometries . 292
Analytical Equations for Similarities. . 298
Applications of Isometries and Similarities Using Analytical
Transformations . 301
Exercises 5.4 . 304
5.5 Inversion . . . . . . . 307
Introduction. . . . . . 307
Inversion in a Circle . 308
Exercises 5.5 . . . . . 316
5.6 Chapter 5 Summary . 317
6 Other Ways to Go: Non~Euclidean Geometries . . 323

6.1 Introduction...................... . 323
6.2 A Return to Neutral Geometry: The Angle of Parallelism. . 324
Exercises 6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
6.3 The Hyperbolic Parallel Postulate . . . . . 332
Exercises 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.4 Hyperbolic Results Concerning Polygons . 343
Exercises 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . 359
6.5 Area in Hyperbolic Geometry . . . . . . . 361
Exercises 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
6.6 Showing Consistency: A Model for Hyperbolic Geometry . 367
Exercises 6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . 390
X CONTENTS
6.7 Classifying Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Exercises 6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
6.8 Elliptic Geometry: A Geometry with No Parallels? . 404
Exercises 6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
6.9 Geometry in the Real World . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
6.10 Laboratory Activities Using Dynamic Geometry Software . 416
6.11 Chapter 6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
7 All Roads Lead to ... : Projective Geometry . 432

7.1 Introduction........ . 432
7.2 The Real Projective Plane . 434
Exercises 7.2 . 440
7.3 Duality . . . . 441
Exercises 7.3 . 446
7.4 Perspectivity . 447
Exercises 7.4 . 454
7.5 The Theorem of Desargues . . 455
Exercises 7.5 . . . . . . . . . 462
7.6 Projective Transformations . . 465
Exercises 7.6 . . . . . 469
7.7 Chapter 7 Summary . 469
Appendix A ....... .474

A.I Euclid's Definitions, Postulates, and First Ten Propositions,
Book I . 474
Appendix B . 478
B.l Hilbert's Axioms for Euclidean Plane Geometry . 478
Appendix C ...................... . 481

C.l Birkhoff's Postulates for Euclidean Plane Geometry . 481
Undefined Terms and Relations . 481
Appendix D ............. . 483

D.1 The SMSG Postulates for Euclidean Geometry . 483
CONTENTS xi
Appendix E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
E.1 Using Dynamic Geometry Software to Explore the Poincare
Model of Hyperbolic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
E.2 Shortcuts for The Geometer's SketchPad® . . . . . . . 486
E.3 CabriTM Macros for the Poincare Model of Hyperbolic
Geometry . . 489
Bibliography .495
Index . .... .499

Preface
As its title indicates, this book is designed to provide the reader with a
"map" for a voyage through plane geometry and its various branches. As
prerequisites, this book assumes only a prior course in high school geometry
and the mathematical maturity usually provided by a semester of calculus or
discrete mathematics.
Preparations for our voyage begin in Chapter One with a discussion of
the "Rules of the Road" during which time the reader is familiarized with the
properties of axiomatic systems and the application of the axiomatic method to
investigation of these systems. A discussion of several examples of finite and
incidence geometries provides a framework upon which to investigate plane
geometry.
With preparations complete, our voyage actually begins in Chapter Two,
where we are confronted with "Many Ways to Go." Here, within a historical
perspective, we travel a variety of "roads" through plane geometry by inves-
tigating different axiomatic approaches to the study of Euclidean plane ge-
ometry. Axiomatic developments of geometry as proposed by Euclid, David
Hilbert, G. D. Birkhoff, and the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG)
are compared and contrasted. A brief discussion of non-Euclidean geometries
is also included.
In Chapter Three, by "Traveling Together," we investigate the content of
Neutral Geometry. The first fifteen of the SMSG postulates provide our peda-
gogical choice for a "main arterial" as we prepare ourselves to choose between
the Euclidean and non-Euclidean "exits" that appear on the horizon.
Chapter Four provides "One Way to Go" as we travel through Euclidean
Plane Geometry. In this chapter we extend ideas developed in Neutral Geom-
etry to provide a traditional look at the geometric topics of congruence, area,
similarity, circles, triangles, and constructions from a Euclidean perspective.
At the end of Chapter Four you will find a set of laboratory investigations that
make use of Geometer's SketchPad@ or Cabri II GeometryTM software.
xiii
xiv PREFACE
While still traveling through Euclidean Plane Geometry, Chapter Five of-
fers "Side Trips" through analytical and transformational approaches to geom-
etry. The real numbers, algebra, isometries, similarities, analytical transforma-
tions, and inversion and their applications to proving geometric theorems are
discussed.
In Chapter Six we consider "Other Ways to Go." We return briefly to
Neutral Geometry, in preparation for our venture into non-Euclidean Geome-
try. In addition to a discussion of hyperbolic geometry, this chapter contains
a detailed description of the Poincare disk model and a brief excursion into
elliptic geometry. Appendix E contains a collection of scripts, custom tools,
and macros that allow for a dynamic investigation of the Poincare disk. Like
Chapter Four, Chapter Six ends with a collection of laboratory activities that
provide students with an opportunity to explore the hyperbolic plane first hand.
Finally, in Chapter Seven, "All Roads Lead To ... " projective geometry.
Here we delve into a more general geometry than we have studied in previous
chapters as we investigate the real projective plane in addition to the ideas of
duality, perspectivity, and a brief look at projective transformations.
New to the third edition of Roads to Geometry are enhanced problem sets
at the end of each section and the inclusion of Laboratory Activities using Ge-
ometer's SketchPad® and Cabri II GeometryTM at the end of Chapter Four,
Euclidean Geometry of the Plane, and of Chapter Six, Non-Euclidean Geome-
tries.
This text is appropriate for several kinds of students. Pre-service teachers
of geometry are provided with a rigorous yet accessible treatment of plane
geometry in a historical context. Mathematics majors will find its axiomatic
development sufficiently rigorous to provide a foundation for further study
in the areas of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. By using the SMSG
postulate set as a basis for the development of plane geometry, we avoid the
pitfalls of many "foundations of geometry" texts that encumber the reader with
such a detailed development of preliminary results that many other substantive
and elegant results are inaccessible in a one-semester course.
The chapters of this book separate nicely into independent units. The ma-
terial in Chapters One and Two provides preliminary groundwork for the study
of geometry. Instrnctors who feel that their classes are exceptionally well pre-
pared could omit these chapters in the interest of freeing time for material that
is presented later in the book. Instructors teaching more typical classes will
find the discussion of ax iomatics in Chapter One and the comparisons of the
various axiom sets in Chapter Two very helpful in conveying the notion of
mathematical rigor. Instructors can teach a semester of Euclidean Geometry
using Chapters 1,2, 3,4, and 5. Instructors more interested in non-Euclidean
Geometries can opt to cover Chapters 1,2,3, and 6.
PREFACE xv
At the end of each section is an ample collection of exercises of varying

difficulty that provides problems that both extend and clarify results of that
section, as well as problems that apply those results. At the end of each of
the chapters, Three through Seven, is a summary which lists all of the new
definitions and theorems of that chapter.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the following mathematicians who
took of their time to review the current manuscript: David Bellamy, Univer-
sity of Delaware; Jack Tsui, Oakland University; Julia Wilson, State Univer-
sity College of New York at Fredonia; Peter Stiller, Texas A&M University;
Morley Davidson, Kent University; Kimberly Cervello, State University Col-
lege of New York at Geneseo; and Joel Zeitlin, California State University at
Northridge.
The authors hope that Roads to Geometry will in some way encourage
the reader to more fully appreciate the marvelous worlds of Euclidean and
non-Euclidean Geometry and to that end we wish you bon voyage.
E. C. Wallace
wallace@geneseo.edu
S. F. West
west@geneseo.edu
June 2003
Rules of the Road
1
AXIOMATIC SYSTEMS
1.1 Historical Background

The word geometry comes from the Greek words meaning "earth measure,"
which when taken literally imply that geometry involves measuring earthly
things. Ancient geometry, in part, had its beginnings in the practical mensu-
ration necessary for the agriculture of the Babylonians and Egyptians. These
civilizations were "known for their engineering prowess in marsh drainage,
irrigation, flood control, and the erection of great edifices and structures."J
Much of Egyptian and Babylonian geometry was restricted to computation of
the lengths of line segments, areas, and volumes. These results, which were
usually presented as a sequence of arithmetical instruetions, were derived em-
pirically and in some instances were incorrect. For example, the Egyptians
used the formula A = ~(a + c)(b + d) to calculate the area of an arbitrary
quadrilateral with successive sides of lengths a, b, c, and d. This formula
proves to be correct for rectangles but not for quadrilaterals in general. It
wasn't until the first half of the sixth century B.C. that mathematicians began
to question whether these empirical results were always true.
Recent developments in the formal study of geometry bear little resem-
blance to its historical beginnings. In fact, as you will see in later chapters, the
contemporary study of geometry does not necessarily require that we measure
anything or even restrict ourselves to the earth.
The remainder of this section briefly introduces several of the great philo-
sopher-mathematicians of antiquity and their roles in the birth of demonstra-
tive geometry.
J Howard Eves, "The History of Geometry," in Historical Topics for the Mathemat-
ics Classroom (Washington, D.C.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 1969),
p.168.
1
2 RULES OF THE ROAD: AXIOMATIC SYSTEMS
Thales of Miletus (ca. 64O-ca. 546 B.C.)

