Solar as a form of Renewable Energy and its Limitations in

Nigeria
AWOJI, Vincent Onoja FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/227
IBRAHIM, Usman Mohammed FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/787
AHMED, Abdulmusa wwir FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/799
MATTHEW, Joseph FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/811
JIBRIN, Habib Salisu FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/823
CHIBUNDU, George FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/836
ANTHONY, Bako Buru FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/850
DANLADI, Saleh Madaki FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/220
ASHIRU, Yusuf FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/780
OKUNOLA, Kehinde Samuel FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/792
AKESH, Godwin Moses FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/804
IDOKO, Augusine FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/816
IWODI, Abel FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/829
HAMZAT, Saheed Olushola FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/842

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARAWA
P.M.B 001 NASARAWA, NASARAWA STATE

MARCH, 202
 Solar as a form of Renewable Energy and its Limitations in
Nigeria

A TECHNICAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FOR THE AWARD OF
HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND)
IN
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
By
AWOJI, Vincent Onoja FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/227
IBRAHIM, Usman Mohammed FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/787
AHMED, Abdulmusa wwir FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/799
MATTHEW, Joseph FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/811
JIBRIN, Habib Salisu FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/823
CHIBUNDU, George FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/836
ANTHONY, Bako Buru FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/850
DANLADI, Saleh Madaki FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/220
ASHIRU, Yusuf FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/780
OKUNOLA, Kehinde Samuel FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/792
AKESH, Godwin Moses FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/804
IDOKO, Augusine FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/816
IWODI, Abel FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/829
HAMZAT, Saheed Olushola FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/842

MARCH, 2022

viii
 Declaration

We hereby declared this project is all our own work and has not been copied in part or

in whole from any other sources. All previous project work, publications, books,

journals, magazines, internet sources have been adequately referenced within the main

report.

Name: Signature: Date:

Project Supervisor: Signature: Date:

External Examiner: Signature: Date:

Engr. Obande O. Jonathan

Head of Department

Name: Engr. Y.S Mohammed

Signature:

Date:

viii
 Letter of Transmittal

School of Engineering Technology

Department of Electrical/Electronic

Engineering Technology

Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa

P.M.B 001

Nasarawa state.

The Head of Department

Electrical/Electronic Technology

Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa

Nasarawa.

Dear Sir,

HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA PROJECT SUBMISSION

In compliance with the policy of the institution, which stipulates that every student at

the end of his//her programme in the school is expected to carry out a supervised

project on design and construction/implementation, we hereby submit our project

titled “Solar as a form of Renewable Energy and its Limitations in Nigeria” in

partial fulfilment for the award of Higher National Diploma in Electrical/Electronic

Engineering in the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa.

Yours faithfully

AWOJI, Vincent Onoja

FPN/ S04/2020/2021/HEEP/227
For the group

viii
 Acknowledgements

The proponents would like to extend their gratitude and appreciation to the Lord God

Almighty, and the following persons who have shown their support and have been an

integral part in the progress and completion of this project.

To Engr. Mohammed Y. S, our HOD and Engr. Eyigege A. I, our project supervisor,

for their patience and assistance in the preparation and completion of this project

viii
 Table of Contents

Item Page

Title Page………………………………………………………………………….. i
Declaration ……………………………………………………………………….. ii
Letter of Transmittal………………………………………………………………. iii
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………….. iv
Table of Content ………………………………………………………………….. v
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………. vi
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………... vii
Definition of Terms ………………………………………………………………. viii
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………… ix

Chapter 1 - Introduction..............................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the Study.................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement...........................................................................................4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Project.........................................................................6
1.3.1 Aim...........................................................................................................6

1.3.2 Objectives.................................................................................................6

1.4 Justification of the Study.................................................................................7

1.5 Significant of the Study...................................................................................7
1.6 Scope and Limitation of project......................................................................9
Chapter 2 - Literature Review..................................................................................10
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................10
2.1 Large-scale generation potential of ‘solar thermal’.......................................11
2.2 Historical Background of the Project............................................................12
2.3 Solar water pumping: a model of simplicity.................................................12
Chapter 3 - Methodology and Implementation.......................................................15
3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................15
3.2 Lessons from early pilot................................................................................16
3.3 Strength and issues with solar.......................................................................17
3.3.1 The competition: Generators & Kerosene..............................................17

3.3.2 Feed-in Tariffs’......................................................................................18

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 3.4 System Coding (Optional).............................................................................20
Chapter 4 - Test and Result Analysis.......................................................................21
4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................21
4.2 Not a “single market”....................................................................................23
4.2.1 Household choices, energy efficiency and renewable...........................24

4.3 Consumer education, choices and supply chains...........................................26

Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Recommendations......................................................27
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................27
5.2 Summary and Conclusion..............................................................................28
5.2.1 Summary................................................................................................28

5.2.2 Conclusion..............................................................................................29

5.3 Recommendations.........................................................................................29

viii
 List of Figures
Figure Page
2.1 Basic components of a D.C solar water – pumping system 14
3.2 Global opportunities for solar thermal power plants 11
4.1 Estimated electricity demand in Nigeria 23

viii
 List of Tables
Figure Page
3.4 Bill of Engineering measurement and evaluation 20
4.1 Changing energy efficiency for household products in Nigeria 24

viii
 Definitions of Terms:

GSM -- Global System for Mobile Communication

CMOS-- Complementary Metal Oxide

DC -- Direct Current
DOF --- Degree Of Freedom
DSP-- Digital Signal Processor

Quantity Unit Symbol

Voltage Volt V
Current Ampere A
0
Temperature Degree Celsius C

viii
 Abstract

Nigeria, potentially, has abundant sunshine throughout the year, making it viable
for solar energy generation. Even though, the country’s solar energy projects have
not realised a fair result over the years due to many barriers associated with
initiatives implementation. Therefore, the entire power sector remains incapacitated
to generate, transmit and distribute a clean, affordable and sustainable energy to
assist economic growth. The research integrated five African counterpart’s solar
energy initiatives, barriers, policies and strategies adopted as a lesson learned to
Nigeria. Inadequate solar initiative's research, lack of technological know-how,
short-term policies, lack of awareness and political instability are the major barriers
that made the implementation of solar initiatives almost impossible in Nigeria. The
shock of the barriers therefore, constitutes a major negative contribution to the
crippling of the power sector in the state. Future research will concentrate on
initiatives for mitigating solar and other renewable energy barriers.
.

