BULLET POINTS OF HANDOUT 3

● Global Interest in Citizenship and Political Education:

- Concerns about citizenship and political competence are prevalent in various countries,
including former Soviet Union republics, Eastern Europe, evolving democratic structures in third
world countries, and advanced Western societies.
- Government commissions, publications, and studies on civics and citizenship education are
common occurrences.

● Education's Role in Political Competence:

- Education is acknowledged as a crucial factor in developing political competence and
fostering effective citizenship.
- Debates and studies focus on the relationship between education and the political knowledge
and participation necessary for citizenship.
- Despite rhetoric, there's still uncertainty about education's ability to produce active and
effective citizens.

● The Concept of Active Citizenship:

- Historical perspectives from classical literature and philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Kant,
and T.H. Marshall highlight the attributes and responsibilities of citizenship.
- Kant distinguishes between "active" and "passive" citizenship, emphasizing the importance of
political independence.
- T.H. Marshall identifies three elements of citizenship: civil, political, and social, highlighting
education's essential link with citizenship.

● Need for Comprehensive Civic Education:

- Citizenship education should encompass more than formal instruction; it should include
competencies and skills necessary for fulfilling citizenship duties.
- Janowitz emphasizes the importance of understanding political traditions and institutions, as
well as meaningful participation in community affairs.
- Curriculum experts advocate for participative citizenship education, where adolescents
practice citizenship through community activities.

● Emphasis on Active Citizenship:

- Education for active citizenship goes beyond formal schooling and involves participation in
decision-making processes.
- Active citizenship entails more than voting in elections; it includes active engagement in
community affairs and associations.
- Examining various forms of citizenship activism and potential challenges is essential for
understanding effective citizenship practices.
 ● Political Knowledge and Voting:
- Political or civic knowledge is essential but not solely sufficient for effective citizenship.
- Voting, while a minimal requirement in some countries like Australia, is not the ultimate
endpoint of active citizenship.
- Participation in local community organizations can represent political engagement but may be
driven by personal motivations.

● Neglected Forms of Active Citizenship:

- Activities outside formal political channels, such as signing petitions, writing letters, and
participating in demonstrations, are forms of active citizenship.
- While guided by societal rules, these activities are generally considered legitimate forms of
political engagement.

● Challenges of Political Activism:

- More extreme forms of protest, including occupying buildings, violent demonstrations, or
actions leading to damage or violence, pose challenges to defining active citizenship.
- These actions, though attempting to influence government decisions, may be illegal or
against the law.
- The inclusion of protest and civil disobedience in civic education raises questions about the
boundaries of acceptable political behavior.

● Contextual Considerations:
- The political system and social control mechanisms influence perceptions of legitimate
political activism.
- What constitutes active citizenship in one context may be deemed civil or criminal
disobedience in another.
- Sociological research on the legitimacy of different forms of active citizenship is lacking but
essential for informing educational programs on civic and active citizenship education.

● Research Focus on Political Attitudes and Knowledge:

- Research on young people often focuses more on political attitudes rather than political
knowledge and understanding.
- Limited research has been conducted on forms of political action among young people,
despite their introduction to political activism during secondary school years.

● Need for Comprehensive Study:

- Furnham emphasizes the importance of studying the link between political attitudes,
knowledge, and behavior, including how political beliefs translate into various forms of political
action.

● Early Comparative Study:

- Torney, Oppenheim, and Farnen (1975) conducted a comprehensive comparative study on
the impact of civics education on political knowledge and attitudes across ten countries.
 - Key findings indicate that the objective of producing informed and active democratic citizens
was not successfully attained.
- Classroom climate and practices were more influential than specific classroom activities, with
knowledgeable and interested students emerging from environments encouraging free
discussion and opinion expression.

● Continued Importance of Research:

- The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) is currently
engaged in a second civics study involving 24 countries, reflecting the ongoing importance of
research in civics education.

● Australian Study on Political Activity:

- Saha (2000) conducted a study on Australian secondary students, finding a relationship
between studying government, possessing political knowledge, and engaging in less intense
forms of political activism.
- However, there was no correlation between civic education variables and engagement in
more intense or non-normative political behaviors.
- The study highlights the influence of school engagement on political activism, with students
who talked more with teachers and liked school being more likely to participate in legitimate
forms of activism.

● Need for Further Research:

- While studying civics education correlates with interest in politics and legitimate political
activism, further research is necessary to fully understand factors related to different types of
political activism.

● Preparation for Independent Decision-Making:

- Civics education in democratic societies aims to prepare young people to make independent
decisions regarding the social and political future of their society, reflecting a preparation for
independence.

● Complexity of Education for Active Citizenship:

- Designing an education program for active citizenship poses both problems and challenges.
- Problems include creating an environment tolerant of various forms of active citizenship,
while challenges involve designing a curriculum to educate young people for the responsibilities
active citizenship entails.

● Complexity of Producing Politically Active Citizens:

- Civics instruction aimed at producing politically active citizens is complex and may yield
undesired outcomes.
- The spectrum of political activity ranges from legal and safe actions to violent, illegal, and
unsafe actions.

● Decline in Respect for Authority:

 - Inglehart's study (1996) found a decline in respect for authority in advanced industrial
societies, particularly among younger, more educated individuals with post-materialist values.
- This trend may lead to increased political action or political apathy, highlighting the role of
citizenship education in fostering politically independent and active individuals.

● Role of Citizenship Education in Political Empowerment:

- Citizenship education empowers individuals to participate independently and intelligently in
public debate and civic activity, fostering patriotism, loyalty, and commitment to political values
and processes.
- However, further research is needed to determine desirable forms of active citizenship under
different conditions.

● Manipulation of Citizenship Education:

- Some argue that civics and citizenship education reflect the dominant ideology of society and
are tools for political manipulation.
- Critics contend that civic illiteracy serves the interests of the dominant elite by undermining
critical thinking and independent judgment.
- Education for active citizenship should focus on developing critical thinking and
decision-making skills to enable individuals to avoid manipulation by dominant political
ideologies.

● Education as a Two-Edged Sword:

- Civics and citizenship education can be critical, radical, progressive, and empowering, but it
must provide individuals with the skills to critically evaluate information and avoid manipulation.
- Education for active citizenship is distinct from a state of tyranny or despotism, as argued by
Kant.

CONCLUSION:

● Active Citizenship and Education Complexity:

- Active citizenship encompasses more than just exercising rights and duties; it involves critical
judgment and decision-making.
- Civics education and citizenship education are not identical; the latter includes knowledge
and various citizenship practices.
- Education for active citizenship requires knowledge, skills, and critical thinking to decide how
to practice citizenship.

● Manifestations of Active Citizenship:

- Active citizenship involves both compliant and non-compliant, routine and non-routine
actions.
- Education should equip students to evaluate political demands morally and responsibly.

● Challenges for Education and Educators:

 - Education for active citizenship is not subversive but aims to produce citizens capable of
acting with knowledge, skills, and commitment.
- Teachers must be knowledgeable and open regarding citizenship education as a contested
field.
- A genuinely democratic society requires a political structure open to scrutiny and evaluation.