The transformation of the study of geometry from a purely practical science
(i.e., surveying) to a branch of pure mathematics was undertaken by Greek
scholars and took place over a number of centuries. The individual most often
credited with initiating the formal study of demonstrative geometry as a dis-
cipline is Thales of Miletus. In his early days Thales was a merchant, and in
this capacity he traveled to Egypt and the Middle East. He returned to Greece
with a knowledge of the measurement techniques used by the Egyptians at
that time. The greatest contribution made by Thales to the study of geome-
try was in his ability to abstract the ideas of the Egyptians from a physical
context to a mental one. The propositions for which he has been given credit
are among the simplest in plane geometry. For example, Proclus, in his "Eu-
demian Summary,,,2 stated that Thales was "the first to demonstrate that the
circle is bisected by the diameter."3 As we can see, this rather simple asser-
tion is not noteworthy by virtue of its profound content. The significance of
Thales's contribution lies not in the content of the propositions themselves but
in his use of logical reasoning to argue in favor of them. Proclus describes
an indirect "proof" (presumably due to Thales) to support the circle bisection
theorem. While Thales's proof is not acceptable by today's standards (and
was even avoided by Euclid), it showed, for the first time, an attempt to justify
geometric statements using reason instead of intuition and experimentation.
D. E. Smith speaks about the importance of Thales's work in geometry:
"Without Thales there would not have been a Pythagoras-or such a Pythago-
ras; and without Pythagoras there would not have been a Plato--or such a
Plato.,,4
Pythagoras (ca. 56O-ca. 480 B.C.)

Pythagoras was born on the Greek island of Samos before Thales' death and
was probably a student of Thales. Pythagoras traveled widely throughout the
Mediterranean region, and it is very possible that his journeys took him to
India, since his philosophical orientation was more closely aligned with the
Indian civilization than with the Greek. On returning to Europe, Pythagoras
migrated to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and established a quasi-
religious brotherhood called the Pythagoreans. It is likely that much of the
mathematics attributed to Pythagoras was actually developed by members of
2The "Eudemian Summary" is a small part ofProcius's Commentary on the First Book
of Euclid, in which he describes the history of Thales as given by Eudemus of Rhodes in a
work available to Proclus but that has since been lost to us.
3 Glenn R. Morrow (trans.). Proclus-A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's Ele-
ments (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 124.
4D . E. Smith, History of Mathematics (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1958),
VoL I, p. 68.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3
this brotherhood during the 200 or so years of its existence. One disappoint-
ment lies in the fact that, whereas Pythagoras probably stated the theorem
that bears his name, it is equally probable that he could not prove it. The
Pythagoreans took mathematical thought a step beyond the point to which
Thales had brought it. Whereas Thales had formalized a portion of the geom-
etry that he encountered, the Pythagorean philosophy was to develop math-
ematical results exclusively as the result of deduction. Following his death,
Pythagoras's followers split into two factions; the akousmatikoi, who accepted
the words of the "master" as revelation, and the mathematikoi, who pursued
new learning (mathesis) and helped to transform mathematics into a deductive
science. s It was during this time that "chains of propositions were developed
in which each successive proposition was derived from earlier ones.,,6 The
Pythagorean school set the tone for all the Greek mathematics that was to fol-
low, and since the ideas of Plato were largely committed to mathematics, we
could say that Pythagoras had a major effect on all of Greek philosophy.
Hippocrates of Chios (ca. 460-ca. 380 B.C.)

Hippocrates was born on the Greek island of Chi os. Chios is a small island
close to Samos, the birthplace of Pythagoras. For this reason, it is highly prob-
able that Hippocrates may have come under the influence of the Pythagoreans.
Hippocrates spent most of his later adult life in Athens, where he became pro-
ficient in geometry. While teaching geometry, he was credited with preparing
a textbook entitled the Elements of Geometry, in which he arranged theorems
in a logical sequence so that later ones could be proved on the basis of earlier
ones. This lost textbook foreshadowed Euclid's Elements.
Plato (ca. 427-ca. 348 B.C.)

Plato was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. The early part of his life co-
incides with the era of the Peloponnesian Wars, during which time he served
in the Athenian cavalry. In his early twenties, he met Socrates, who had a
profound effect on his education. Plato's role in the development of geome-
try (and of mathematics) is often overshadowed by his preeminent status in
Greek philosophy in general. In approximately 388 B.C., he established the
Academy, which attracted the most famous scholars of the time. Inscribed
above the gate to the Academy was the motto "Let no man ignorant of geom-
etry enter." The study of mathematics at the Academy was confined to pure
mathematics, with the emphasis placed on soundness of reason. Plato's con-
tributions to theoretical mathematics, in addition to adding geometry to higher
education, included references to the necessity of framing sound definitions, to
5Ronald Calinger (ed.), Classics of Mathematics (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice
Hall, 1995), p. 50.
6Eves, Historical Topics, p. 172.
the theory of irrationals, to the study of regular polyhedra, and to a derivation

of a formula for Pythagorean triples. By about 400 B.C., Greek civilization
had developed to the point where intellectual pursuits were valued for their
intrinsic virtue. Plato was of the mind that "mathematics purifies and elevates
the soul." In a quotation from his most famous treatise, the Republic, Plato
states that "geometry will draw the soul towards the truth and create the spirit
of philosophy ... nothing else will be more likely to have such an effect.,,7
Since there was no need for mathematicians at the Academy to concern them-
selves with applications of their work, the emphasis could be placed on the
processes involved in the development of mathematical thought, rather than
on the worldly products of that thought. Thus mathematics had by 350 B.C.
taken on the nature of a pure science.
Eudoxus (ca. 400-ca. 347 B.C.)

Eudoxus was born on the island of Cnidus in the Black Sea. At the age of
twenty-three, he moved to Athens, where he attended Plato's Academy. Al-
though none of his writings has survived, it is believed that his mathematical
works became the basis for Books V, VI, and XII of Euclid's Elements. His
most notable achievement was his resolution of the Pythagoreans' difficul-
ties with incommensurable quantities. 8 In addition, Eudoxus first formally
systematized Aristotle's theory of statements with its axioms, postulates, and
definitions into what has come to be known as the axiomatic method. 9
Euclid (ca. 330-ca. 270 B.C.)

The name most often associated with ancient Greek geometry is that of Euclid.
Not a great deal is known about Euclid's background. He may have been
born in Greece, or he may have been an Egyptian who went to Alexandria to
study and teach. He is believed to have been the first mathematics professor
at the great Museum of Alexandria. His lifetime overlapped that of Plato, and
it is likely that he received his mathematical education at Plato's Academy.
Proclus, in his Commentary, tells us that Euclid was influenced by Plato's
philosophy, but there is no direct evidence that the two ever met.
By Euclid's time the development of rational thought had progressed suf-
ficiently to allow for, and even demand, a systematic study of geometry. Eu-
clid's monumental work, the Elements, was a single chain of 467 propositions
that, in part, encompasses plane and solid geometry. Euclid's clever disposi-
tion and arrangement of materials, the importance that he placed on the use
7Calinger, Classics of Mathematics, p. 69.

8A more modem term for incommensurable quantities is irrational numbers. Eudoxus's
general theory of proportionality, in effect, rigorously defined the real numbers.
9The axiomatic method is discussed in more detail in Section 1.2.
of a minimal set of assumptions, and the natural progression of simple re-

sults to the more complex have resulted in the Elements remaining, for over
2000 years, the most widely known example of a formal axiomatic system.
Among the many anecdotes that have been passed along regarding Euclid is
one that gives rise to the title of this book. When asked by Ptolemy Soter lO if
there was a shorter way to study geometry than through the Elements, Euclid
replied, "There is no royal road to geometry."
As we will see in subsequent chapters, Euclid's work was far from flaw-
less. Still its strengths far outnumber its weaknesses, as attested by the fact
that it overshadowed and replaced all previous writings in this area. In order
to place Euclid's historic effort in context, we shall, in the next section, dis-
cuss what is meant by an axiomatic system and investigate the properties that
axiomatic systems possess.
Exercises 1.1
1. As indicated earlier, Egyptian geometers used the formula A
~ (a + c) (b + d) to calculate the area of any quadrilateral whose
successive sides have lengths a, b, c, and d.
(i) Does this formula work for squares? For rectangles that are
not squares?
(ii) If you choose specific lengths for the sides of an isosceles
trapezoid, how does the result compare to the actual area?
Repeat for two other isosceles trapezoids. Do the same for
three specific parallelograms.
(iii) Generalize your results for part (ii).
2. If a and b are the lengths of the legs of a right triangle and c is the
length of the hypotenuse, Babylonian geometers approximated the
~
length of the hypotenuse by the formula c b + (~~).