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction

Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Solar energy contributes a tiny fraction of power generation in Nigeria, although, the

country receives maximum sunlight exposure, potential for solar PV. Nigeria is in the

solar belt, which heightens its solar potential but sadly, the opportunities for

harnessing the renewable energies remained narrow and unpractical compare to the

conventional electricity. Traditionally, solar energy in the country has predominantly

been used for various activities by employing the open to the sun method, mostly in

the rural communities. Solar electricity generation, on the other hand, emerged

approximately two decades ago and it has seen a steady growth. The primary drivers

for the solar power uptake in the country are attributed to research centres and energy

institutions, initiatives apart from the huge electricity production deficits. Besides the

learning and research institutions, government and international agencies' activities

have led to the development of the largest solar-PV plants across the country. The

major aims for the various solar electricity generation initiatives include the

enhancement of water supply and the maintenance of clinics and healthcare facilities

in the rural areas.

Nigeria is blessed with the abundance of solar radiation throughout the year.

However, according to only the exact utilisable solar resource base, formerly available

in the state is unknown despite the huge financial commitment towards ensuring

sustainable electricity in the country. They further added that Nigeria lacks the proper

equipment and infrastructure to conduct solar radiation measurement. At the moment,

Nigeria operates about thirty (30) measuring stations which are managed by the

Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NMA). These are airport based and the data from

these stations are used to calculate an estimate probability for solar radiation in the

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
country. They are little local research and development activities related to solar

energy in Nigeria. According to surveys conducted by the Energy Commission of

Nigeria (ECN) in 1999 and, it was gathered that there are about 44 companies and

research centres responsible for the importation and installation of photovoltaic

systems in Nigeria. Out of these, only one company (Exide Batteries Nigeria Limited)

produces batteries that are used for photovoltaic solar systems. Solar energy potential

Nigeria is located in the solar belt with an average sunshine of up to 9 hours per day,

equivalent to 5.5 kWhm-2 days-1 degrees of solar radiation are seen almost

throughout the year. The availability of massive radiations combined with the

developments in the photovoltaic technologies makes it clear that huge amounts of

electricity can be generated and utilised to combat the country’s electricity crises that

has become an obstacle to economic development. Given the large amounts of

incident radiation, installing solar panels on at least one percent of the country’s

geography can easily generate enough electricity to outdo the amount currently

produced in the country. Annually, the state receives up to 115, 000 times its total

energy production through solar energy. This fact highlights the immense amount of

energy which the country can benefit from the solar energy, bearing in mind that

currently, solar energy contributes less than one percent of the total power generation.

Solar energy is the most stable and reliable source of energy that can be harnessed for

the benefit of domestic and commercial purposes. They further argued that, in line

with the objectives of cutting down global warming through limiting the use of carbon

fossils, solar energy has emerged to be a strategic component for achieving the

sustainable development goals. Not only it is environmentally friendly, but it is also

free and available in Nigeria. Electricity is not only produced cheaply, but also

environmentally friendly.

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
The national energy policy of 2003 approved by the federal government of Nigeria

was aimed at leveraging the latent potential in power generation. The plan highlights

the need to develop energy using sustainable and environmentally friendly sources.

The policy emphasised on electricity generation with the use of solar power among

other renewable energy sources. Regarding stakeholder composition in the energy

production, the policy is much oriented towards the integration of public private

partnership (PPP). Essentially, the policy based on hope that the private sector will

take up the production, acquisition and distribution of renewable energy sources in the

country.

The broad objectives of the policy include the generation of electricity in the rural

areas, the creation of employment opportunities, environmental protection and

mitigation of climate change and the diversification of energy production in the

country. Besides other objectives, is to develop the country’s solar utilisation

capabilities. The electric power sector reform Act of 2005 is the second policy

formulated with aims to overcome the historic energy crisis in Nigeria. The plan’s

principal objective was the liberalisation of the electricity generation industry to allow

private investors to take part in energy generation, transmission and distribution. The

country’s planners envision that by 2020 the country will be the 20th largest economy

in the world. Bearing in mind the fact that power generation comes second to political

goodwill in a country’s development, the planners had to align energy production to

their vision. Solar energy was therefore slated to be the major boost to the country’s

developments.

The policies highlighted above have a huge impact as far as solar energy generation in

Nigeria is concerned. For instance, the Power Reform Act of 2005 has allowed private

investors to get involved in the power generation exercises. This measure has enabled

the country to achieve some of its short-term energy objectives with rural areas being

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
the primary beneficiaries. The aligning of solar power generation with the country’s

Vision 2020 has also ensured that the program features in most government plans. For

example, in parliamentary procedure to bring down the cost of the new textiles, the

Nigerian government has removed duty on solar modules being imported into the

country.

1.2 Problem Statement

Despite the many benefits that can be accrued from the use of solar energy and its

potential, it is still a largely untapped resource in Nigeria. The major impediments to

the technology adoption are series of barriers which make it hard to implement. These

barriers include:

1. Technical Barriers
2. Socio-cultural Behaviour
3. Economic and Financial Barriers
4. Institutional/ Legal barriers
5. Political/ Policy Issues
6. Market Distortion Issues

Comparing Nigeria to Other African Countries

Apart from Nigeria, the other countries in Africa which have successfully adopted

solar PV Panels include Morocco, South Africa, Ghana, Chad, and Kenya. Morocco

so far has one of the most ambitious solar projects in the world. The Moroccan

government sets some policies to direct their energy industry: The National plan of

priority actions (PNAP) and the National Energy Strategy (NES). The NES major

objective is to ensure that 20% of the country’s energy needs is met through

renewable energies. Similarly, other related goal was to ensure that the country attains

an energy efficiency of 20% by 2020 and a further 15 % by the dawn of 2030. The

PNAP policy on the other hand aimed at diversifying the fuel varieties and their

sources. Subsequently, other policy, is the provision of energy in all sectors and at

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
relatively competitive prices. The renewable promotion was another major objective

aimed at heightening energy efficiency. Finally, a policy was also aimed at integrating

markets from the euro-Mediterranean region. Morocco is on track towards the

achievement of its energy objectives with the generation of 500MW of solar

electricity having been initiated. The beginning stage of the project amounting to

160MW was completed in February 2016 with the other phases being scheduled to be

finalised in 2018. South Africa, on the other hand, has also developed some policies to

direct its renewable energy generating sector. South Africa’s most important energy

policy is the integrated resource plan. The plan outlines the country’s aims to develop

up to 9600 MW of solar power by the dawn of 2030. Resultantly, the solar electricity

generation in the country has moved from nil to a point where it has provided a

significant contribution to the national grid. Furthermore, the rapid developments in

the industry can be imputed to the friendly policies which contributed to the

liberalisation of the sector. In combination with the relatively affordable Solar PVs,

the industry has witnessed tremendous growth. Ghana has also made strides towards

the development of its solar energy generation capacity. The government’s resolution

is captured in its policies which include the national energy policy of 2010, aimed at

introducing public-private partnership in the development of infrastructure. The other

policy was the Ghana sustainable energy for all action plans 2012 and was aimed at

the development of renewable energy technologies. The government also developed a

strategic national energy plan for 2006 to 2020. The plan as the title insinuates, was to

outline the role of renewable in the national grid. The various policies set by the

government have had a positive impact on the development of renewable in the

country and specifically solar power generation. For instance, the country could add

20MW of solar energy to its national grid. To achieve the SDGs, Chad initiated a

myriad of measures towards the generation of power. One important renewable

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
energy policy formulated by the country’s government is the system of renewable.

The policy is aimed at providing the necessary framework for developing renewable

energy schemes. There has been a great success as far as the attainment of renewable

energy goals is concerned. For instance, recently, the country benefited from a

sustainable energy fund for Africa loan aimed at the development of a 40MW solar

plant in the country. Kenya is optimally located along the equator to access maximum

sunlight throughout the year. According to the country experiences up to 300 days of

sunlight within a year this highlighting the potential that it has regard to the

generation of solar energy. The government has put in place some policies to ensure

the seamless development of the renewable energy industry. The policies include

scaling up renewable energy program put into effects the elimination of import duties

and value added tax (VAT) on all renewable energy-related imports. The government

has also introduced a feed-in tariff to help the uptake of the energy produced from

renewable sources such as solar power. The measures taken by the government have

generated positive results as attributed to the proliferation of solar firms in the

country. Despite the potential of renewable energy, especially solar PV in particular

Nigeria, the implementation suffers from various challenges which is further

discussed.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Project

1.3.1 Aim
- The aim of this project is to analyse the Limitations and Barriers facing solar

electric energy in Nigeria

1.3.2 Objectives
The objectives of this project include

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
- This paper seeks mainly to explore some familiar but poorly understood territory

—primarily solar power and energy efficiency, with their implications and

potential for Nigeria. It links to work on the power sector, which highlights some

of the weaknesses for proposed rapid privatisation, with all the associated risks for

those in rural areas and on low incomes.

1.4 Justification of the Study

In Nigeria, solar lighting for households has shifted from a marginal experiment with

serious cost issues to one of significant potential. Collaborations and innovation

driven by international initiatives have resulted in exponential growth for small

companies operating in other parts of Africa, and a limited but growing appreciation

of the potential market and benefits in Nigeria. The most obvious potential

beneficiaries of this new generation of products in Nigeria are the large proportion of

the 70 million Nigerians estimated to have no access to grid electricity. The prospect

of reliable night-time lighting for both households and small services, without a

constant cash drain, is potentially transformational for many lives. Yet the new

products are making a modest start in Nigeria. Even though household-level products

have improved radically and come dramatically down in cost, they still require

marketing, supply chains, product support and matching with both the means and

needs of consumers. Other countries have seen a number of potential methods applied

to addressing these challenges, from micro-finance to hire purchase. These solutions

are not impossible in Nigeria but have often proved more difficult than in other low-

income countries.

1.5 Significant of the Study

The improvements in technology described in the pilots and specialist project

applications of Section 2 are occurring more broadly and extremely fast. Solar

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
lanterns and household lighting now actively promoted for those on low incomes

highlight the pace of change. In 2009, the technology was being promoted with some

enthusiasm by development organisations and small specialist companies. The cost of

a single lantern was $100–$500—difficult to justify for low-income households. Just

three years, in 2012, the technology has consolidated around a dramatically lower

price, almost unbreakable LED lighting, and battery life that can genuinely be claimed

to be in the range of 3–5 years and still improving. The cost of entry-level products is

now around $25 and the ‘payback‘ period for the capital costs of these products

compared with the daily cost of kerosene lanterns is now justifiably being asserted at

well under one year, making a whole range of new financing options feasible. Figure

3.1: Low-cost solar-powered lighting Notes: LED lights: extended life and more

robust. Lithium batteries: with guarantees of up to five years. Photo: author (Barefoot

Power 1W light). The dramatic progress in lighting is based on developments in

different aspects of the end product:

• Improved quality and price of solar panels

• Complete change in lighting technology

• New generations of affordable lithium batteries

• Elimination of components—where stand-alone systems can run directly from

batteries without inverters or replacement bulbs.