(i) How does this approximation compare to the actual result
when a = 3 and b = 4? When a 5 and b = 12? When
a = 12 and b = 5?
(ii) Give an algebraic argument demonstrating that this formula
results in an approximation that is too large.
lOPtolemy Soter (Savior), also known as King Ptolemy I of Egypt, was instrumental in
the shift of the intellectual center of mathematics from Athens to Alexandria. In about
295 B.C., Ptolemy I began construction of a rival school to Plato's Academy, the famous
Museum and its companion library.
3. The following was translated from a Babylonian tablet created about

2600 B.C. Explain what it means. "60 is the circumference, 2 is the
perpendicular, find the chord. Double 2 and get 4, do you see? Take
4 from 20 and get 16. Square 20, and you get 400. Square 16,
and you get 256. Take 256 from 400 and you get 144. Find the
square root of 144. 12, the square root, is the chord. This is the
procedure." 11
4. The Moscow Papyrus (ca. 1850 B.C.) contains the following prob-
lem: "If you are told: A truncated pyramid of 6 for the vertical height
by 4 on the base by 2 on the top. You are to square this 4, result 16.
You are to double 4, result 8. You are to square 2, result 4. You are
to add the 16, the 8, and the 4, result 28. You are to take one third of
6, result 2. You are to take 28 twice, result 56. See, it is 56. You will
find it right." Show that this is a special case of the general formula
V 1h (a 2 + ab + b2 ) for the volume of the frustum of a pyramid
whose bases are squares, whose sides are a and b, respectively, and
whose height is h.
5. An Egyptian document, the Rhind Papyrus (ca. 1650 B.C.), states
that the area of a circle can be determined by finding the area of a
square whose side is ~ of the diameter of the circle. Is this correct?
What value of JT is implied by this technique?
6. Plutarch (ca. 46-120 B.C.) wrote in the Convivium that the King of
Egypt admired Thales for the manner by which he "measured the
height of the pyramid without any trouble or instruments; by merely
placing a staff at the extremity of the shadow which the pyramid cast
forming, by impact of the sun's rays, two triangles and showed that
the height of the pyramid was to the length of the staff in the same
ratio as their respective shadows." 12 If the measure of the base of the
Great Pyramid was 756 feet, the measurable length of the shadow of
the pyramid was 342 feet, the length of the staff was 6 feet, and the
length of the staff's shadow was 9 feet, how tall was the pyramid?
7. It is said that Thales indirectly measured the distance from a point
on shore to a ship at sea using the equivalent of the angle-side-angle
(AS A) triangle congruence theorem. Make a diagram that could be
used to accomplish this feat.
8. Eratosthenes (ca. 275 B.C.), a scholar and librarian at the University
at Alexandria, is credited with calculating the circumference of the
earth using the following method: Eratosthenes observed that on
11 Howard Eves, A Survey of Geometry (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1965), p. 7, Prob. 1.2-2.
12David M. Burton, The History of Mathematics: An Introduction (Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, 1985), p. 94.
the summer solstice the sun was directly overhead at noon in Syene
(the present site of Aswan), while at the same time in Alexandria,
which was due north, the rays of the sun were inclined 7° 12', thus
indicating that Alexandria was 7°12' north of Syene along the earth's
surface. Using the known distance between the two cities of 5000
stades (approximately 530 miles), he was able to approximate the
circumference of the earth. Make a diagram that depicts this method
and calculate the circumference in stades and in miles. How does
this result compare to present-day estimates?
9. A figure bounded by three semicircles on the same line segment was
called an arbelosby Archimedes (ca. 287-212 B.C.). Find a formula
for the area of the arbelos shown in the Fig. 1.1.1.
r s
R
Figure 1.1.1
10. One of the three famous problems of antiquity was to construct a

square equal in area to that of a given circle. During his search for a
solution to the "squaring the circle" problem, Hippocrates solved the
following related problem. He proved that the area of a lune is equal
to thc area of a right triangle and hence that the area of a curvilinear
figurc could be made equal to the area of a rectilinear figure. In the
Fig. 1.1.2, I1ABC is one-fourth of a square inscribed in circle C1, and
the region between cl and a semicircle c2 constructed on side AB is
a lune. Show that the lune is equal in area to I1ABC.
c2 B
cl
Figure 1.1.2
1.2 Axiomatic Systems and Their Properties
HISTORICAL NOTE: ARIST01LE (CA. 384-CA. 322 B.C.) Aristotle is known

as the greatest systematic philosopher of ancient times. At the age of seven-
teen, he entered Plato's Academy and spent twenty-three years there. After
traveling through Asia Minor, he returned to Athens in 335 B.C., where he es-
tablished a school called the Lyceum. The Lyceum was similar to present-day
graduate schools in that its major focus was to produce specialists. Aristotle's
main contribution to the foundations of mathematics lies primarily in his work
Analytica Posteriora. In this work, he constructed a theory of statements that
begins with "common notions" or axioms, "special notions" or postulates,
and careful definitions, which together with syllogistic logic formed a basis
for all of Greek mathematics.
The Axiomatic Method

As we begin our study of geometry, it is important that we have a basic under-
standing of the axiomatic method used in the development of all of modem
mathematics. The axiomatic method is a procedure by which we demon-
strate or prove that results (theorems and so on) discovered by experimen-
tation, observation, trial and error, or even by "intuitive insight" are indeed
correct. Little is known about the origins of the axiomatic method. Most his-
torians, relying on accounts given by Proclus in his "Eudemian Summary,"
indicate that the method seems to have begun its evolution during the time
of the Pythagoreans as a further development and refinement of various early
deductive procedures.
In an axiomatic system the proof of a specific result is simply a sequence
of statements, each of which follows logically from the ones before and leads
from a statement that is known to be true, to the statement that is to be proved.
First, for a proof to be convincing, it is necessary to establish ground rules
for determining when one statement follows logically from another. For the
purposes of this development, our rules of logic will consist of the standard
two-valued logic studied in most introductory logic courses. Second, it is im-
portant that all readers of the proof have a clear understanding of the terms
and statements used in the discussion. To ensure this clarity, we might try
to define each term in our discussion. If, however, one of our definitions
contains an unfamiliar term, then the reader has the right to expect a defi-
nition of this term. Thus a chain of definitions is created. This chain must
be either circular or linear (think of a concrete model). Since circularity is
unacceptable in any logical development, we may assume that the chain of
definitions is linear. Now this linear chain may be an infinite sequence of
definitions, or it must stop at some point. An unending sequence of def-
AXIOMATIC SYSTEMS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 9
Table 1.2.1
1. Any axiomatic system must contain a set of technical terms that are de-
liberately chosen as undefined terms and are subject to the interpretation
of the reader.
2. All other technical terms of the system are ultimately defined by means
of the undefined terms. These terms are the definitions of the system.
3. The axiomatic system contains a set of statements, dealing with unde-

fined terms and definitions, that are chosen to remain unproved. These
are the axioms of the system.
4. All other statements of the system must be logical consequences of the

axioms. These derived statements are called the theorems of the ax-
iomatic system.
initions is at best unsatisfying, so the collection of definitions must end at

some point, and one or more of the terms will remain undefined. These
terms are known as the undefined or primitive terms of our axiomatic sys-
tem.
The primitive terms and definitions can now be combined into the state-
ments or theorems of our axiomatic system. For these theorems to be of math-
ematical value, we must supply logically deduced proofs of their validity. We
now need additional statements to prove these theorems, which in tum require
proof. As before, we form a chain of statements that leads us to the conclu-
sion that, to avoid circularity, one or more of these statements must remain
unproved. These statements, called axioms or postulates, 13 must be assumed
and form the fundamental "truths,,14 of our axiomatic system.
To summarize, any logical development of an axiomatic system must
therefore conform to the pattern represented in Table 1.2.1.
To illustrate an axiomatic system and the relationships among its unde-

fined terms, axioms, and theorems, we will consider the following example.
13Today, the words axiom and postulate are used interchangeably. Historically, the word
postulate has been used to represcnt an assumed truth confined to a particular subject arca,
while axiom represents a more universal truth applicable to all arc as of mathcmatics.
14Thc truth of these axioms is not at issue-just the reader's willingness to accept them
as true.
Example 1.2.1
A simple abstract axiomatic system
Undefined terms: Fe's, Fa's, and the relation "belongs to."15
Axiom 1. There exist exactly three distinct Fe's in this system.
Axiom 2. Any two distinct Fe's belong to exactly one Fa.
Axiom 3. Not all Fe's belong to the same Fa.
Axiom 4. Any two distinct Fa's contain at least one Fe that belongs to
both.
Fe-Fo Theorem 1. Two distinct Fo's contain exactly one Fe.

Proof Since Axiom 4 states that two distinct Fo's contain at least one Fe, we
need only show that these two Fo's contain no more than one Fe. For this
purpose we will use an indirect proof and assume that two Fo's share more
than one Fe. The simplest case of "more than one" is two. Now each of these
two Fe's belongs to two distinct Fa's, but that in turn contradicts Axiom 2, and
we are done. 0
Fe-Fo Theorem 2. There are exactly three Fo's.

Proof Axiom 2 tells us that each pair of Fe's is on exactly one Fo. Axiom
1 provides us with exactly three Fe's. Axiom 3 guarantees that the three Fe's
are not on the same Fo; therefore. by counting distinct pairs of Fe's, we find
that we have at least three Fa's. Now suppose that there exists a fourth Fa
that is distinct from the three that we have establlished. Theorem 1 tells us
that the fourth Fo must share a Fe with each of the other Fa's. Therefore, it
must contain at least two of the existing three Fe's, but Axiom 2 prohibits this.
Therefore, a fourth Fa cannot exist, and there are exactly three Fa's. 0
Fe-Fo Theorem 3. Each Fa has exactly two &'s that belong to it.
Proof By Theorem 2, we have exactly three Fo's. Now Axiom 4 provides
that each Fa has at least one and Axiom 1 prevents it from containing
exactly one. Axiom 1 and Axiom 3 prevent a Fo from containing more than
two Fe's. 0
In the previous example the undefined terms are truly undefined, and the
axioms and theorems are nonsensical in nature. The real value in its study lies
in the fact that, as in any axiomatic system, the truth of its theorems comes not
from what they say but from the fact that they have been logically deduced
from the axioms. Additional practice proving theorems in this system and in
another simple system can be found in the Exercises.
15We will occasionally use the terminology "a Fe is on a Fo" or "a Fo contains a Fe,"
and by this we mean that the Fe "belongs to" the Fo.
In the following section we will investigate the consequences of giving