In addition to these improvements, there has already been one other key change in the

market—the emergence of a range of competing products of varying power which

provide a choice for households. There is little question that households using basic

kerosene lanterns faced a lighting deficit, with lighting inadequate to complete basic

tasks. The new generation of solar lighting products offers everything from a

significant improvement on kerosene lanterns through to small stand-alone systems

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Renewable Solar Energy Introduction
suitable for permanent use across a small house. As products and markets improve,

we can expect further gains in.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of project

This project seeks mainly to explore some familiar but poorly understood territory

primarily solar power and energy efficiency, with their implications and potential for

Nigeria. It links to work on the power sector, which highlights some of the

weaknesses for proposed rapid privatisation, with all the associated risks for those in

rural areas and on low incomes.

Coverage of wind, hydro, and biomass power in this paper is very limited—not

because they do not share potential but because further work is needed before they

can be usefully assessed for Nigeria. The short discussion of energy policy and the

recent scenario planning by a team working for the World Bank highlights the

(perhaps surprising to many) strong potential for low-carbon energy growth in

Nigeria. This is based on the potential for broad development of renewable energy,

particularly in northern Nigeria.

1.7 Structure of the project

This section will discuss the layout of the report, the chapters are;

- Chapter 2 will look at literature on Renewable Solar Energy

- Chapter 3 this involve adopting engineering methodology, then implement

the methodology Renewable Solar Energy

- Chapter 4 this section will discuss test result, all measurement and analysis

will be carrying out Renewable Solar Energy

- Chapter 5 will state the conclusion, project appraisal, and recommendation.

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Renewable Solar Energy Literature

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1Introduction
Renewable energy refers to energy from a source that is continuously replenished by

natural processes. The Earth as a resource system has a limited capacity for

supporting a growing human population with an intensive exchange of materials and

energy with its environment, hence the need for a growing awareness to achieve a

more sustainable societal use of materials. The earth receives energy directly from the

sun. It is silent, inexhaustible, and non-polluting. The power reaching the earth from

the sun is typically about 1000W/m2. The total amount of energy that the earth

receives daily is 1353W/m2. About four million tons of the sun’s matter is changed

into energy every second. The sun is the most readily and widely available renewable

energy source capable of meeting the energy needs of whole world. It can provide

more power than any fossil fuel on the planet. Solar panels are made up of solar cells

which are an array of photovoltaic cells (PV). Any type of equipment used to convert

sunlight into energy is considered solar cell or panels. The basic method for using

solar energy is to provide a system that can collect and store energy, the collector

(photo voltaic cells) is able to convert the solar radiation into electrical energy which

can then be stored as chemical energy in rechargeable batteries. Storage of this energy

is necessary for times when the Sun is not shinning and can also be delivered to the

electrical power’s transmission systems. Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light

into electricity at an atomic level. Some materials exhibit a properly known as the

photoelectric effect that cause photons and release electrons. When these electrons are

captured, or electric current that can be used to power a load.

2.2Large-scale generation potential of ‘solar thermal’

Because Nigeria has significant oil and gas supplies (plus substantial coal deposits),

renewable energy potential for power generation has been little considered. All of the
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Renewable Solar Energy Literature
pilots described here have focused on stand-alone designs, with only the most isolated

attempts to explore village-size installations. Figure 3.2, showing the intensity of solar

radiation globally, was used by Lumina Decision Systems in an outline of solar

thermal power in Nigeria for a World Bank study. It puts Nigeria on a rough par with

Spain—the largest developer of solar thermal power outside the United States.

Southern and eastern Nigeria have extended periods of significant, Cloud cover,

which reduces the intensity of solar radiation significantly. This does not mean that

solar power is not viable in southern Nigeria. Solar power has relatively

Figure 2.1: Global opportunities for solar thermal power plants

Source: Nigeria Low Carbon Plan: Power Sector: Interim Presentation October 2011,

The World Bank, Nigeria.

2.3Historical Background of the Project

In theory, solar energy was used by humans as early as 7th century B.C. when history

tells us that humans used sunlight to light fires with magnifying glass materials. Later,

in 3rd century B.C., the Greeks and Romans were known to harness solar power with

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Renewable Solar Energy Literature
mirrors to light torches for religious ceremonies. These mirrors became a normalized

tool referred to as “burning mirrors.” Chinese civilization documented the use of

mirrors for the same purpose later in 20 A.D.

Another early use for solar energy that is still popular today was the concept of

“sunrooms” in buildings. These sunrooms used massive windows to direct sunlight

into one concentrated area. Some of the iconic Roman bathhouses, typically those

situated on the south-facing side of buildings, were sunrooms. Later in the 1200s

A.D., ancestors to the Pueblo Native Americans known as the Anasazi situated

themselves in south-facing abodes on cliffs to capture the sun’s warmth during cold

winter months.

In the late 1700s and 1800s, researchers and scientists had success using sunlight to

power ovens for long voyages. They also harnessed the power of the sun to produce

solar-powered steamboats. Ultimately, it’s clear that even thousands of years before

the era of solar panels, the concept of manipulating the power of the sun was a

common practice.