some type of meaning or interpretation to the undefined terms of our axiomatic
system.
Models
In the previous section we discussed the axiomatic method and an example of
an abstract axiomatic system. Each axiomatic system contains a number of
undefined terms. Since these terms are truly undefined, they have no inherent
meaning, and each reader may choose to interpret them in his or her own way.
By giving each undefined term in a system a particular meaning, we create an
interpretation of that system. If, for a given interpretation of a system, all the
axioms are "correct" statements, we call the interpretation a model.
Example 1.2.2
In Example 1.2.1 we can designate the Fe's as people and the Fo's as commit-
tees, and the axioms become the following:
Axiom 1. There are exactly three people.
Axiom 2. Two distinct people belong to exactly one committee.
Axiom 3. Not all people belong to the same committee.
Axiom 4. Any two distinct committees contain one person who belongs
to both.
Let the people be Bob, Ted, and Carol, and the committees be Entertain-
ment (Bob and Ted), Finance (Ted and Carol), and Refreshments (Bob and
Carol) (see Fig. 1.2.1). We can see that as a collection these axioms are "cor-
rect" statements, and therefore this interpretation is an example of a model.
Example 1.2.3
In Example 1.2.1 we can designate the Fe's as books, the Fo's as horizontal
shelves, and the relation "belongs to" as "is on" (see Fig. 1.2.2); the axioms
then become the following:
Axiom 1. There are exactly three books.
Axiom 2. Any two books are on exactly one shelf.
Axiom 3. Not all books are on the same shelf.
Axiom 4. Any two distinct shelves contain one book that is on both.
Since Axioms 2 and 4 are not "correct" statements, this interpretation is
not a model for the system.
Since the theorems of any axiomatic system are logical consequences of
the axioms of the system, their validity is independent of any interpretation of
the undefined terms. One of the main properties of any model of an axiomatic
system is that all theorems of the system are correct statements in the model.
Therefore, the theorems proved in the previous section (and those proved by
Finance
People: Bob, Ted, and Carol.
Committees: Entertainment, Finance, and Refreshments.
Figure 1.2.1
Figure 1.2.2
you in the Exercises) become correct statements under the interpretation in

Example 1.2.2. For example, Fe-Fo Theorem I now reads as follows: Each
committee contains exactly two people. However, in the interpretation found
in Example 1.2.3, the theorems need not be correct statements since the ax-
ioms are not satisfied.
Models play an important role in the study of axiomatic systems. Suppose
that in our system we have a statement for which we are unsure of the existence
of a proof (i.e., we don't know whether the statement is a theorem or not). By
investigating models we can gain insight into the correctness of the statement.
In particular, if one model exists in which the statement is incorrect, we can be
assured that no proof of the statement exists. The reader is cautioned, however,
that the reverse is not always true. Simply because a statement is correct in
one model does not ensure its correctness in all models, and thus it may not
be a theorem in the axiomatic system. It is always a good practice to create
several different models when investigating axiomatic systems.
When creating models, it is possible to produce two seemingly different
models that, on closer inspection, are essentially the same. By "essentially
the same" we mean that there exists a one-to-one correspondence between
the interpretation of each set of undefined terms such that any relationship
between the undefined terms in one model is preserved, under that one-to-one
correspondence, in the second model. Two models that are essentially the
same are said to be isomorphic, and the one-to-one correspondence is called
an isomorphism.
Example 1.2.4
Consider the axiomatic system in Example 1.2.1 where Fe's are interpreted as
the seaports of Hyannisport on Cape Cod, Oak Bluffs on Martha's Vineyard,
and Nantucket on Nantucket Island, and Fo's are interpreted as the ferry routes
(see Fig. 1.2.3). This model is isomorphic to the model in Example 1.2.2.
Example 1.2.5
Let the Fe's of our axiomatic system be interpreted as the letters in the set
S = {P, Q, R}, and let the Fo's be interpreted as all the two-element subsets
of S. This model is isomorphic to the model in Example 1.2.2 under the one-
to-one correspondence:
P +'T Bob {P, Q} +'T Entertainment Committee

Q +'T Ted {P, R] +'T Refreshments Committee
R +'T Carol {Q, R] +'T Finance Committee
This model is also isomorphic to the model in Example 1.2.4. Why?

To illustrate the fact that every one-to-one correspondence between two
different interpretations of the undefined terms of some axiomatic system is
Hyannisport ~Dennis~
2I
ilu;7\~-
.r! ...... """
Woods ~-' Great •• ' '.

o/e Falmouth N"".~.. '.
;J Heights
~stChop
...
.t
••••• Nantucket
Sound
....
'.
""
~.;:: ...... " " " ' " ....,

rA~h
--»\.~_5U~'"
nl ~~
gj?~!:7t ~········" ...........>. . ~o
••
Chappa~~~~;""", " G r e a t Pomt
drJ4>;'~:1L-- v-v',' r
~-Martha'sVineyard , .\~~ r:;
Nantucket
Il
NantUcket Island
Figure 1.2.3
not necessarily an isomorphism, consider the following example, in which the

relationship between the undefined terms is not preserved.
Example 1.2.6
Let the Fo' s be the elements of the set T = {x, y, z}, and let each Fe be
represented by the pair ofFo's that share it. ({x, y}, {x, z}, and {y, z} are the
Fe's of our model.) Now consider the following one-to-one correspondence
between this model and the model in Example 1.2.5:
{x, y} B-P {P, Q} B- z

{y, z} B-Q {Q, R} B- y
{x, z} B-R {P, R} B- X
Distinct Fo's {Q, R} and {P, R} in Example 1.2.5 share the Fe R, while
the corresponding Fo's x and y in the model above share the Fe {x, y} and not
{x, z} as the one-to-one correspondence indicates. Therefore, the illustrated
one-to-one correspondence is not an isomorphism.
We will soon see that the creation of models will playa very important role
in our future study of geometry. Practice in creating models and determining
isomorphic relationships can be found in the Exercises.
In the next section we shall briefly investigate several important properties

that can be exhibited by axiomatic systems.
Properties of Axiomatic Systems

The most important and most fundamental property of an axiomatic system
is consistency. A set of axioms is said to be consistent if it is impossible to
deduce from these axioms a theorem that contradicts any axiom or previously
proved theorem. Without this property, an axiomatic system has no mathe-
matical value, and further study of its properties is useless. To establish the
consistency of an axiomatic system, we will make use of models similar to
those discussed in the last section.
Models may be separated into two categories: (1) concrete models, where
interpretations of the undefined terms are objects or relations adapted from
the real world, and (2) abstract models, where interpretations of the unde-
fined terms are taken from some other axiomatic system. The model in Exam-
ple 1.2.4 is an example of a concrete model, whereas the one in Example 1.2.5
is an abstract model.
When a concrete model has been produced, we claim to have established
the absolute consistency of our axiomatic system. Otherwise, contradictory
theorems deduced from the axioms would have contradictory counterparts in
the real world, which we accept as impossible.
We shall see, however, that the establishment of absolute consistency is
not always possible, since it may not be possible to establish a concrete model.
For example, should an axiomatic system similar to the one discussed in Ex-
ample 1.2.1 require an infinite number of Fe's, the creation of a concrete model
would be impossible since, in the real world, there does not exist an infinite
collection of "things" that would serve as an interpretation. In such cases we
establish a model using concepts from some other axiomatic system whose
consistency we are willing to assume (i.e., the real numbers). In other words,
the new axiomatic system is consistent if the one in which we have chosen
our model is consistent. When this situation arises, we claim to have estab-
lished the relative consistency of our axiomatic system, and the two axiomatic
systems are said to be relatively consistent.
The next two properties of axiomatic systems that we will discuss, in-
dependence and completeness, have a nature that is distinctly different from
the property of consistency. This difference lies in the fact that, unlike the
consistency property, we do not require that axiomatic systems possess these
properties to be useful (worthy of study). In fact, later it may prove advanta-
geous for us to employ systems that do not possess these properties.
An individual axiom is said to be independent if it cannot be logically de-
duced from the other axioms in the system. The entire set of axioms is said
to be independent if each of its axioms is independent. It should be clear to
the reader that an axiomatic system should not be invalidated simply because
its axioms are not independent. The worst that can be said is that any non-
independent system has some redundancies, since one or more of its axioms
could also appear as theorems. In general, a mathematician would prefer an
independent axiom set, since any axiomatic system is best built on a minimum
number of assumptions. It is often advantageous, however, to use a set of ax-
ioms that is not independent. For example, the axiomatic development studied
in most high school geometry classes is based on a set of axioms that is not in-
dependent. The reasoning behind this, which is primarily pedagogical, is that
often a very important and useful theorem occurs early in the development,
and the difficulty of its proof, using an independent axiom set, may preclude
its use for all but an experienced mathematician. In such cases the theorem
may be included as an axiom, thus making it available to students with less
mathematical maturity.
To demonstrate the independence of an axiom, we will again make use
of models. By producing a model in which one axiom is incorrect and the
remaining axioms are correct, we ensure the independence of the first axiom,
since only correct statements may be logically deduced from correct state-
ments.
Example 1.2.7
Let the Fe's in Example 1.2.1 be the elements in the set {A, B. C, D} and
the Fo's be the subsets {A, B}, {A, C}, {A, DJ, and {B, C, D}. Clearly,
Axiom 1 is incorrect in this model since it contains four Fe's, but careful
investigation shows that Axioms 2 through 4 are all correct. Therefore, Axiom
1 is independent of the remaining three. The reader is encouraged to find
models that demonstrate the independence of Axioms 2 through 4.
The property of completeness is also concerned with the size of the ax-
iom set. Whereas independence guaranteed that our set of axioms was not too
large, completeness guarantees that our chosen axioms are sufficient in num-
ber to prove or disprove any statement that arises concerning our collection of
undefined terms. We say that an axiom set is of sufficient size or complete if it
is impossible to add an additional consistent and independent axiom without
adding additional undefined terms.
Testing for completeness is another question altogether. As with consis-
tency, the failure to find a new consistent, independent axiom does not elimi-
nate the possibility of its existence and therefore is an insufficient procedure by
which to prove completeness. We can, however, use the isomorphism of mod-
els to demonstrate a form of completeness. If all models of a given axiomatic
system are isomorphic, then the set of axioms is said to be categorical. The
property of categoricalness can be shown to imply completeness; the proof.
however, is beyond the scope of this discussion. 16
16For a detailed discussion of completeness and categorical ness, see Howard Eves, Faun-
In the next section, we will illustrate the properties of axiomatic systems