2.4Solar water pumping: a model of simplicity

The provision of drinkable water has been a longstanding problem in Nigeria, with

reliance in many regions on water pumped from boreholes that are privately owned,

or sponsored or developed by government. In all of these cases, there has been

perpetual instability because of the cost of operating boreholes when grid electricity is

either unreliable or entirely absent. Boreholes in rural areas are normally reliant on

generators, which are expensive to maintain and operate. Failures of water supply

within relatively short time periods are very widespread in many parts of the country,

particularly the Niger Delta. The Niger Delta Wetlands Centre (NDWC) has been

experimenting with solar-powered water boreholes since the mid-1990s. Part of the

motivation is to mount a direct challenge to the region’s reputation for being ‘too

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Renewable Solar Energy Literature
cloudy’ for effective use of solar power. The Centre has been able to demonstrate

model water boreholes developed around several key principles and provide direct

evidence against the “too cloudy” hypothesis. The design of the NDWC borehole

water supplies relies on simplicity at all stages. Many solar systems use on a

combination of panels, charge controllers, batteries and inverters to capture, store and

then use solar-powered electricity. Each of the key components has some

requirements for maintenance and vulnerability to failure. This is a significant

challenge in an environment where planning and resources for maintenance can be

very poor, and knowledge of new technologies such as solar power is limited. The

NDWC response was to balance competing issues to arrive at a design that was as

simple and as robust as possible. By opting for a system that could pump sufficient

drinking water during the daytime, they were able to opt for a DC (direct current)

system that eliminated the need for both batteries and inverters. This immediately

removed two components that were most expensive and most vulnerable to failure.

As a compensating measure, the system pays attention to likely overall demand for

water, with tank and daytime pumping and storage capacity adjusted accordingly.

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Renewable Solar Energy Literature
Figure 2.2: Basic components of a DC solar water-pumping system
The early development of solar technologies star/;ting in the 1860s was driven by an

expectation that coal would soon become scarce. Charles fritts installed the first

world’s first rooftop photovoltaic solar array, using 1%- efficient selenium cells, on a

New Yoke City roof in 1884. (Butti and Perlin 1981) However, development of solar

technology stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of increasing availability,

economy, and utility of coal and petroleum. (Butti and Perlin 1981) In 1974 it was

estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or

cooled by functional solar power systems. These problems have been curbed to large

extent by the developed countries of the world, but Africa and other developing

continent of the world are still battling with this problem (Perlin and John 1999).

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Renewable Solar Energy Methodology and Implementation

Chapter 3 - Methodology and Implementation

3.1Introduction

In carrying out the installation of a solar system, some materials were used to

facilitate the completion of the project and these include:

1. Batteries

2. Inverter

3. Earth rod

4. Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)

5. Solar charge controller

6. Solar panels

7. Cable lock

8. Trucking pipe

9. Cable wires

10. Nails

11. Screws

Batteries: this is a device used for the storage of energy stores; batteries don’t make

electricity but is charged by the solar panel during the day when the sun is shining

(Guda, 2015).

Inverter: it is an electrical power converter that converts direct current (DC) to

alternating current (AC). The power from the array is DC form; therefore, a DC to AC

inverter is necessary if the load requires an alternating power supply (Guda and Aliyu,

2015).

Charge controller: co- ordinates the power flow between the components of the

system and load, and ensures that the system, voltage is regulated to specified rage.

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The basic function of the charge controller is to prevent the storage battery from being

over- charged and also prevent it from being over- discharges

Earth rod: this is buried into the ground to absorb any form of shock that can affect

the entire system.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB): installed to provide safety for the inverter,

battery and load. It interrupts the circuit once a dangerous voltage is detected.

Solar Panels: also known as photovoltaic cell which generates electricity using the

same principle of electronic as chemical batteries or stand electrical outlets. It also

charges the battery.

Cable lock: this is use to lock the strands of wire inside the cable so as to be able to

fix it on the battery terminals.

Trucking pipe: this is use to conceal the cable connecting components of the solar

system together to obtain a neat and clean work.

2
4 mm Cable: used to connect the battery to the charge controller, and also connect the

solar panel to the charge controller.

2
10 mm Cable: used to connect to the battery to the ELCB which controls the battery.

3.2Lessons from early pilot

All of the pilots and early experiences in Nigeria share characteristics of obvious

technical capacity and unfulfilled potential. A significant part of this obviously has to

do with finance and market development, yet it is worth reiterating the common

factors linking these applications.

• Refined design, with emphasis on simplified combinations of well-protected

components that wherever possible are robust and solid state.

• Improving technology and solar efficiency continue to make solar products and

systems more affordable and reliable.

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• Relatively economical maintenance capacity and basic training for end users

remains essential to sustainable performance.

• Education of government and agency managers of development budgets is likely to

be critical to market development (see Section 6 for more discussion).

• Access to applied technologies from other countries should be a higher priority, so

that adaption for use within Nigeria can be hastened.

3.3Strength and issues with solar

There are a number of strengths of the system, which are now well proven:

• Investment in quality components is rewarded with extraordinary durability.

• Maintenance costs are low enough to be viable in rural areas.

• There is a continuous fall in the costs of major components, primarily solar panels.

• Efficiency of both pumps and panels continues to improve.

However, there are also outstanding issues which have been highlighted:

• Low maintenance is not maintenance free—some trained support is still essential.

• Initial capital costs are still significantly higher than generator/grid systems.

• Capacity needs matching to demand management— systems will pump only within

their storage capacity for a 24-hour period and will not ‘top up’ overnight.