in a geometric context.
Exercises 1.2
To answer Exercises 1 through 4, use the axiomatic system outlined in Exam-
ple 1.2.1.
1. Prove: A Fo cannot contain three distinct Fe's.
2. Prove: There exists a set of two Fo's that contains all the Fe's of the
system.
3. Prove: For every set of two distinct Fe's, every Fo in the system
must contain at least one of them.
4. Prove: All three Fo's cannot contain the same Fe.
S. Consider the following axiom set, in which x's, y's, and "on" are
the undefined terms:
Axiom 1. There exist exactly five x' s.
Axiom 2. Any two distinct x's have exactly one y on both of
them.
Axiom 3. Each y is on exactly two x's.
How many y's are there in the system? Prove your result.
To answer Exercises 6 through 9, use the axiom set in Exercise 5.
6. Prove that any two y's have at most one x on both.
7. Prove that not all x's are on the same y.
8. Prove that there exist exactly four y's on each x.
9. Prove that for any Yl and any Xl not on that YI there exist exactly
two other distinct y's on Xl that do not contain any of the x's on YI.
Models
10. Verify that the axioms in Example 1.2.2 are "correct" statements.
11. Verify that Axioms 1 and 3 in Example 1.2.3 are "correct" state-
ments and explain why Axioms 2 and 4 are not correct.
12. Verify that the model in Example 1.2.5 is isomorphic to the model
in Example 1.2.2.
13. Devise a one-to-one correspondence between the undefined terms in
the models in Examples 1.2.5 and 1.2.6 that is an isomorphism and
verify your result.
dations and Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics (Boston: PWS-KENT Publishing Co.,
1990), pp. 160-162.
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CHRISTIE.
"Then she took up her burden of life again,
Saying only, 'It might have been.'
God pity them both! and pity us all
Who vainly the dreams of youth recall,
For of all sad words of tongue or pen,
The saddest are these, 'It might have been.'"—WHITTIER.
With the cold rain falling in her face, the colder wind fanning her brow,
Christie awoke from that deep swoon that had been mistaken for death.
She opened her eyes, and gazed vacantly around, but all was dark as
Erebus. There was a roaring sound, as of many waters, in her ears—a
vague, dull sense of some awful calamity, a heavy, suffocating feeling in
her chest, a misty consciousness of some one supporting her head. Dark and
dreary was the night around, but darker and drearier lay the heart in her
bosom. Memory made a faint effort to regain its power, to recall some
dreadful woe that pressed like leaden weights on her bosom, but in vain.
Only that dull aching at her heart, only some past unutterable sorrow—that
was all.
Bodily as well as mentally every faculty was prostrated. She made an

effort to speak, to ask what had happened, to know where she was; but her
lips moved in vain, no word came forth. She strove to rise, but at the first
faint motion a sudden pang, like a dagger-thrust, pierced her breast, and she
fell back in a deadly swoon once more.
When next she woke to consciousness she found herself lying in a bed,
with the bright sunshine shining in broad patches on the floor. Memory had
not yet resumed its throne, and of that last dreadful night she was mercifully
prevented from recalling anything. She strove in vain to collect her
thoughts; nothing could be remembered, only that strange aching—that
vague, unspeakable pang that lay on her heart still.
She cast her eyes, in a sort of languid amaze, about the room where she
lay, with a dreamy wonder how she had got there. She saw indistinctly, as
we see things in a dream, a small, square room, with a rough, uncarpeted
floor; two chairs, a small table, and various articles of wearing-apparel
hanging around the walls. A little stand, on which lay bottles, linen
bandages, and a glass filled with a dark liquid stood near the head of the
bed on which she lay. At the foot of the bed was a small, square window,
covered with a dark paper blind, but through which the sunlight peeped here
and there in chinks.
All was profoundly still. She could hear the flies buzzing and droning as
they flew over her head; she could hear what she fancied must be trees
waving gently in the wind, with a low, soothing sound, inexpressibly sweet;
and like a wearied child she closed her eyes, and fell into a deep slumber.
Again she awoke; and now she knew it must be night. Some one had
evidently been in the room while she slept, for the curtain had been rolled
up from the window, and the moonlight came softly and brightly in. She
could see, without moving, the tall, dark trees beyond; and she knew she
must be in the forest. Once more her eyes wandered round the room; and
reason now made a terrible effort to resume its powers. Where was she?
What had happened? Who had brought her here? As her mind began to
clear, and consciousness to return, question after question rose to her lips.
She closed her eyes, and struggled to recall the past. Gradually the broken
links in the chain of memory began to reunite. She recalled the note Willard
had sent her, that appointed their meeting on the beach—that night of storm
and tempest through which she had gone to meet him—that meeting—and
then, with a pang sharper than death, came the terrible recollection of his
plunging the knife into her side.
She could think no further, the recollection of that dreadful moment

seemed driving her mad. She made an effort to rise, to cry out; but just then,
a hand was laid soothingly on her forehead, and a voice met her ear, saying:
"Gently, gently, my child. Thee must not get up. Here, lie still, and drink
this."
Some one—she could not tell whether it was man or woman—was
bending over her, and holding the glass to her lips. Too weak to resist, she
drank it off, and almost instantaneously, fell into a deep sleep.
Days, weeks passed before consciousness returned. During all that time
she had a vague idea of talking, raving wildly, incoherently to Willard—
imploring him not to kill her, and she would never reveal their marriage;
and then shrieking aloud as though again she felt the steel entering her
bosom. Sometimes, too, she fancied Sibyl standing before her, with her
wild, black, menacing eyes, as she had been the last time she saw her, and
once again, would she clasp her little, pale hands, and piteously implore her
to spare her. Anon her mood would change, and she would speak in low,
subdued tones of Mrs. Tom and Carl, and strive to rise from bed, saying
wildly, "she must go home to Aunt Tom." And then, falling back exhausted,
she would vaguely see a kind face bending over her, a hand holding a
cooling drink to her lips, or wetting and arranging the bandages on her
wound. This, too, like the rest, would pass, and life and thought would
again fora time be blotted out.
But one bright, golden, August afternoon, the blue eyes opened, no
longer wild with the fires of fever, but calm and serene once more. A
naturally strong constitution, united with youth, and skillful though rough
nursing, had triumphed at last over her long and dangerous illness.
Weak as an infant; unable to move hand or foot; pale, thin, and spiritual
as a shadow, she came back to life once more. Her feet had stood on the
threshold of the valley of the shadow of death, but they were not permitted
to pass therein; and the soft eyes looked forth from the little wan face, with
the light of reason again.
It was a glorious summer evening. From the window at her feet, she
could see the tall trees crowned with sunshine, that fell like a glory on her
pale, transparent brow. Through the open door, came floating in the
delicious odor of flowers, and the sweet, wild songs of birds, breathing of
peace and holy calm.
While she yet lay with her little, wan hands lying listlessly on the quilt,
the gentle quiet of the sylvan scene stealing into her heart, too weak even to
think, she heard a footstep beside her, a hand lightly arranging her pillows,
and then a voice, one of the kindest Christie had ever heard, saying;
"How does thee feel to-day, my child?"
Christie lifted her eyes languidly, and saw a man bending over her. He
might have been forty years of age; short, square, and ungainly in form, but
with a chest and shoulders betokening vast, almost herculean strength. His
hair was almost white, but dark streaks here and there showed what had
been its original color; his face, with its irregular features, would have been
positively ugly, had it not been for the expression of benevolence, of quiet
goodness—the gentle, tender look it wore, that seemed shedding a very halo
around it, and you forgot the brown skin, the rough, large features, the
bushy eyebrows, and stony gray eyes in the almost womanly sweetness and
softness of his smile. His dress was a long, drab coat, with blue homespun
vest and trousers.
At any other time this unexpected apparition might have alarmed

Christie, but that gentle voice reassured her; and she answered, faintly:
"Better, thank you."
"That is well. Thee feels weak, does thee not?"
"Oh, yes—so weak," she said, closing her eyes.
"Well, I expected as much. Thee has been very, very ill," said the man,
adjusting a pillow, and shading the light, with the skillful hand of a
practiced nurse.
A thousand questions were rising to Christie's lips, but she was too
utterly prostrated to give them voice. She fixed her eyes wistfully on the
man's face with a questioning gaze that brought him once more to her side.
"Well, my daughter, what does thee now want?"
"Tell me"—the faint whisper died away, and totally exhausted, the hand
she had half raised fell again by her side.
"Does thee want to know how thou camest here?"
A faint motion of her head, and that eager, inquiring gaze, was the sole
reply she could make.
"It may excite thee too much; thee had better wait until thee is stronger,
child," said the man, gently.
"Now—now!" she faintly gasped, with that wild, troubled, imploring

look still riveted on her face.
"Then, I found thee on the beach one wild, stormy night, three weeks
ago, wounded nigh unto death."
A spasmodic shudder convulsed all her frame. Oh! what would she not
have given for strength to ask for Willard! Where was he? Would he be
arrested for what he had done? She longed to know that he was safe and
well; all she had suffered herself was as nothing compared to that. She
wanted to ask how this man had come there—where she was now—if Mrs.
Tom knew of this; but, to save her soul from death, she could not utter a
word.
Perhaps the man read her thoughts in that eager, almost passionate gaze,
for he said:
"Thee wants to ask how I came on the island that night, does thee not?"
She made a faint motion in the affirmative.
"That would be too long a story for thee to hear now, my child. When
thou art stronger I will tell thee all. Rest content with knowing that thou art
safe, and with friends who will care for thee as though thou wert their own.
Thou must drink this now."
One question more—one on which more than life or strength depended.

Willard! Willard! she must ask of him.
Pushing back the proffered drink, which she knew contained some
narcotic for sending her asleep, she collected all her energies for the effort
and managed faintly to say:
"Was there—did you see the one who—who wounded me?"
"No, my daughter; the assassin had fled, most probably. I saw no one
but thee, and made no further search. Now thee must not talk just yet. In
two or three days thee will be stronger, and then I will tell thee everything
thee wishes to know."
Too weak to resist, and deeply relieved that he had not seen Willard, she
quaffed the proffered draught, that brought with it balmy sleep.
During the next two or three days the man was her most zealous nurse,
tending her with a zeal, care, and gentle solicitude few nurses could have
equaled, but resisting all her efforts to draw him into conversation.
"By and by, daughter. Be patient, and thee will learn all," was ever his
firm reply, given, however, in the very gentlest of tones.
Left thus to herself and her own thoughts, as she grew stronger,
Christie's mind strove to comprehend and account for the motive that had
prompted Willard to commit so dreadful a deed. That it was he she never
for a moment thought of doubting. That the act had been premeditated, the
note he sent her appointing the meeting, on that lonely spot, at the dead
hour of the night, fully proved. But his motive? That, too, she had settled in
her own mind. She had heard that he loved Sibyl Campbell before he met
her. Now, Sibyl was an heiress, courted and admired by all for her beauty
and wealth; what so natural, then, as that he should wish to make this
peerless Queen of the Isle his bride? She was the only obstacle that stood in
his way; therefore, he had, no doubt, resolved to murder her, to make way
for Sibyl. Perhaps, too, he had heard her message to Sibyl, and, guessing its
purport, resolved that the secret of this marriage should never go forth.
Long before, she had felt he was tired of her; but she had never before
dreamed he wished for her death. Yes, she felt as firmly convinced that it
was his hand that struck the blow—she felt as firmly convinced, too, that
these were his motives, as she did of her very existence; and yet, in the face
of all this, she loved him still. Yes, loved him so well, forgave him so freely,
that she resolved he should never know of her existence; she would no
longer stand between him and happiness. She would never return to the
world she had so nearly quitted; she would fly far away where no one
would ever know or hear of her; or she would stay buried here in the depths
of the forest with this recluse, whoever he was, if he would permit her.
She thought of Mrs. Tom and Carl; they were the only ones in the wide
world who cared for her. How would they account for her absence?—what
construction would they put on her sudden flight? She could not tell: but
she felt, long before this, that they had given her up for lost, and this grief
for her loss would soon abate. Yes, her resolution was taken—she would
never go back to the island more.
With this determination taken, her mind grew calm; for hers was not a
nature for long or passionate grief. It is true, she wept convulsively at times;
but this mood would soon pass away, and she would lie quietly, calmly for
hours after, watching the trees sleeping in the sunshine, willing to submit
quietly to whatever the future might have in store for her—like a stray leaf
whirling down the stream of life, willing to set whichever way the current
willed.
Her strange, rough-looking, but really gentle nurse was still

indefatigable in his cares for her; but, as yet, he had told her nothing of
himself, nor his object in visiting the island that night. Christie used to look
up in his hardy, honest face sometimes, and wonder vaguely, as she did
everything else, what possible reason could have brought him there.
One other circumstance perplexed her not a little. Once or twice she had
caught sight of a female form and face moving about in the outer room. It
had been only a momentary glimpse, and yet it vividly recalled the wild,
weird woman she had seen in the island on her bridal night. There was the
same pale, strange face; the same wild, streaming black hair; the same dark,
woeful eyes; and Christie trembled in superstitious terror as she thought of
her. Many times, too, she heard a light, quick footstep moving about, which
she knew could not belong to her host; the soft rustling of female garments;
and at times, but very rarely, a low, musical voice, talking softly, as if to
herself.
All this perplexed and troubled Christie; and she would have asked the
man about her, only—as he never by any chance mentioned her himself—
she feared offending him by what might seem impertinent curiosity.
In a few days Christie was well enough to sit up at the window of her
room, and drink in the health-giving, exhilarating air, and listen to the songs
of the birds in the trees around. She saw this hut—for it was little more—
was situated in the very depths of the great forest, far removed from every
other habitation. As yet, she had not stepped beyond the precincts of her
narrow chamber; but, one morning, tempted out by the genial warmth and
invigorating beauty of the day, she had arisen for the purpose of going out
for a short walk.
As she entered the outer room, she glanced around with some curiosity.
It was a small, square apartment, scarcely larger than the one she had
quitted, containing little furniture, and that of the rudest kind. Two small,
uncurtained windows admitted the bright sunshine, and opposite the door
was a low, smoky-looking fire place. A bed occupied one corner, and a
primitive-looking deal table the other.
No one was in the room; but the door was wide open, and in the porch
beyond Christie caught sight of a female sitting on the ground, with her
back toward her. There was no mistaking those long, black, flowing tresses,
and for a moment she hesitated and drew back in terror. But her attitude and
manner showed her to be no phantom of an excited imagination, but a
woman like herself; and curiosity proving stronger than dread, Christie
softly approached her, but with a fluttering heart.
Whether the woman heard her or not, she did not move, and Christie
was permitted to approach and look over her shoulder unnoticed. A little
gray and white kitten was in her lap, which went spinning round and round
after a straw which the woman held above its head, now and then breaking
into a peal of silvery laughter at its futile attempts to catch it.
Surprise at this unexpected occupation held Christie for a time spell-

bound; but reassured now that the person she beheld was flesh and blood
like herself, she passed her and went out.
For a moment the strange woman looked up from her occupation and
glanced at Christie; and then, without further notice, resumed her play with
the kitten, just as if she had not seen her at all. But in that one brief, fleeting
glance, Christie read her sad story. The woman before her was insane.
In mingled sorrow, surprise, and curiosity, Christie stood gazing upon

her. She could do so with perfect impunity, for the woman never raised her
eyes to look at her after that one careless, passing glance, every faculty
being apparently absorbed by her straw and her kitten. In years, she might
have been five-and-thirty, with a face which, it spite of its total want of
expression, was still singularly beautiful. Her tall, slender form was
exquisitely rounded, and her long, rich, waving hair floated like black
raveled silk over her fair, sloping shoulders. Every feature was beautifully
chiseled; her complexion dazzlingly fair, almost transparent; and her large,
black, brilliant eyes magnificent, despite their vacant, idiotic stare. Her
hands and feet were of most aristocratic smallness and whiteness; for she
wore neither shoes nor stockings. Her dress was of coarse brown serge, but
it could not mar the beautiful form it covered.
Moments passed unheeded, while Christie stood gazing sadly on the

lovely wreck of womanhood before her, and wondering what could have
driven her insane, and why she and this man dwelt alone here, so far
removed from human habitation. She wondered what relation they bore to
each other. He could not be her father—he was not old enough for that;
neither could he be her brother—they were too totally dissimilar in looks.
Perhaps he was her husband; but even that did not seem probable.
While she thus idly speculated, the woman suddenly arose, and clasping
her kitten in her arms, turned and walked rapidly away in the direction of
the woods, without once glancing at Christie, and was soon lost to sight
amid the trees.
"Who can she be?" thought Christie; "it is certainly the same one I saw
that night on the island, though she was raving mad, and this one seems
perfectly harmless. I thought her a ghost that night, and fainted; and he had
to tell Aunt Tom some story of his own invention to account for it."
The thought brought back the past so vividly to her mind, that the
maniac was forgotten, and, sitting down on a fallen tree, she buried her face
in her hands and gave way to a passionate burst of grief.
It was soon over. Christie's paroxysms of sorrow never lasted long, but
exhausted themselves by their very violence, and she arose to survey the
place which seemed destined to be her future home.
It was a beautiful sylvan spot. The cabin was built in a sort of natural
semi-circle, surrounded on all sides by the dense primeval forest. A smooth
grass-plot sloped gently, for some three yards in front of the house, and then
was broken on one side by clumps of bushes, and on the other by a little
clear, crystal stream, that danced over the white pebbles, flashing like pearls
in the sunlight. Behind the house, was a sort of vegetable garden, with a
narrow space reserved for flowers, betokening the refined taste of the
gardener. The house itself was a low, rough, unpretending looking cabin of
the smallest and plainest dimensions. Not a sound broke the deep stillness,
save the musical ripple of the little stream, the songs of the birds, the soft
swaying of the trees, and involuntarily, the deep peace of the scene passed
into Christie's heart, soothing it into calmness once more.
As she sat gazing around, a heavy footstep came crashing through the
trees, and the next moment her host stood before her, with a gun in one
hand, and a game-bag, well filled, slung over his shoulder.
He advanced to where she sat, looking surprised and pleased to see her
there.
"So thee has ventured out, my daughter!" he said, with his kindly voice
and kindlier smile. "I am glad to see thee able to leave thy room once
more."
"Yes; the day was so fine and the sunshine so bright and warm, I could
not resist the temptation," said Christie. "I see you have been shooting with
good success."
"Yes; game is plenty in our woods," he answered, replacing his gun on a