3.3.1 The competition: Generators & Kerosene

In comparing the costs of renewable energy, one crucial factor often not taken fully

into account is the extraordinarily high cost that most Nigerian consumers currently

pay for lighting and electricity. With surveys arguing that 50 per cent of the

population have no access to grid electricity 8, and that many more people have

access for just a few hours per week, the main energy sources for a very large group

lie elsewhere. Obtaining full spending and cost estimates are challenging. Almost all

consumers ration their use of generators, lanterns and alternatives, while there is

considerable variability in the efficiency of the systems in use. Further, some

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estimates do not account for the costs of poor-quality fuel (reducing generator life),

gathering fuel, and unpredictable price changes and shortages. Yet better analysis of

these costs for most consumers will probably help convince them that a well-designed

solar system will save them vital amounts of money over time—whether against the

running costs of a generator or the daily cost of kerosene for lanterns. When

considering the case for household consumers, Bermuda and other island nations give

a good indicative cost of isolated areas relying on diesel. This area is embarking on a

huge drive for energy efficiency and increased use of solar power, partly as a reaction

to grid power costing $0.45/kWh. Those engaged on rural projects can further note

detailed data from a comprehensive review in Namibia, 9 which tracked plunging

payback times as well as performance levels consistent with the experiences of

NDWC in the Niger Delta. In both cases, data from earlier than 2010 indicated that

the point at which the higher capital investment for solar systems resulted in net

savings was under three years and growing shorter. Savings after this point would

represent a considerable gain for communities and investors.

3.3.2 Feed-in Tariffs’

Both NERC10 and federal government representatives in Nigeria have stated their

commitment (without details) to setting a renewable energy feed-in tariff that will

help the sector to grow. In most countries with developed renewable energy capacity

“feed in tariff” include payments that homes and small businesses can receive for

power that they generate in excess of their own needs and feed back into the

electricity grid. However, most analysts and stakeholders in the power sector, in

informal discussions, have dismissed this idea as impractical in Nigeria given the

fragile and confused state of the existing grid. This is almost certainly true for small

installations or households, but may not be so easily disregarded for larger businesses

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that could support significant renewable generation. If the federal government

acknowledges that renewable energy has a strong economic case for development in

the medium term, especially in northern Nigeria, then feed-in tariffs that give the

industry an incentive to develop should be carefully considered. In Europe, where

many of these technologies enjoy less natural advantage, the feed-in advantages are

significant. The United Kingdom is in the process of reducing its green feed-in tariff

to a still generous 21 pence per kWh, from over 40p (104N).

Such a tariff might seem extreme in Nigeria, where most analysts expect the gross

tariff (before any temporary mitigation) to jump from its present 10N to between 20

and 30 Naira per kWh. Yet conventional estimates of generator costs at around 70–

80N ($0.45–0.50) emphasise the need to examine the broad context of cost-benefit

analyses. It is also worth considering that some of the challenges of renewable power

could well be presented as merits in the context of Nigeria’s difficult power situation

(Table 6.1). There are other risks in the concept of a feed-in tariff for Nigeria. Fuel

subsidies have proven disastrous channels for contract abuse and fraud. Any feed-in

tariff would have to operate with outstanding transparency in a challenging market

context. Overall, there may be a strong case for feed-in tariffs to promote swift

deployment of large-scale generation of renewable energy in northern Nigeria. This

would certainly have the potential to bring about rapidly increasing access to power.

However, the benefits would be sustainable only if lessons about management of

power, contracting and oversight could be fully absorbed. The emergence of a more

credible NERC is a key first step, but the crucial factor is likely to be significant

movement on broader power-sector reforms.

3.4System Coding (Optional)

If your project Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

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S/N Description Quantity Rate Amount
N/Unit (N)

1 300w/solar panel 4 65,000 260,000

2 inverter 1 180,000 180,000

3 Batteries 2 145,000 290,000

4 Charge controller 1 95,000 95,000

5 Wire 1 10,000 10,000

6 Battery Rack 1 15,000 15,000

Grand Total : 850,000

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Chapter 4 - Test and Result Analysis

4.1Introduction
The previous sections have discussed the potential of specialist applications of

renewable energy and large-scale generation, yet it is the ‘mass household market’ of

Nigeria’s population of 160 million where the majority of energy is consumed. With

such varied needs, it is not possible to analyse here the domestic energy demand of

Nigeria, but it is possible to highlight some of the vital themes that should be

explored when considering renewable energy. The consumer-level products

highlighted in Section 3 provide some hints of the direction that affordable mass-

market products could take. This direction will be influenced by some of the

improvements in technology that we have already highlighted, and some of the vital

and constantly shifting context of generation and demand that is discussed below. 4.1

Energy needs and aspirations, there is relatively little agreed data on household-level

demand and energy needs in Nigeria but there is at least consensus that the scale of

the issue is substantial. To give an example of the scale of divergence, we need look

only at estimates of suppressed demand for grid electricity. Taking an end-point for

aspirations of around 1KW demand per person—around what is found in many

developed countries—then Nigeria has a theoretical level of demand of around

160,000MW of generation, against the comparatively tiny level under 5000MW

presently being generated. The prospect of matching demand and supply, even before

taking into account industrial needs, appears overwhelming and far from the ‘stable

power supply’ promised by political actors for the next few years. The issues of

power generation and plans are discussed in an forthcoming paper by Lai Yahaya but

Figure 4.1 is intended to illustrate the likelihood of an ongoing major gap between

demand and supply of power in Nigeria. Data for ‘off-grid’-generator power

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consumption (and demand) in Nigeria are notable for their extraordinary range in

estimates. While official figures put demand at 20,000MW, other estimates for a

population of over 160 million people put demand much higher. Although it has

stronger industrial development South Africa with a population of 50 million people

is a useful indicator, with generation capacity of 40,000MW barely meeting demand.