couple of hooks in the porch. "But thee had better come in now; it is not
good for thee to sit too long in the hot sun, thee knows."
Christie rose half reluctantly and followed him into the house.
The man drew a low wicker rocking-chair close to the open window,
and said:
"Sit thee there, child. I know invalids, like thee, like to rock back and
forward; it's very quieting to the feelings. I must get the dinner, now."
"Let me help you," said Christie, anxious to be useful. "Let me get the
dinner."
"By no means, daughter," said the man, with his pleasant smile; "thee is
too weak to work yet, and besides, I have nothing else to do. Sit thee down
there, for, now that thee is strong enough to bear it, I want to have a little
talk with thee."
Christie sank anxiously into the chair, and waited for what was to come.
The man took a brace of partridges out of his bag, and, placing them on the
table, drew up his chair, and began taking off the feathers and conversing
with Christie at the same time.
"First, my daughter, I should like to know what is thy name?"
"Christie," was the response.
"Hast thee no other?"
"I am sometimes called Tomlinson, but that is not my name. I am an

orphan, and live with my aunt."
"Where is thy native place?"
"Campbell's Island," said Christie, in a slightly tremulous voice.
"Ah!" said the man, in some surprise, "if I had known that I would not
have brought thee here. I thought thee was a stranger. Does thee belong to
the Campbells?"
"No, sir; I lived with Mrs. Tom, the widow who resides in the island."
"Yes, yes, I see," said the host, thoughtfully; "I have seen the woman
thee means. But, how came thee, child, to be lying stabbed on the beach
that stormy night?"
"Sir, there is a long story connected with that—which at present, you

must excuse my not telling. I cannot do so without involving others, and
that I do not wish to do," replied Christie, trying to steady her trembling
voice.
"As thee pleases, child, as thee pleases," said the man, kindly. "Do not
speak of it, if it hurts thy feelings. I merely asked from the interest I take in
thee. But how about returning to thy friends? Thee wishes to do so, I
suppose?"
"Oh, no, no, no!" cried Christie, with involuntary vehemence. "Oh, I
never wish to go back again!"
"Does thee not?" said her host, fixing his strong gray eyes on her face in
grave surprise. "Thee has good reasons for that, doubtless?"
"Oh, I have, I have! Some day I will tell you all, but not now. I have no
one to accuse or to blame; and the only friends I have, have ceased to think
of me as living before this. If I returned to them, there are many who would
be rendered miserable for life; and as they all think me dead, I intend to be
so to them."
All her courage gave way here, and bowing her face in her hands, she
gave way to one of her wild, passionate bursts of tears.
The man's face expressed deep sympathy and compassion; he did not
speak nor interrupt her till the violence of her sudden grief was abated, and
then he inquired, in his customary, quiet tone:
"And what does thee intend to do, my daughter?"

"I do not know yet," said Christie, raising her head. "I will go away
somewhere and work for my living, where I will never be heard of again."
"Poor little one, what can thee do for a living?" said the man,
compassionately. "Thee is too small and delicate to work, and never was
made to buffet the storms of this rough world."
"I will not have to wait long. I will die!" said Christie, sadly.
"That thee will, if thee takes thy place among the workers in the outer
circle of life. So thee is fully determined never to go back to thy friends?"
"Oh, never, never! I would rather die. All I wish, all I hope and pray for,
is that they never discover I am alive."
"Then stay with us; thee will not have to work at all, and no one will
ever hear of thee any more than if thee wast thousands of miles away. We
are buried here in the very heart of the forest, where people very rarely
come; and if any one did come, thee could easily be concealed till he went
away. I know it is dull and lonely here, but thee will get reconciled to that in
time."
"Oh, this is just what I wished, but I hardly dared hope for!" exclaimed
Christie, with sparkling eyes. "How can I ever thank you for your generous
offer?"
"I do not wish for thanks, my daughter; and thee will oblige me, friend
Christie, by not mentioning it more. Thou wilt be very useful, and can take
care of Bertha, who is insane, but quite harmless. Thou hast seen her, has
thee not?"
"The handsome woman with the dark hair and eyes? Yes," replied
Christie.
"Then that is settled," said the man, with a smile; "and now that I have
questioned thee, it is thy turn. Does thee wish to ask something?"
"Oh, yes, ever so many things," said Christie; "but I am afraid you may
not like—that you may be offended."
"There is no danger of that, my daughter. I may not choose to answer

some of thy questions, but I will not be offended, let thee say what thee
will."
"Well, then," said Christie, with a faint smile, "to begin catechising alter
the same fashion as yourself, may I ask your name and that of the lady who
lives here?"
"Yes; her name is Bertha Campbell—mine is Reuben Deerwood; thee

may call me Uncle Reuben, if thee likes."
"Then she is no relation to you?"
"She is my cousin—no more."
"Once before," said Christie, hesitatingly, "I asked you about how you
came to be on the island that stormy night. You did not tell me then. May I
repeat the question now?"
"Certainly. Bertha, though usually quiet, has certain paroxysms of

violence, during which, with the usual cunning of insanity, she sometimes
eludes my vigilance and escapes. On these occasions she goes down to the
shore, takes a boat, and goes over to the island. I, of course, follow her; and
it was one of these times I happened to be there. That afternoon she had
gone over, and was wandering through the pine woods. I went after her, and
just reached the island as that furious storm came on. I wandered around for
a long time without finding her, and in my search, somewhere about
midnight, I providentially chanced to reach the spot where thee lay
wounded and exposed to the fury of the storm. The tide was rising on the
shore, and five minutes later thee would have been swept away. I lifted thee
in my arms and carried thee down to the boat, instead of following my first
intention of leaving thee at the cottage or at Campbell's Lodge. I did not
wish to let it be known I was on the island. Then I heard a voice screaming
'Murder!' and knew it must be Bertha; so I set off to look for her again, and
found her just coming out of the lodge. I had to bind her hand and foot and
tie a handkerchief over her mouth to keep her quiet; and there I waited till
the storm had abated.
"It was near noon the next day when we reached the shore, a quarter of
a mile below here; and Bertha's paroxysm being over, she followed me
quietly home, while I carried thee. I feared thee was dead for a long time,
and only I happened to have some knowledge of surgery, thee never would
have recovered. That is the whole history," said Uncle Reuben, rising with a
smile, and hanging his partridges over the fire to roast.
A light had broken on the mind of Christie while he spoke. This woman
must be the apparition that had so often been seen on the isle, and had given
it the name of being haunted.
"May I ask," she said, eagerly, "if this—if Bertha has been in the habit
of visiting the island?"
"Yes, such is her habit at times," said Reuben, gravely. "About the full
of the moon she gets these bad turns, and generally makes her escape to the
island, though sometimes I prevent her. Has thee ever seen her there?"
"Yes, once," said Christie; "but I thought she was a spirit."
"More than thee has thought that, friend Christie; but thee need not be
afraid of her; she is perfectly harmless."
"Why is it she always goes to the island at such times?" said Christie,
curiously.
The man's face clouded.
"There is a long story connected with that, my daughter—a sad story of

wrong and crime. Some day I will tell it to thee, if thee reminds me of it."
"How long has she been insane?"
"Nearly fourteen years."

"A long time, indeed. I should like to hear her history very much. Do
you not fear she has gone to the island now? I saw her go into the woods an
hour ago."
"No; she has only gone for a stroll through the trees, or to look for
berries; she will soon be back—and here she is," he added, as the woman
Bertha abruptly entered, her kitten still in her arms; and, without looking or
speaking to either of them, she sat down on a low stool and began sorting
some pine cones held in her lap.
All this time the man Reuben had been getting dinner and setting the
table, proving himself to be as good a cook as a nurse. In a few minutes it
was smoking on the table, and then he went over, and, touching the woman
on the shoulder, said gently:
"Is thee ready for dinner, Bertha?"
"Yes," she said, rising promptly and taking her seat.
Christie took the place pointed out to her, and Uncle Reuben, taking the
head of the table, did the honors.
Then, when the meal was over, Bertha resumed her stool and her pine
cones; Christie took the rocking-chair by the window, and Reuben busied
himself in clearing away the dinner dishes and setting things to rights.
Weak still, and exhausted by the efforts of the morning, Christie threw
herself on her bed during the course of the afternoon, and fell into the
profound and refreshing sleep of bodily weariness, from which she did not
awaken until the bustle of preparing supper aroused her.
In the evening Reuben took down an old, antiquated-looking Bible and

read a few chapters aloud, and then they all retired to their separate
couches.
And thus began Christie's new life—a life of endless monotony, but one
of perfect peace. As the days passed on, bringing with them no change or
excitement, she gradually settled down into a sort of dreamy lethargy,
disturbed now and then as some circumstance would forcibly recall all she
had loved and lost forever, by short, passionate outbursts of grief, but which
were always followed by a deeper and more settled melancholy than before.
CHAPTER XXV.
THE MANIAC'S STORY.