Figure 4.1 highlights the ongoing gap if 2007 demand was as low as 40,000MW with

just three per cent annual growth in power demand. The gap obviously becomes

more dramatic if a starting point of 60,000MW is treated as a more accurate estimate

of demand. Actual suppressed demand is of course much more complicated than a

single headline equation. Much of Nigeria’s population certainly cannot yet afford

the consumer goods that would routinely carry energy consumption to Western levels

or beyond. Nor would they readily be able to afford the cost of the overall increase in

energy consumption. It is this that has led to estimates of suppressed energy demands

of anywhere between 20,000MW and 80,000MW, with all of the analysis relying on

disturbingly small amounts of data. At household level, there are two conclusions

that can be drawn from the limited data. First, the shortfall in energy supplies for the

vast majority of the population will remain very substantial for the next decade and

beyond. Second, the real cost of power will remain that of the business and

household generators which have costs of $0.50/kWh and upwards. Power-sector

reforms will play a vital role in the economic growth that will come from more grid-

electricity generation but there will not be enough power to go around, and many

areas will effectively remain locked out or facing substantial rationing. Within this

context of power rationing, and sourcing energy from other options, Nigerian

households will continue to prioritise a mix of what appears affordable and

accessible. In reality, the question of affordability will be determined by factors

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beyond the control of most consumers— primarily the reliability of power supply to

their area.

Figure 4.1: Estimated electricity demand in Nigeria

In the introduction, you are advised to follow the steps here

- Identifying system’s deliverables and all tests possible.

- Identify test to be carried out based on objectives.

- Identify necessary test/measurements based on system functionality.

4.2Not a “single market”

For the purposes of this project, it is possible to describe three basic tiers of energy

consumer who could consider the option of going completely or mostly over to solar

power. 1. Households and businesses ‘beyond the grid’. Consumers in rural areas,

where there is no prospect of reliable grid power within around three years, have only

one source of competition for renewable energy—petrol and diesel generators. With

cost structures of $0.5/kWh or considerably higher for generators, renewable energy

can be immediately competitive despite high initial capital costs. 2. Those ‘on the

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fringe’ of the grid. Despite a paucity of truly reliable data, it is clear that for much of

the country being on the grid means an unpredictable provision of power that could

vary from anything between a few hours per week to 4 hours per day. A very large

part of the population is in this group. Again, renewable energy is competitive for this

group, because grid supply is so limited and unreliable. There is also the possibility

that ‘optional’ heavier-energy-demand tasks can be set aside for grid electricity, thus

significantly reducing the size of a solar system needed to support other needs. 3.

Those ‘only partially blacked out’. In cities such as Lagos and Abuja there are parts of

the city that can reasonably expect 8–12 hours of electricity per day on a fairly

predictable basis, compared to the rest of the country. Realistically, this group is most

likely to benefit from an efficient inverter and battery backup system, 1 which would

take advantage of the cheaper cost of grid power while still providing markedly better

and cheaper options than a generator when grid power is not available.

Table 4.1: Changing energy efficiency for household products in Nigeria

4.2.1 Household choices, energy efficiency and renewable

The choices that households will make about consumer products to meet their needs

will have profound effects on both the level of energy demand in Nigeria and the

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relevance of renewable energy. In simple terms, one of the most critical barriers to the

wider use of solar power in countries like Nigeria is the high capital cost at the outset.

As has been seen in specialised pilot applications, choices of more efficient products

to meet need will have a dramatic impact on the cost of a complete system. At

consumer level, savings made by energy efficiency or by focusing on lower-energy-

consuming needs make an impact at every level of a solar power system: fewer panels

are required, a smaller inverter is needed, and the number of batteries is also

dramatically reduced. Therefore, it is not hard to see how energy-efficiency

improvements over the last decade have dramatically improved the odds of modest

solar installations meeting household needs. Table 4.12 outlines changes that are

relatively accessible in Nigerian markets. For moderate-income households, using

appliances as shown in Table 4.1, energy needs have reduced by almost two-thirds for

those using new versions of what are now very normal consumer items. The gains are

variable, but in some cases progress in items such as computers and lighting it has led

to predictions that major advances will occur almost as swiftly as has become the

norm in computing power.

The final column of Table 4.1 indicates the reductions that can be made with some

additional investment— even if still difficult to obtain in Nigeria where choices

remain very limited. The above options do not deal with the occasional demand from

heavy-use devices such as irons, kettles and water heating, but dramatically highlight

the potential drop in energy needs to meet a core set of day-to-day demands. The table

also highlights another pair of issues: the need for consumers to be aware of their

energy options, and the importance of affordable ‘high-efficiency’ technologies.

Without more efficient products in use for local needs, these gains could remain

theoretical for many households and small businesses. The ready availability of more

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efficient products is also critical for consumers considering the option of ‘going

solar’.

4.3Consumer education, choices and supply chains

It is possible to see a clear opportunity for renewable energy at household level in

large parts of Nigeria. Major falls in the price of solar power and in energy needs

provide a powerful combination to compete with generators. Yet these remain only

two vital pieces of the more complicated puzzle of consumer choices. Fundamentally,

there will be no significant move towards renewable options unless there are visible

and accessible packages that meet household needs. Putting the capital costs aside,

there is still only a minimal number of retailers of household solar systems in the

market, and their reliability is highly variable. While the supply of energy-efficient

products is moderately better, the level of consumer and distributor awareness about

the energy value of these products is low or often non-existent

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Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1Introduction
According to the Nigerian federal government: In view of the high capital costs and

long lead times required to develop commercial power generation through solar, wind,

nuclear and biomass, the Federal Government will focus its development efforts on

hydro, coal and natural gas. The potential of natural gas, in particular, will be

prioritised and incentives will be provided to investors to exploit this resource to its

fullest potential. The purpose of this paper is to explore existing renewable energy in

Nigeria, examine some of the reasons for the sector’s under-development compared to

other countries, and discuss emerging evidence of the potential of renewable energy

for a critical emerging role. Some of the arising suggestions are relatively easy to

summarise:

• Pilot initiatives have demonstrated both the potential of renewable energy in Nigeria

and some of the ongoing challenges.