"All was confused and undefined
In her all-jarred and wandering mind;
A chaos of wild hopes and fears—
And now in laughter, now in tears,
But madly still in each extreme,
She strove with that convulsive dream."—BYRON.
Autumn was at hand. The woods were gorgeous in their radiant robes of
gold, and purple, and crimson. Christie's chief pleasure was in wandering
through the forest, and gazing on the brilliant jewelry of Nature. The weeks
that had passed, had restored her to health; but her step had not regained its
elastic lightness; her voice had lost its old joyous tones; her once roseate
cheek had lost forever its vivid bloom; and the bright, joyous light of hope
and happiness had died out in the deep, melancholy, blue eyes. She moved
through the little forest cabin, the shadow of her former self, pale, wan, and
spiritual. And in looking at her slight, delicate figure, her fair, transparent
little face, with its sad, haunting eyes, you might have thought her some fair
vision of another world, and almost expect to see her fade away before your
very eyes.
It was very lonesome, buried there in the depths of the forest, with no
companions but the man Reuben and the maniac Bertha. But its very
loneliness made it all the more welcome to our little recluse, who dreaded
nothing so much as a discovery; and in roaming through the grand old
woods, she felt she never wanted to leave this solitary spot again. At any
other time she would have shrank in terror from the prospect of passing the
long, dreary winter here, when even the comfort of these walks would be
denied her. How little did she dream of all that was to occur before that
winter came.
Reuben's journeys to N—— to buy necessaries for the little family,

were the only incidents that broke the unvarying monotony of their life. At
first, Christie had been somewhat afraid of remaining alone with Bertha;
but, finding she was, as Reuben had said, perfectly harmless—sitting for
hours together playing with her kitten—she had soon recovered from this
fear. Love was a necessity of Christie's life, and as time passed, she learned
to love Bertha with a deep, earnest love that sometimes surprised even
herself. The maniac, too, in her fitful, uncertain way, seemed to return this
love, and would sit for half a day at a time, with her head lying in Christie's
lap, and the vacant, childish smile on her face.
As for Reuben, no one could know him, with his simple goodness and
benevolence, without loving him; and Christie already loved and revered
him as a father, while he felt an affection for his little stray waif, second
only to that which he felt for Bertha.
As yet, he had not told her the history of the maniac; and Christie, for
the most part, absorbed in her own sad thoughts, had almost forgotten it; but
one cold and blustering night, as she drew her low rocking-chair up to the
fire, while her nimble fingers busily flew in making some warm clothing for
the winter, she reminded him of his promise, and urged him to relate it.
Bertha had already retired, and lay asleep in her bed in the corner of the
kitchen; and Reuben, his day's work done, sat opposite Christie, making
wicker-baskets, which he was in the habit of taking to N—— at intervals, to
sell, and which constituted the principal income of the family.
"It seems a sad thing to recall days so long past," said Reuben, with a
sigh; "but thee deserves to know, Christie, for waiting so long, patiently.
And, my daughter, when thee hears, thee may think it strange that there
should be so much wickedness in this world; but the Lord will redeem His
servants in His own good time."
"Let me see; it requires time to look so far back. My father was a farmer
living in Connecticut, and belonged to the Society of Friends. He had a
brother, it seems—a wild youth, who ran away at the age of sixteen, and
went to sea. Eight years passed before they received any news whether he
was living or dead, and then a letter came to my father from him, saying he
was in Spain, in a place called Grenada, and was married to a Spanish girl
of that place.
"After that, for fourteen years more, we heard nothing else from him,
until one cold winter's night, as we were all sitting round the fire, there
came a knock at the door, and when one of my sisters opened it, a man,
dressed like a sailor, entered, leading a little girl of twelve years by the
hand. That man was my father's long-absent brother, whose wife was dead,
and who wished to place the child with his friends before he went to sea
again. That child is now the maniac Bertha thee sees on that bed."
Uncle Reuben's lips quivered a little as his eyes fell on the still beautiful
face of the sleeper, and Christie listened with a look of the deepest interest.
"Bertha, though only a child then," said Uncle Reuben, resuming his
work, "was taller and more womanly looking than many girls of sixteen,
with the most beautiful face thee ever saw in thy life. My three sisters were
then accounted very handsome girls by everybody, but they were no more
to be compared to her than candles are to stars. They had fine, healthy
features, and red cheeks, and round, merry faces, but she had a dark, oval
face, with long, beautiful black curls, and large, melancholy, dark eyes. Ah,
my daughter, thee looks as if thee thought her beautiful still, but she is
nothing now to what she was then.
"Bertha could speak very little English then—hardly a word—and I

remember how the villagers used to laugh at her attempts to talk with them;
but when they looked at her mourning-dress, and sad, beautiful face, their
laughter quickly ceased.
"Her father, who, though not rich, had some money, wished her to be
sent to some good boarding-school, where she could acquire a good
education. He was going off on some voyage, in which he expected to make
his fortune; and when he came back, he said Bertha should be a great lady.
"Accordingly, three weeks after she came, she was sent away to a
boarding-school, and I do not think there was one sorrier to bid her good-by
then than I was. Her father the next day went away in his ship, destined to
some far-off place, which he was never doomed to reach, for a month after
news came that the vessel was wrecked, and all hands cast away; so that
Bertha had now no living relatives in this country except us.
"As her father before he went had made abundant provision for her
schooling, in case anything should happen, Bertha remained five years at
school. We saw very little of her all this time, for she mostly spent her
vacations with her friends, the school girls; but when the period of her stay
had elapsed, she came back to the old homestead. We had parted from her a
beautiful child, but she returned a woman—peerless, superb—a perfect
vision of beauty. Everybody was raving about her. All the young men, far
and near, were in love with her; but Bertha never seemed to care for any of
them, and used to spend her time embroidering, or reading, or playing on
the guitar, and singing Spanish songs about 'beautiful Grenada.' I was a
young man then, about seven-and-twenty years of age; and I, too, like the
rest fell in love with my beautiful, dark-eyed cousin. It was a hopeless love,
and I knew it. I felt that she was as far above me as heaven is above the
earth, and I locked my secret in my own bosom, and resolved I would never
give her a moment's pain by telling her of it.
"I was, however, her favorite; there were two more brothers, but she
liked me best—but only with a sisterly love. To me alone she used to speak
of the vine-clad hills of Spain; of her beautiful dead mother, and of her
longings for sunny Grenada once more. And I used to sit and listen, and
sympathize with her, and keep down the yearning desire that used to fill my
heart to kneel at her feet and ask her to give me the right to take her there.
"Ah, little Christie, thee may wonder how such a rough, uncouth man as
I am could ever feel love like this; but I could have died then for my
beautiful cousin, though she, nor no one else, ever dreamed I cherished for

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Coordinate Geometry for JEE (Advanced), 3rd edition G.

Undergraduate Introduction to Financial Mathematics, an

All Roads Lead to You Jackie Ashenden

All Roads Lead to You Jackie Ashenden

Vectors and 3D Geometry for JEE (Advanced) 3rd Edition

The Back Roads to March John Feinstein [Feinstein

Affine Algebraic Geometry: Geometry of Polynomial Rings

Strategy: An Introduction to Game Theory (Third

1 Rules of the Road: Axiomatic Systems 1

2 Many Ways to Go: Axiom Sets for Geometry 35

2.5 Birkhoff's Axioms for Euclidean Geometry 61

3 Traveling Together: Neutral Geometry 82

4 One Way to Go: Euclidean Geometry of the Plane. 124

5 Side Trips: Analytical and Transformational Geometry 241

6 Other Ways to Go: Non~Euclidean Geometries . . 323

6.7 Classifying Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

7 All Roads Lead to ... : Projective Geometry . 432

Appendix A ....... .474

Appendix C ...................... . 481

Appendix D ............. . 483

Index . .... .499

At the end of each section is an ample collection of exercises of varying

1.1 Historical Background

Thales of Miletus (ca. 64O-ca. 546 B.C.)

Pythagoras (ca. 56O-ca. 480 B.C.)

Hippocrates of Chios (ca. 460-ca. 380 B.C.)

Plato (ca. 427-ca. 348 B.C.)

the theory of irrationals, to the study of regular polyhedra, and to a derivation

Eudoxus (ca. 400-ca. 347 B.C.)

Euclid (ca. 330-ca. 270 B.C.)

7Calinger, Classics of Mathematics, p. 69.

of a minimal set of assumptions, and the natural progression of simple re-

length of the hypotenuse by the formula c b + (~~).

3. The following was translated from a Babylonian tablet created about

10. One of the three famous problems of antiquity was to construct a

1.2 Axiomatic Systems and Their Properties

HISTORICAL NOTE: ARIST01LE (CA. 384-CA. 322 B.C.) Aristotle is known

The Axiomatic Method

3. The axiomatic system contains a set of statements, dealing with unde-

4. All other statements of the system must be logical consequences of the

initions is at best unsatisfying, so the collection of definitions must end at

To illustrate an axiomatic system and the relationships among its unde-

Fe-Fo Theorem 1. Two distinct Fo's contain exactly one Fe.

Fe-Fo Theorem 2. There are exactly three Fo's.

In the following section we will investigate the consequences of giving

you in the Exercises) become correct statements under the interpretation in

P +'T Bob {P, Q} +'T Entertainment Committee

This model is also isomorphic to the model in Example 1.2.4. Why?

Woods ~-' Great •• ' '.

~.;:: ...... " " " ' " ....,

not necessarily an isomorphism, consider the following example, in which the

{x, y} B-P {P, Q} B- z

In the next section we shall briefly investigate several important properties

Properties of Axiomatic Systems

In the next section, we will illustrate the properties of axiomatic systems

Bodily as well as mentally every faculty was prostrated. She made an

She could think no further, the recollection of that dreadful moment