• Continuing shifts in technology and costs have created major opportunities for both

small- and large-scale interventions.

• Carefully designed work on markets, education, and finance are now well justified

investments for renewable energy to meet its potential in Nigeria.

Unfortunately, the practical steps required for a better energy future for Nigeria with a

strong renewable sector are much more difficult to distil into a short number of bullet

points. Although headlines for some key steps can be clearly stated, the process is

likely to involve assembling a complex jigsaw of actors, finance, education, and

technology. Some of these issues can be pursued independently but many require

good co-ordination and collaboration. The spectacular failures of dubious solar

projects involving significant government spending demonstrate that renewable

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energy still requires fundamental competence in planning and development to

succeed. This section does not attempt to describe fully the detailed steps for

assembling a ‘jigsaw’ of policy responses, but identifies broad headlines under which

it might be possible to group key areas for action. Aside from suggesting a change in

policy stance at the core of government, it suggests the relatively early steps that

might be feasible with modest government commitment which could deliver real

gains to Nigerian households and promote broader buy-in to this fast-developing area.

It seems likely that a foundation of success at this level might prove crucial to broader

support for major next steps—such as competent investment decisions in larger-scale

Solar power generation. Within these limits, this section concludes with selected key

recommendations that need to be read as early steps in an ongoing process.

5.2Summary and Conclusion

5.2.1 Summary
Despite the importance of government policy, it is also crucial for government and

other actors to understand that many of the best energy solutions will occur in the

marketplace—where often the role of government may be only to minimise

complications. For many needs, renewable energy is already competitive with existing

sources, and the remaining issue is to align needs, solutions and affordable capital.

However, progress will be limited unless both the customers for energy and the

providers have a much better understanding of both needs and viable energy solutions.

For market-driven demand to play its role, a highly visible range of pilots and

education programmes seems to be vital before widespread uptake by justifiably

sceptical consumers. There is a need for research that breaks down household needs,

incomes and aspirations. The diverse situations of rural and urban households with

massive differences in income and cost of living mean that there needs to be a

matching range in renewable-energy solutions that can be much more easily matched
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to individual situations. It is on the basis of this data that renewable-energy providers

and vendors should be able to provide products and systems that fit with real-world

needs.

5.2.2 Conclusion
The evidence from emerging research makes it clear that Nigeria has a greater pool

of renewable energy resources than has previously been recognised. Furthermore, the

international evidence is that these resources are becoming competitive with existing

power sources at a remarkable pace. Nigeria’s present extraordinarily high-cost

energy options mean that renewable energy is already competitive or an obvious

winner in many specific situations—including targeted assistance to those on the

lowest of incomes. There is a need for energy policy to acknowledge that the

dismissal of renewable energy as a short-to-medium-term option in the official

Energy Road Map (as quoted above) was a fundamental mistake. This does not mean

that renewable energy can be rushed to centre stage but that there is a need for

systematic policy, research and financial support for the development of the

renewable-energy sector. An attempt was made to lay out such a path in 2005 with

the Renewable Energy Master plan which was never adopted. Swiftly developing

and implementing an updated plan for strategic investments in renewable energy,

which incorporates the lessons of the past decade, is a crucial first step

5.3Recommendations
Develop integrated renewable energy planning and investment the federal government

needs to reinforce its existing initiatives by developing both an integrated renewable-

energy plan and a systematic major increase in investment in research, market

development and regulation of renewable energy. Provide incentives for renewable

energy uptake Government should also consider incentives, probably through a feed-

in tariff, for at least one major pilot of solar thermal power generation in northern
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Nigeria. Ensure sufficient and affordable capital financing Low-interest capital

financing for renewable energy needs to be systematically expanded, with increases in

available capital matching growth in the industry. Improve public understanding of

renewable energy Renewable-industry actors and government need to make a

significant investment in public education that will improve consumer and policy

choices and overcome existing prejudices against the industry. Cultivate collaboration

between renewable energy developers and policymakers Policy makers and

renewable-energy developers need to work closely together to develop best practice

options for services in rural areas—particularly for education, health centres and

water provision. Educate on energy use and efficiency Energy use, particularly energy

efficiency and renewable energy, needs to be a core part of the education system as

swiftly as feasible, with a view to changing public behaviour and expanding

participation in a growing renewable-energy sector.

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References
[1] IEA (International Energy Agency) (2011), Deploying Renewables 2011: Best and
Future Policy Practice, IEA, Paris

[2] Kammen, D. M, Kapadia, K., and Fripp, M. (2004), Putting Renewables to Work:
How Many Jobs Can the Clean Energy Industry Generate? RAEL Report, University
of California, Berkeley.

[3] OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2011),

Regional Outlook 2011, OECD, Paris.

[4] Selfa, T., Kulcsar, L., Bain, C., Goe, R., Middendorf, G. (2010), “Biofuels
Bonanza? Exploring community perceptions of the promises and perils of biofuels
production”, Biomass and Bioenergy, doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.09.008

[5] UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2011), Global Trends in

Renewable Energy Investment 2011, UNEP, Nairobi

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APENDIX A

Attach pictures of source code of your project here

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APPENDIX B

Attach pictures of source code of your project here

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